Pengguna:Stephanus Victor/bak pasir: Perbedaan antara revisi
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
| (57 revisi perantara oleh pengguna yang sama tidak ditampilkan) | |||
| Baris 1: | Baris 1: | ||
== Janji kepada Scott == |
|||
[[File:Scott of the Antarctic crop.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Robert Falcon Scott]]]] |
|||
Pengumuman Shackleton pada bulan Februari 1907 tentang niatnya untuk menjadikan markas lama Ekspedisi ''Discovery'' sebagai pangkalan menarik perhatian Scott, yang juga bermaksud melaksanakan ekspedisi baru ke Antartika kendati belum diumumkan saat itu. Dalam suratnya kepada Shackleton, Scott mengklaim hak prioritas atas Selat McMurdo. "Saya rasa saya punya hak tertentu atas tempat kerja saya sendiri," tulisnya. Ia menambahkan pula bahwa, "siapa saja yang sudah melibatkan diri dalam kegiatan eksplorasi akan menganggap kawasan tersebut pertama-tama sebagai milik saya". Ia mengakhiri suratnya dengan mengingatkan Shackleton akan kewajibannya untuk tetap setia kepada mantan komandan.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} |
|||
Shackleton's initial reply was accommodating: "I would like to fall in with your views as far as possible without creating a position that would be untenable to myself".{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} Wilson, asked by Shackleton to mediate, took an even tougher line than Scott. "I think you should retire from McMurdo Sound", he wrote, advising Shackleton not to make any plans to work from anywhere in the entire [[Ross Sea]] quarter until Scott decided "what limits he puts on his own rights".{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} To this Shackleton replied: "There is no doubt in my mind that his rights end at the base he asked for [...] I consider I have reached my limit and I go no further".{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} |
|||
The matter was unresolved when Scott returned from sea duty in May 1907. Scott pressed for a line of demarcation at 170° W—everything to the west of that line, including McMurdo Sound, [[Ross Island]], and [[Victoria Land]], would be Scott's preserve. Shackleton, with other concerns pressing on him, felt obliged to concede. On 17 May he signed a declaration stating that, "I am leaving the McMurdo base to you",{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} and that he would seek to land further east, either at the [[Bay of Whales|Barrier Inlet]] visited briefly during the ''Discovery'' Expedition, or at [[King Edward VII Land]]. He would not touch the coast of Victoria Land at all.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} It was a capitulation to Scott and Wilson, and meant forfeiting the expedition's aim of reaching the South Magnetic Pole which was located within Victoria Land.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} Polar historian [[Beau Riffenburgh]] believes this was "a promise that should never ethically have been demanded and one that should never have been given, impacting as it might on the entire safety of Shackleton's expedition".{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=110–116}} The dispute soured relations between the two men (who nevertheless maintained public civilities) and would eventually lead to the complete rupture of Shackleton's formerly close friendship with Wilson.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=292–293}} |
|||
In his own account of the expedition, Shackleton makes no reference to the wrangle with Scott. He merely states that "before we finally left England I had decided that if possible I would establish my base in King Edward VII Land instead of [...] McMurdo Sound".{{sfn|Shackleton|pp=2–3}}<!-- |
|||
==Expedition== |
|||
===Voyage south=== |
|||
After inspection by [[King Edward VII]] and [[Queen Alexandra]], ''Nimrod'' sailed on 11 August 1907.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=20}} Shackleton remained behind on expedition business; he and other expedition members followed on a faster ship. The entire complement came together in New Zealand, ready for the ship's departure to Antarctica on New Year's Day, 1908. As a means of conserving fuel, Shackleton had arranged with the New Zealand government for ''Nimrod'' to be towed to the [[Antarctic circle]], a distance of approximately {{convert|1400|nmi|km mi|sigfig=2}},{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=148}} the costs of the tow being met partly by the government and partly by the [[Union Company|Union Steam Ship Company]] as a contribution to the expedition.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=144–145}} On 14 January, in sight of the first [[iceberg]]s, the towline was cut;{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=144–145}} ''Nimrod'', under her own power, proceeded southward into the floating [[pack ice]], heading for the Barrier Inlet where six years earlier ''Discovery'' had paused to allow Scott and Shackleton to take experimental balloon flights.{{sfn|Fisher|pp=32–33}} |
|||
The Barrier (later known as the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]) was sighted on 23 January, but the inlet had disappeared; the Barrier edge had changed significantly in the intervening years, and the section which had included the inlet had broken away to form a considerable bay, which Shackleton named the [[Bay of Whales]] after the large number of whales seen there.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=151–153}} Shackleton was not prepared to risk wintering on a Barrier surface that might [[Ice calving|calve]] into the sea, so he turned the ship towards King Edward VII Land. After repeated efforts to approach this coast had failed, and with rapidly moving ice threatening to trap the ship, ''Nimrod'' was forced to retreat. Shackleton's only choice now, other than abandonment of the expedition's goals, was to break the promise he had given to Scott. On 25 January he ordered the ship to head for McMurdo Sound.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=151–153}} |
|||
===Cape Royds=== |
|||
====Establishing the base==== |
|||
[[File:CapeRoyds1908.jpg|thumb|alt= A group of men in woollen jerseys, several smoking pipes, are watching repair work on a sledge. They are in a confined area, with equipment and spare clothing adorning the walls|Inside the Cape Royds Hut, winter 1908. Included in the picture are Shackleton (left background), Armytage (Standing background), Adams (smoking curved pipe), Wild (working on the sledge) and Joyce (extreme right, foreground). A poster advertising ladies' [[corset]]s hangs on the wall.]] |
|||
On arriving in McMurdo Sound on 29 January 1908, ''Nimrod''{{'}}s progress southward to the ''Discovery'' base at [[Hut Point]] was blocked by frozen sea. Shackleton decided to wait a few days in the hope that the ice would break up. During this delay, second officer Aeneas Mackintosh suffered an accident that led to the loss of his right eye. After emergency surgery by Marshall and Mackay, he was forced to relinquish his shore party place and go back to New Zealand with ''Nimrod''. He recovered sufficiently to return with the ship in the following season.{{sfn|Shackleton|pp=52–53}} |
|||
On 3 February Shackleton decided not to wait for the ice to shift but to make his headquarters at the nearest practicable landing place, [[Cape Royds]]. Late that evening the ship was moored, and a suitable site for the expedition's prefabricated hut was selected. The site was separated from Hut Point by {{convert|20|nmi|km mi|}} of sea, with no landward route to the south. Shackleton believed the party was "fortunate to get winter quarters as near as this to our starting point for the south."{{sfn|Shackleton|pp=52–56}} |
|||
The following days were occupied with the landing of stores and equipment. This work was hampered by poor weather and by the caution of Captain England, who frequently took the ship out into the bay until ice conditions at the landing ground were in his view safer.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=161–167}} The next fortnight followed this pattern, leading to sharp dissent between Shackleton and the captain. At one point, Shackleton asked England to stand down on the grounds that he was ill, but England refused. The task of unloading became, in Riffenburgh's description, "mind-numbingly difficult"{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=161–167}} but was finally completed on 22 February. ''Nimrod'' at last sailed away north, England unaware that ship's engineer Harry Dunlop was carrying a letter from Shackleton to the expedition's New Zealand agent, requesting a replacement captain for the return voyage next year. This knowledge was an open secret among the shore party; Marshall recorded in his diary that he was "glad to see the last of [England] ... whole thing damned disgrace to name of country!"{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=170–171}} |
|||
====Ascent of Mount Erebus==== |
|||
[[File:Mount Erebus Aerial 2.jpg|thumb|left|alt= Distant view of a mountain with a smoke emission from its summit|[[Mount Erebus]]]] |
|||
After ''Nimrod''{{'}}s departure, the sea ice broke up, cutting off the party's route to the Barrier and thus making preparatory [[sledding|sledging]] and depot-laying impossible. Shackleton decided to give the expedition impetus by ordering an immediate attempt to ascend [[Mount Erebus]].{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=171–177}} This mountain, {{convert|12450|ft|m|}} high, had never been climbed. A party from ''Discovery'' (which had included Wild and Joyce) had explored the foothills in 1904 but had not ascended higher than {{convert|3000|ft|m|}}. Neither Wild nor Joyce was in the ''Nimrod'' Expedition's main Erebus party, which consisted of David, Mawson and Mackay. With Marshall, Adams and Brocklehurst forming a support group, the ascent began on 5 March.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=171–177}} |
|||
On 7 March the two groups combined at around {{convert|5500|ft|m|}} and all advanced towards the summit. On the following day a [[blizzard]] held them up, but early on 9 March the climb resumed; later that day the summit of the lower, main crater, was achieved.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=171–177}} By this time Brocklehurst's feet were too [[frostbite|frostbitten]] for him to continue, so he was left in camp while the others advanced to the active crater, which they reached after four hours. Several meteorological experiments were carried out and many rock samples were taken. Thereafter a rapid descent was made, mainly by sliding down successive snow-slopes. The party reached the Cape Royds hut "nearly dead", according to Eric Marshall, on 11 March.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=171–177}} |
|||
====Winter 1908==== |
|||
The expedition's hut, a prefabricated structure measuring 33 x 19 feet (10m x 5.8m), was ready for occupation by the end of February. It was divided into a series of mainly two-person cubicles, with a kitchen area, a darkroom, storage and laboratory space. The ponies were housed in stalls built on the most sheltered side of the hut, while the dog kennels were placed close to the porch.{{sfn|Shackleton|pp=81–91}} Shackleton's inclusive leadership style, in contrast to that of Scott, meant no demarcation between upper and lower decks—all lived, worked and ate together. Morale was high; as Brocklehurst recorded, Shackleton "had a faculty for treating each member of the expedition as though he were valuable to it".{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=185}} |
|||
In the ensuing months of winter darkness Joyce and Wild printed around 30 copies of the expedition's book, [[Aurora Australis (book)|''Aurora Australis'']], which were sewn and bound using packaging materials.{{sfn|Mills|p=65}} The most important winter's work, however, was preparing for the following season's major journeys, which were to include attempts on both the South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole. By making his base in McMurdo Sound, Shackleton had been able to reinstate the Magnetic Pole as an expedition objective. Shackleton himself would be leading the South Pole journey, which had suffered a serious setback during the winter when four of the remaining ponies died, mainly from eating volcanic sand for its salt content.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|pp=171–177}} |
|||
{{anchor|Southern journey}} |
|||
===Southern journey=== |
|||
====Outward march==== |
|||
Shackleton's choice of a four-man team for the southern journey to the South Pole was largely determined by the number of surviving ponies. Influenced by his experiences on the ''Discovery'' Expedition, he had put his confidence in ponies rather than dogs for the long polar march.{{sfn|Mills|p=67}} The motor car, which ran well on flat ice, could not cope with Barrier surfaces and was not considered for the polar journey.{{sfn|Huntford|pp=237–238}} The men chosen by Shackleton to accompany him were Marshall, Adams and Wild. Joyce, whose Antarctic experience exceeded all save Wild's, was excluded from the party after Marshall's medical examination raised doubts about his fitness.{{sfn|Huntford|pp=234–235}} |
|||
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as {{convert|1494|nmi|km mi}}. His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about {{convert|16|nmi|km mi}}.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=201}} After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=153}} Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=171}} Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=193}} |
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as {{convert|1494|nmi|km mi}}. His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about {{convert|16|nmi|km mi}}.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=201}} After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=153}} Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=171}} Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=193}} |
||
| Baris 54: | Baris 7: | ||
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep".<ref>Wild, diary, quoted by {{harvnb|Mills|p=93}}.</ref> Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking".{{sfn|Huntford|pp=263–264}} However, Christmas Day was celebrated with ''[[crème de menthe]]'' and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still {{convert|249|nmi|km mi|}} from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey.{{sfn|Huntford|pp=263–264}} They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=226}} However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=200}} |
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep".<ref>Wild, diary, quoted by {{harvnb|Mills|p=93}}.</ref> Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking".{{sfn|Huntford|pp=263–264}} However, Christmas Day was celebrated with ''[[crème de menthe]]'' and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still {{convert|249|nmi|km mi|}} from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey.{{sfn|Huntford|pp=263–264}} They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food.{{sfn|Riffenburgh|p=226}} However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=200}} |
||
Pada [[hari Boxing|Boxing Day]] the glacier ascent was at last completed, and the march on the [[polar plateau]] began. Conditions did not ease; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the "hardest day we have had".{{sfn|Shackleton|p=204}} On the next day he noted that, having attained 87° 6½′ S, they had beaten North and South polar records.<ref>{{harvnb|Shackleton|p=205}}. The North reference was to [[Robert Peary]]'s then-farthest north of 87° 6' N.</ref> That day, referring to Marshall and Adams, Wild wrote: "if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [the Pole] easily."{{sfn|Mills|p=96}} On 4 January 1909, Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole.{{sfn|Shackleton|p=207}} The party struggled on, at the borders of survival,{{sfn|Huntford|p=270}} until on 9 January 1909, after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment, the march ended. "We have shot our bolt", wrote Shackleton, "and the tale is 88° 23' S".{{sfn|Shackleton|p=210}} They were 97.5 geographical [[Farthest South|miles from the South Pole]]. The [[Union Jack]] was duly planted, and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII.{{efn | Three years later, on reaching the South Pole, [[Roald Amundsen]] named the same plateau after [[Haakon VII of Norway|King Haakon VII]] of Norway. ({{harvnb|Amundsen | loc=Vol. II, p. 122}}.) Neither name survives on modern maps. }}<!-- |
|||
==== |
==== Perjalanan pulang ==== |
||
[[File:Nimrod return 1909.jpg|thumb|alt= On the left is a snow cairn with flags. Three men are nearby, and assorted equipment is strewn on the snow.|On the return journey. The party reach a depot on the Great Ice Barrier]] |
[[File:Nimrod return 1909.jpg|thumb|alt= On the left is a snow cairn with flags. Three men are nearby, and assorted equipment is strewn on the snow.|On the return journey. The party reach a depot on the Great Ice Barrier]] |
||
Revisi terkini sejak 15 Agustus 2024 04.04
The march began on 29 October 1908. Shackleton had calculated the return distance to the Pole as 1.494 mil laut (2.767 km; 1.719 mi). His initial plan allowed 91 days for the return journey, requiring a daily average distance of about 16 mil laut (30 km; 18 mi).[1] After a slow start due to a combination of poor weather and lameness in the horses, Shackleton reduced the daily food allowance to extend the total available journey time to 110 days. This required a shorter daily average of around 13½ nautical miles.[2] Between 9 and 21 November they made good progress, but the ponies suffered on the difficult Barrier surface, and the first of the four had to be shot when the party reached 81° S. On 26 November a new farthest south record was established as they passed the 82° 17' mark set by Scott's southern march in December 1902.[3] Shackleton's party covered the distance in 29 days compared with Scott's 59, using a track considerably east of Scott's to avoid the surface problems the earlier journey had encountered.[4]
As the group moved into unknown territory, the Barrier surface became increasingly disturbed and broken; two more ponies succumbed to the strain. The mountains to the west curved round to block their path southward, and the party's attention was caught by a "brilliant gleam of light" in the sky ahead.[5] The reason for this phenomenon became clear on 3 December when, after a climb through the foothills of the mountain chain, they saw before them what Shackleton later described as "an open road to the south, [...] a great glacier, running almost south to north between two huge mountain ranges".[6] Shackleton christened this glacier the "Beardmore" after the expedition's biggest sponsor.
Travel on the glacier surface proved to be a trial, especially for Socks, the remaining pony, who had great difficulty in finding secure footings. On 7 December, Socks disappeared down a deep crevasse, very nearly taking Wild with him. However, the pony's harness broke, and the sledge containing their supplies remained on the surface. For the rest of the southward journey and the whole of the return trip they had to rely on man-hauling.[7]
As the journey continued, personal antagonisms emerged. Wild privately expressed the wish that Marshall would "fall down a crevasse about a thousand feet deep".[8] Marshall wrote that following Shackleton to the Pole was "like following an old woman. Always panicking".[9] However, Christmas Day was celebrated with crème de menthe and cigars. Their position was 85° 51' S, still 249 mil laut (461 km; 287 mi) from the Pole, and they were now carrying barely a month's supply of food, having stored the rest in depots for their return journey.[9] They could not cover the remaining distance to the Pole and back with this amount of food.[10] However, Shackleton was not yet prepared to admit that the Pole was beyond them and decided to go forward after cutting food rations further, and dumping all but the most essential equipment.[11]
Pada Boxing Day the glacier ascent was at last completed, and the march on the polar plateau began. Conditions did not ease; Shackleton recorded 31 December as the "hardest day we have had".[12] On the next day he noted that, having attained 87° 6½′ S, they had beaten North and South polar records.[13] That day, referring to Marshall and Adams, Wild wrote: "if we only had Joyce and Marston here instead of those two grubscoffing useless beggars we would have done it [the Pole] easily."[14] On 4 January 1909, Shackleton finally accepted that the Pole was beyond them and revised his goal to the symbolic achievement of getting within 100 geographical miles of the Pole.[15] The party struggled on, at the borders of survival,[16] until on 9 January 1909, after a last dash forward without the sledge or other equipment, the march ended. "We have shot our bolt", wrote Shackleton, "and the tale is 88° 23' S".[17] They were 97.5 geographical miles from the South Pole. The Union Jack was duly planted, and Shackleton named the polar plateau after King Edward VII.[a]
- ^ Riffenburgh, hlm. 201.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 153.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 171.
- ^ Riffenburgh, hlm. 193.
- ^ Mills, hlm. 80, quoting Wild's diary.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 180.
- ^ Riffenburgh, hlm. 208–209 and 221–222.
- ^ Wild, diary, quoted by Mills, hlm. 93.
- ^ a b Huntford, hlm. 263–264.
- ^ Riffenburgh, hlm. 226.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 200.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 204.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 205. The North reference was to Robert Peary's then-farthest north of 87° 6' N.
- ^ Mills, hlm. 96.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 207.
- ^ Huntford, hlm. 270.
- ^ Shackleton, hlm. 210.
Kesalahan pengutipan: Ditemukan tag <ref> untuk kelompok bernama "lower-alpha", tapi tidak ditemukan tag <references group="lower-alpha"/> yang berkaitan