Program Apollo

Lencana dari Program Apollo

Program Apollo adalah serangkaian misi luar angkasa berawak yang dilaksanakan oleh Amerika Serikat (NASA) menggunakan pesawat antariksa Apollo dan roket Saturn, dilaksanakan selama tahun 1961-1975. Program ini didedikasikan untuk cita-cita (dari perkataan terkenal Presiden Amerika Serikat, John F. Kennedy) "mendaratkan seorang manusia di Bulan dan mengembalikannya dengan selamat ke Bumi" selama dekade 1960-an. Cita-cita ini dicapai oleh misi Apollo 11 pada Juli 1969.

Program diteruskan hingga awal 1970-an untuk melakukan eksplorasi ilmiah di Bulan, dengan total enam pendaratan sukses. Hingga 2006, tidak ada lagi misi luar angkasa berawak yang melebihi orbit bumi rendah. Program Skylab yang dibuat kemudian, dan Proyek Percobaan Apollo-Soyuz menggunakan perlengkapan yang awalnya diproduksi untuk Apollo dan sering dianggap sebagai bagian dari program Apollo.

Di luar keberhasilan tersebut, terdapat beberapa kegagalan besar; salah satu di antaranya mengakibatkan tewasnya tiga astronot, Virgil Grissom, Ed White dan Roger Chaffee dalam peristiwa kebakaran landasan peluncuran Apollo 1. Ada juga ledakan pada misi Apollo 13 yang hampir menewaskan tiga astronotnya. Pelepasan gas beracun selama masuk kembali ke atmosfer Bumi dalam pesawat Proyek Percobaan Apollo-Soyuz hampir juga menewaskan tiga astronot lagi.

Program Apollo dinamai berdasarkan dewa matahari Yunani kuno.

Latar belakang

Tempat pendaratan pesawat ruang angkasa "Apollo" (ditandai dengan segitiga hijau) dan pesawat ruang angkasa "Luna" (merah) dan "Surveyor" (kuning).

Program Apollo semula disusun terlambat pada masa pemerintahan Presiden Dwight D. Eisenhower sebagai program lanjutan dari Program Mercury dalam melakukan misi mengorbit Bumi berawak yang lebih maju. Faktanya Apollo menjadi program ketiga setelah Program Gemini. Program Apollo secara dramatis diorientasikan kembali menjadi sebuah cita-cita agresif pendaratan manusia di Bulan oleh Presiden Kennedy dengan pengumumannya di sesi gabungan istimewa sidang Kongres AS pada 25 Mei 1961:

"..Saya percaya bahwa bangsa ini sebaiknya melibatkan diri dalam mencapai cita-cita, sebelum dasawarsa ini berakhir, mendaratkan seorang manusia di Bulan dan mengembalikannya dengan selamat ke Bumi. Tak ada satu pun proyek luar angkasa pada periode ini yang akan lebih mengesankan bagi umat manusia, atau lebih penting lagi pada eksplorasi luar angkasa jangka panjang; dan tak ada satu pun yang akan begitu sulit atau mahal untuk menyelesaikan.."

Referensi

• Beschloss, Michael R. (1997). "Kennedy and the Decision to Go to the Moon". Dalam Launius, Roger D.; McCurdy, Howard E. Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06632-4. LCCN 96-51213. 
• Bilstein, Roger E. (1996) [Originally published 1980]. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. The NASA History Series. Foreword by William R. Lucas. Washington D.C.: NASA. OCLC 36332191. NASA SP-4206. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Brooks, Courtney G.; Grimwood, James M.; Swenson, Loyd S., Jr. (1979). Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. The NASA History Series. Foreword by Samuel C. Phillips. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA. ISBN 978-0-486-46756-6. LCCN 79-1042. OCLC 4664449. NASA SP-4205. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Burrows, William E. (1999). This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75485-7. OCLC 42136309. 
• Chaikin, Andrew (1994). A Man on the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-027201-1. OCLC 38918860.  Chaikin interviewed all the surviving astronauts and others who worked with the program.
• Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics (April 13, 1961). Discussion of Soviet Man-in-space Shot (Hearing). Washington, D.C.: 87th Congress, first session. LCCN 61061306. OCLC 4052829. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
• Congress, House of Representatives, Committee on Science and Astronautics (1973). 1974 NASA Authorization Hearings (Hearing on H.R. 4567). Washington, D.C.: 93rd Congress, first session. OCLC 23229007. Pemeliharaan CS1: Banyak nama: authors list (link)
• Dawson, Virginia P.; Bowles, Mark D. (2004). Taming Liquid Hydrogen: The Centaur Upper Stage Rocket 1958-2002 (PDF). The NASA History Series. NASA. OCLC 51518552. NASA SP-2400-4320. Diakses tanggal September 12, 2012. 
• Ertel, Ivan D.; Newkirk, Roland W.; et al. (1978). The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology (PDF). IV. Foreword by Kenneth S. Kleinknecht. Washington, D.C.: Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA. LCCN 69-60008. OCLC 23818. NASA SP-4009. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Gray, Mike (1994) [First published W. W. Norton & Company 1992]. Angle of Attack: Harrison Storms and the Race to the Moon. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-023280-X. OCLC 30520885. 
• Hansen, James R. (1999). Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept (PDF). Monographs in Aerospace History Number 4. Washington, D.C.: NASA. OCLC 69343822. Diakses tanggal May 3, 2012. 
• Heppenheimer, T.A. (1999). The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search for a Reusable Space Vehicle. The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. OCLC 40305626. NASA SP-4221. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Johnson, Stephen B. (2002). The Secret of Apollo: Systems Management in American and European Space Programs. New series in NASA history. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-6898-X. LCCN 2001005688. OCLC 48003131. 
• Launius, Roger D.; McCurdy, Howard E., ed. (1997). Spaceflight and the Myth of Presidential Leadership. Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-06632-4. LCCN 96-51213. 
• Launius, Roger D. (July 2004) [Originally published July 1994]. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monographs in Aerospace History Number 3 (edisi ke-Reprint). Washington, D.C.: NASA. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Murray, Charles; Cox, Catherine Bly (1989). Apollo: The Race to the Moon. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-61101-1. LCCN 89006333. OCLC 19589707. 
• Orloff, Richard W. (September 2004) [First published 2000]. Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Division, Office of Policy and Plans. The NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-050631-X. LCCN 00-061677. NASA SP-2000-4029. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Papike, James J.; Ryder, Graham; Shearer, Charles K. (January 1998). "Planetary Materials". Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. Washington, D.C.: Mineralogical Society of America. 36 (1): 5–001–5–234. ISBN 0-939950-46-4. ISSN 0275-0279. LCCN 99474392. 
• Sidey, Hugh (1963). John F. Kennedy, President. New York: Atheneum. LCCN 63-7800. Diakses tanggal August 1, 2013. 
• Townsend, Neil A. (March 1973), Apollo Experience Report: Launch Escape Propulsion Subsystem (PDF), Washington, D.C.: NASA, NASA TN D-7083, diakses tanggal September 12, 2012 
• Wilford, John Noble (1969). We Reach the Moon: The New York Times Story of Man's Greatest Adventure. New York: Bantam Paperbacks. OCLC 29123. 

• Apollo Program Summary ReportPDF (46.3 MB) NASA Report JSC-09423, April 1975
• Collins, Michael (2001) [Originally published 1974; New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux]. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys. Foreword by Charles Lindbergh. New York: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 978-0-8154-1028-7. LCCN 2001017080.  Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11.
• Cooper, Henry S.F., Jr. (1995) [Originally published 1972; New York: Dial Press]. Thirteen: The Apollo Flight That Failed. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-5097-5. LCCN 94039726. OCLC 31375285.  Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.
• French, Francis; Burgess, Colin (2007). In the Shadow of the Moon: A Challenging Journey to Tranquility, 1965–1969. Foreword by Walter Cunningham. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1128-5. LCCN 2006103047. OCLC 182559769.  History of the Apollo program from Apollos 1–11, including many interviews with the Apollo astronauts.
• Kranz, Gene (2000). Failure is Not an Option: Mission Control from Mercury to Apollo 13 and Beyond. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-0079-9. LCCN 00027720. OCLC 43590801.  Factual, from the standpoint of a flight controller during the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs.
• Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (2000) [Previously published 1994 as Lost Moon]. Apollo 13. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 0-618-05665-3. LCCN 99089647. OCLC 43118301.  Details the flight of Apollo 13.
• Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua (1999). Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon. New York: Avon Books. ISBN 0-380-80261-9. OCLC 41579174.  Tells Grumman's story of building the Lunar Modules.
• Scott, David; Leonov, Alexei; Toomey, Christine (2004). Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race. Foreword by Neil Armstrong; introduction by Tom Hanks (edisi ke-1st U.S.). New York: Thomas Dunne Books. ISBN 0-312-30865-5. LCCN 2004059381. OCLC 56587777. 
• Seamans, Robert C., Jr. (2005). Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions. Monographs in Aerospace History Number 37. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 0-16-074954-9. LCCN 2005003682. OCLC 64271009. NASA SP-4537.  History of the manned space program from September 1, 1960, to January 5, 1968.
• Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). Deke!: An Autobiography. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-85918-X.  Account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of Apollo crews.
• The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 1:PDF (13.2 MB) From origin to November 7, 1962
• The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 2:PDF (13.4 MB) November 8, 1962 – September 30, 1964
• The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 3:PDF (57.7 MB) October 1, 1964 – January 20, 1966
• The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology. Volume 4:PDF (24.2 MB) January 21, 1966 – July 13, 1974
• Wilhelms, Don E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1065-2. LCCN 92033228. OCLC 26720457.  The history of lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.

Pranala luar

• Apollo program history at NASA's Human Space Flight (HSF) website
• The Apollo Program at the NASA History Program Office
• Apollo Spinoffs at the NASA Spinoff website
• The Apollo Program at the National Air and Space Museum
• Apollo 35th Anniversary Interactive Feature at NASA (in Flash)
• Lunar Mission Timeline at the Lunar and Planetary Institute

NASA reports

• Apollo Program Summary Report (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975
• NASA History Series Publications
• Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams at the NASA History Program Office
• The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal edited by Eric M. Jones and Ken Glover
• The Apollo Flight Journal by W. David Woods, et al.

Multimedia

• Apollo Image Archive at Arizona State University
• Apollo Gallery at NASA's Human Space Flight (includes videos/animations)
• Audio recording and transcript of President John F. Kennedy, NASA administrator James Webb, et al., discussing the Apollo agenda (White House Cabinet Room, November 21, 1962)
• The Project Apollo Archive by Kipp Teague is a large repository of Apollo images, videos, and audio recordings
• Apollo Image Atlas – almost 25,000 lunar images, Lunar and Planetary Institute
• Film pendek "Time of Apollo (1975)" tersedia untuk diunduh secara gratis di the Internet Archive [selebihnya]