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Baris 11: Baris 11:
|longitude = 40.730
|longitude = 40.730
|map_size = 220
|map_size = 220
|location = dekat [[:en:Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Salhiyah]], [[Suriah]]
|location = dekat [[Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Salhiyah]], [[Suriah]]
|region =
|region =
|coordinates = {{coord|34.747|40.730|display=inline}}
|coordinates = {{coord|34.747|40.730|display=inline}}
Baris 25: Baris 25:
|abandoned = 256–257 M
|abandoned = 256–257 M
|epochs =
|epochs =
|cultures = Hellenistik, Parthia, Romawi
|cultures = Helenistik, Parthia, Romawi
|dependency_of =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|occupants =
Baris 36: Baris 36:
|website =
|website =
|notes =
|notes =
}}<!--
}}
[[Berkas:DuraEuropos-WadiSouth.jpg|jmpl|200px|kiri|Pembandangan wadi sebelah selatan dan sebagian tembok kota Dura Europos.]]
'''Dura-Europos''' ({{lang-el|Δοῦρα Εὐρωπός}}; juga ditulis "Dura Europas" atau "Dura Europus") adalah suatu tempat di [[Suriah]] di mana ditemukan reruntuhan [[sinagoge]] kuno pada tahun 1932. Fase terakhir pembangunannya adalah tahun 244 M seperti tertulis dalam prasasti [[bahasa Aram]] yang ada di sana. Dengan demikian merupakan salah satu sinagoge tertua di dunia. Keunikannya adalah penggalian arkeologi menemukan bangunan ini diawetkan hampir utuh, dan di dalamnya terdapat sejumlah besar lukisan dinding (''fresco'') yang menggambarkan kisah-kisah [[Alkitab]]. Semua ''fresco'' ini dipamerkan di [[Museum Nasional Damaskus]], [[Damaskus]], Suriah.

Dura-Europas merupakan kota garisun dan perdagangan di tepi [[sungai Efrat]], dan biasanya di batas antara [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] dan [[Kekaisaran Parthia]] serta akhirnya [[Kekaisaran Sassaniyah]] dari [[Persia]]. Kota ini berpindah-pindah tangan beberapa kali tetapi dikuasai Kerajaan Romawi sejak tahun 165. Sebelum Persia menghancurkan kota ini pada tahun 256-257, sebagian sinagoge yang berbatasan dengan tembok utama kota ini tampaknya diambil alih dan ditimbun dengan pasir sebagai tindakan pertahanan. Kota ini ditinggalkan setelah direbut dan tidak pernah dihuni lagi. Tembok-tembok sebelah bawah dari kamar-kamarnya tetap terkubur dan masih utuh sampai diekskavasi. Sewaktu digali, juga ditemukan sejumlah lukisan dinding dari tempat ibadah [[Kristen]] dan [[Mithra]]isme, serta potongan teks Kristen dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]].
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'''Dura-Europos''' was a [[Hellenistic]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] border [[city]] built on an [[escarpment]] {{convert|90|m|ft|abbr=off}} above the right bank of the [[Euphrates]] river. It is located near the village of [[Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Salhiyé]], in today's [[Syria]]. In 113 BC, Parthians conquered the city, and held it, with one brief Roman intermission (114 AD), until 165 AD. Under Parthian rule, it became an important provincial administrative center. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] decisively captured Dura-Europos in 165 AD and greatly enlarged it as their easternmost stronghold in [[Mesopotamia]], until it was captured by [[Sassanians]] after a [[Siege of Dura Europos (256)|siege in 256-7 AD]]. Its population was deported, and after it was abandoned, it was covered by sand and mud and disappeared from sight.

Dura-Europos is extremely important for archaeological reasons. As it was abandoned after its conquest in 256-7 AD, nothing was built over it and no later building programs obscured the architectonic features of the ancient city. Its location on the edge of empires made for a co-mingling of cultural traditions, much of which was preserved under the city's ruins. Some remarkable finds have been brought to light, including numerous temples, wall decorations, inscriptions, military equipment, tombs, and even dramatic evidence of the Sassanian siege. After being severely looted by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] in the ongoing [[Syrian Civil War]], it was demolished by ISIS.<ref>[http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/article1433622.ece Loot, sell, bulldoze: Isis grinds history to dust]</ref>
-->
== Sejarah ==
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin: 0.46em 0 1em 1em; width:180px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin: 0.46em 0 1em 1em; width:180px; text-align:left; clear:right;"
| style="background:#dddddd; text-align:center;" |
| style="background:#dddddd; text-align:center;" |
Baris 45: Baris 55:
<div style="align: left;">
<div style="align: left;">
'''~ 300 SM'''
'''~ 300 SM'''
:Dura didirikan oleh [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] sebagai sebuah benteng
:Dura didirikan oleh [[Kekaisaran Seleukia|Seleukia]] sebagai sebuah benteng


----
----
[+187 tahun]
[+187 tahun]


'''c. 113 SM'''
'''~ 113 SM'''
:[[Parthians]] take Dura
:[[Kekaisaran Parthia|Parthia]] merebut Dura


'''''c''. 65-19 BC'''
'''''~ 65-19 SM'''''
:Tembok kota dibangun, termasuk sejumlah menara
:City walls constructed, including some towers


----
----
[+80 years]
[+80 tahun]


'''c. 33 BC'''
'''~ 33 SM'''
:Dura menjadi suatu pusat administrasi provinsi dari Parthia
:Dura becomes a Parthian provincial administrative center


----
----
[+16 years]
[+16 tahun]


'''c. 17-16 BC'''
'''c. 17-16 SM'''
:Palmyrene Gate begun
:Palmyrene Gate dibangun


----
----
[+133 years]
[+133 tahun]


'''AD 116'''
'''116 M'''
:[[Trajan]] takes Dura. Triumphal arch built
:[[Trajan]] merebut Dura. Gerbang kemenangan dibangun


----
----
[+5 years]
[+5 tahun]


'''AD 121'''
'''121 M'''
:Parthians regain Dura
:Parthia merebut Dura kembali


----
----
[+39 years]
[+39 years]


'''AD 160'''
'''160 M'''
:Gempa bumi
:Earthquake


----
----
[+4 years]
[+4 tahun]


'''AD 164'''
'''164 M'''
:Romans under [[Lucius Verus]] again control Dura
:Romawi di bawah [[Lucius Verus]] menguasai Dura kembali


'''c. AD 168-171'''
'''~ 168-171 M'''
:[[Mithraeum]] first built
:[[Mithraeum]] pertama kali dibangun


'''c. AD 165-200'''
'''~ 165-200 M'''
:Rumah diubah menjadi sinagoge
:House converted to synagogue


----
----
[+47 years]
[+47 tahun]


'''c. AD 211''
'''~ 211 M''
:Dura a Roman colony
:Dura menjadi koloni Romawi


'''post-AD 216'''
'''setelah 216 M'''
:Tembok besar dibangun lebih tinggi
:City walls heightened


----
----
[+13 years]
[+13 tahun]


'''c. AD 224'''
'''~ 224 M'''
:(Parthians defeated by [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanids]])
:(Parthians defeated by [[Kekaisaran Sassaniyah|Sassaniyah]])


'''c. AD 232-256'''
'''~ 232-256 M'''
:Rumah diubah menjadi suatu kapel Kristen dan didekorasi
:House converted into a Christian chapel and decorated


----
----
[+14 years]
[+14 tahun]


'''AD 238'''
'''238 M'''
:Graffito (tulisan tembok) yang menyatakan "Orang Persia turun ke atas kita" ditulis
:Graffito stating "Persians descended on us" was written


----
----
[+2 years]
[+2 tahun]


'''c. AD 240'''
'''~ 240 M'''
:Mithraeum rebuilt
:Mithraeum dibangun kembali


'''''c''. AD 244-254'''
'''''~'' 244-254 M'''
:Lukisan di sinagoge
:Synagogue paintings


----
----
[+13 years]
[+13 tahun]


'''AD 253'''
'''253 M'''
:First Sassanid attack <ref>More recent analysis has brought into doubt this event. See, David McDonald, "Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos", ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', V.35/1 (1986), pp.45-68.</ref>
:Serangan Sassaniyah pertama <ref>Analisis lebih baru meragukan peristiwa ini. Lihat: David McDonald, "Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos", ''Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', V.35/1 (1986), pp.45-68.</ref>


'''post-AD 254'''
'''setelah 254 M'''
:Defensive embankment built to bolster city walls
:Defensive embankment dibangun untuk memperkuat tembok kota


----
----
[+3 years]
[+3 tahun]


'''AD 256-257'''
'''256-257 M'''
:Dura [[Siege of Dura Europos (256)|falls]] to the Sassanid king [[Shapur I]], the population is deported<ref>McDonald, 1986, p.68, prefers 257 as the fall, based on the lateness in the year of the issue from the mint of the coins found at Dura which provided the year 256. He also argues that a garrison of Sassanid forces probably remained in the city for perhaps a year after the locals had been deported.</ref>
:Dura [[Siege of Dura Europos (256)|direbut]] oleh pasukan raja Sassaniyah, [[Shapur I]], yang mendeportasi penduduknyat<ref>McDonald, 1986, p.68, condong kepada kejatuhan pada tahun 257, berdasarkan tarikh akhir tahun pembuatan mata uang koin di Dura yang memuat tahun 256. Ia juga berpendapat bahwa suatu garnisun pasukan Sassaniyah mungkin tinggal di kota kira-kira setahun setelah penduduk setempat telah dideportasi.</ref>
</div>
</div>
|}
|}
[[Berkas:DuraEuropos-PalmyraGate.jpg|jmpl|kiri|"Palmyrene Gate", pintu masuk utama kota Dura Europos.]]
-->
Asal mulanya sebuah benteng,<ref name=iranica /> didirikakn pada tahun 303 SM dengan nama ''Dura'' oleh [[Kekaisaran Seleukia]] pada persimpangan jalur perdagangan timur-barat dan jalur perdagangan yang menyusuri [[sungai Efrat]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm |title=History of Dura Europos |access-date=2018-03-12 |archive-date=2009-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123213117/http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm |dead-url=yes }}</ref> Dura mengontrol penyeberangan sungai pada jalur antara kota-kota yang baru didirikan, [[Antiokhia]] dan [[Seleucia on the Tigris]]. Pembangunannya kembali sebagai suatu kota besar mengikuti pola [[Hippodamian|Hippodamia]], dengan blok-blok persegi panjang dibatasi oleh jalan-jalan bersilangan melingkari suatu pusat [[agora]] besar, yang secara formal diletakkan pada abad ke-2 SM. Pandangan tradisional Dura-Europos sebagai suatu [[caravan city|kota karavan]] besar menjadi berkembang setelah penemuan pabrik-pabrik lokal dan jejak-jejak hubungan erat dengan [[Palmyra]] (James). Sebaliknya, Dura Europos berkembang karena perannya sebagai ibu kota regional.<ref name=iranica />
'''Dura-Europos''' (juga ditulis "Dura Europas" atau "Dura Europos") adalah suatu tempat di [[Suriah]] di mana ditemukan reruntuhan [[sinagoga]] kuno pada tahun 1932. Fase terakhir pembangunannya adalah tahun 244 M seperti tertulis dalam prasasti [[bahasa Aram]] yang ada di sana. Dengan demikian merupakan salah satu sinagoga tertua di dunia. Keunikannya adalah penggalian arkeologi menemukan bangunan ini diawetkan hampir utuh, dan di dalamnya terdapat sejumlah besar lukisan dinding (''fresco'') yang menggambarkan kisah-kisah [[Alkitab]]. Semua ''fresco'' ini dipamerkan di [[Museum Nasional Damaskus]], [[Damaskus]], Suriah.

Pada tahun 113&nbsp;M, [[Kekaisaran Parthia]] dari Iran menguasai Dura-Europos, dan bertahan di sana, dengan satu jeda singkat, sampai tahun 165 M, ketika direbut oleh orang Romawi.<ref>Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=wL1tAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAmoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Volume 3, Part 1, Number 2''] [[Yale University Press]]. p 288 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Harald Ingholt. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=y3JQAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, Oct. 14 Through Nov. 14, 1954''] Yale University Art Gallery, 1954. p 2</ref><ref>Minna Lönnqvist. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=1GsMAQAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAmoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz ''Jebel Bishri in Context: Introduction to the Archaeological Studies and the Neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in Central Syria: Proceedings of a Nordic Research Training Seminar in Syria, May 2004''] Archaeopress, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1407303031}} p 100 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref><ref>F. Millar, "Dura-Europos under Parthian rule," in ''Das Partherreich und sein Zeugnisse/The Arsacid Empire: Sources and Documentation'', J. Weisehöfer, ed. (Stuttgart) 1998</ref> Periode Parthia merupakan suatu tahap perluasan di Dura Europos— suatu perluasan yang didorong oleh ditinggalkannya fungsi kota sebagai kota militer. Semua ruang yang tertutup tembok lambat laun dihuni, dan menetapnya penduduk baru dengan nama [[Semitic people|Semitik]] dan [[Iranian peoples|Iran]] bersama-sama keturunan penduduk koloni [[Ancient Macedonians|Makedonia]] asal menambah jumlah penduduk,<ref name=iranica>Pierre Leriche, [[D. N. MacKenzie]], [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dura-europos "Dura Europos"], ''Encyclopaedia Iranica'', December 15, 1996, last updated December 2, 2011.</ref> sehingga menjadi beragam budaya, sebagaimana dibuktikan dengan adanya prasasti-prasasti dalam [[bahasa Yunani]], [[bahasa Latin|Latin]], [[bahasa Aram|Aram]], [[bahasa Ibrani|Ibrani]], [[bahasa Suryani|Suryani]], [[Hatrian|Hatria]], [[:En:Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]], [[:En:Middle Persian|Persia tengah]], [[:En:Parthian language|Parthia]], dan [[Safaitic alphabet|Safaitik]]. Pada akhir abad ke-1 SM, menjadi benteng terdepan dari Kekaisaran Parthia.<ref>F. Millar, ''The Roman Near east, 31 BC-AD337'' (Harvard University Press) 1993, pp 445-52, 467-72.</ref>


Dura-Europas merupakan kota garisun dan perdagangan di tepi [[sungai Efrat]], dan biasanya di batas antara [[Kekaisaran Romawi Timur]] dan [[Kekaisaran Parthia]] serta akhirnya [[Kekaisaran Sassaniyah]] dari [[Persia]]. Kota ini berpindah-pindah tangan beberapa kali tetapi dikuasai Kerajaan Romawi sejak tahun 165. Sebelum Persia menghancurkan kota ini pada tahun 256-257, sebagian sinagoga yang berbatasan dengan tembok utama kota ini tampaknya diambil alih dan ditimbun dengan pasir sebagai tindakan pertahanan. Kota ini ditinggalkan setelah direbut dan tidak pernah dihuni lagi. Tembok-tembok sebelah bawah dari kamar-kamarnya tetap terkubur dan masih utuh sampai diekskavasi. Sewaktu digali, juga ditemukan sejumlah lukisan dinding dari tempat ibadah [[Kristen]] dan [[Mithra|Mithraisme]], serta potongan teks Kristen dalam [[bahasa Ibrani]].
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[[File:DuraEuropos-WadiSouth.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A view of the southern wadi and part of the walls of the city of Dura Europos.]]

'''Dura-Europos''' ({{lang-el|Δοῦρα Εὐρωπός}}), also spelled '''Dura-Europus''', was a [[Hellenistic]], [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] border [[city]] built on an [[escarpment]] {{convert|90|m|ft|abbr=off}} above the right bank of the [[Euphrates]] river. It is located near the village of [[Al-Salihiyah, Deir ez-Zor Governorate|Salhiyé]], in today's [[Syria]]. In 113 BC, Parthians conquered the city, and held it, with one brief Roman intermission (114 AD), until 165 AD. Under Parthian rule, it became an important provincial administrative center. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] decisively captured Dura-Europos in 165 AD and greatly enlarged it as their easternmost stronghold in [[Mesopotamia]], until it was captured by [[Sassanians]] after a [[Siege of Dura Europos (256)|siege in 256-7 AD]]. Its population was deported, and after it was abandoned, it was covered by sand and mud and disappeared from sight.

Dura-Europos is extremely important for archaeological reasons. As it was abandoned after its conquest in 256-7 AD, nothing was built over it and no later building programs obscured the architectonic features of the ancient city. Its location on the edge of empires made for a co-mingling of cultural traditions, much of which was preserved under the city's ruins. Some remarkable finds have been brought to light, including numerous temples, wall decorations, inscriptions, military equipment, tombs, and even dramatic evidence of the Sassanian siege. After being severely looted by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|Islamic State]] in the ongoing [[Syrian Civil War]], it was demolished by ISIS.<ref>[http://www.thesundaytimes.co.uk/sto/news/article1433622.ece Loot, sell, bulldoze: Isis grinds history to dust]</ref>

== Sejarah ==
[[File:DuraEuropos-PalmyraGate.jpg|thumb|right|The Palmyrene Gate, the principal entrance to the city of Dura Europos.]]
Originally a fortress,<ref name=iranica /> it was founded in 303 BC with the name ''Dura'' by the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] on the intersection of an east-west trade route and the trade route along the Euphrates.<ref>[http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm History of Dura Europos]</ref> Dura controlled the river crossing on the route between his newly founded cities of [[Antioch]] and [[Seleucia on the Tigris]]. Its rebuilding as a great city built after the [[Hippodamian]] model, with rectangular blocks defined by cross-streets ranged round a large central [[agora]], was formally laid out in the 2nd century BC. The traditional view of Dura-Europos as a great [[caravan city]] is becoming nuanced by the discoveries of locally made manufactures and traces of close ties with [[Palmyra]] (James). Instead, Dura Europos owed its development to its role as a regional capital.<ref name=iranica />

In 113&nbsp;M, the Iranian [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] conquered Dura-Europos, and held it, with one brief intermission, until 165 AD, when it was taken by the Romans.<ref>Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=wL1tAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAmoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Volume 3, Part 1, Number 2''] [[Yale University Press]]. p 288 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Harald Ingholt. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=y3JQAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, Oct. 14 Through Nov. 14, 1954''] Yale University Art Gallery, 1954. p 2</ref><ref>Minna Lönnqvist. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=1GsMAQAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAmoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz ''Jebel Bishri in Context: Introduction to the Archaeological Studies and the Neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in Central Syria : Proceedings of a Nordic Research Training Seminar in Syria, May 2004''] Archaeopress, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1407303031}} p 100 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref><ref>F. Millar, "Dura-Europos under Parthian rule," in ''Das Partherreich und sein Zeugnisse/The Arsacid Empire: Sources and Documentation'', J. Weisehöfer, ed. (Stuttgart) 1998</ref> The Parthian period was a phase of expansion at Dura Europos—an expansion favored by abandonment of the town's military function. All the space enclosed by the walls gradually became occupied, and the installation of new inhabitants with [[Semitic people|Semitic]] and [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] names alongside descendants of the original [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonian]] colonists contributed to an increase in the population,<ref name=iranica>Pierre Leriche, [[D. N. MacKenzie]], [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dura-europos "Dura Europos"], ''[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]'', December 15, 1996, last updated December 2, 2011.</ref> which was a multicultural one, as inscriptions in [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Hatrian]], [[Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]], [[Middle Persian]], [[Parthian language|Parthian]], and [[Safaitic alphabet|Safaitic]] testify. In the 1st century BC, it served as a frontier fortress of the Parthian Empire.<ref>F. Millar, ''The Roman Near east, 31 BC-AD337'' (Harvard University Press) 1993, pp 445-52, 467-72.</ref>

[[File:Duraeuropusmap.jpg|thumb|left|Peta Dura Europos, Suriah.]]

The entirely original architecture of Dura Europos was perfected during the Parthian period. This period was characterized by a progressive evolution of [[Hellenistic architecture|Greek]] concepts toward new formulas in which regional traditions, particularly [[Babylonian architecture|Babylonian]] ones, played an increasing role. These innovations affected both religious and domestic buildings. Although [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] influence is difficult to find in the architecture of Dura Europos, in figurative art the influence of [[Parthian art]] is evident.<ref name=iranica />
The entirely original architecture of Dura Europos was perfected during the Parthian period. This period was characterized by a progressive evolution of [[Hellenistic architecture|Greek]] concepts toward new formulas in which regional traditions, particularly [[Babylonian architecture|Babylonian]] ones, played an increasing role. These innovations affected both religious and domestic buildings. Although [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] influence is difficult to find in the architecture of Dura Europos, in figurative art the influence of [[Parthian art]] is evident.<ref name=iranica />


In 114 AD, the Emperor [[Trajan]] occupied the city for a couple of years: the [[Legio III Cyrenaica|Third Cyrenaica legion]] erected a "Triumphal Arch" to the west of the Gate of Palmyra. Upon the death of Trajan in 117, Rome relinquished Mesopotamia to the Parthians. Dura was retaken by the Roman army of [[Lucius Verus]] during the [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–166]].<ref>Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=wL1tAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAmoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Volume 3, Part 1, Number 2''] [[Yale University Press]]. p 288 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Harald Ingholt. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=y3JQAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, Oct. 14 Through Nov. 14, 1954''] Yale University Art Gallery, 1954. p 2</ref><ref>Minna Lönnqvist. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=1GsMAQAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAmoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz ''Jebel Bishri in Context: Introduction to the Archaeological Studies and the Neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in Central Syria : Proceedings of a Nordic Research Training Seminar in Syria, May 2004''] Archaeopress, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1407303031}} p 100 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref>
In 114 AD, the Emperor [[Trajan]] occupied the city for a couple of years: the [[Legio III Cyrenaica|Third Cyrenaica legion]] erected a "Triumphal Arch" to the west of the Gate of Palmyra. Upon the death of Trajan in 117, Rome relinquished Mesopotamia to the Parthians. Dura was retaken by the Roman army of [[Lucius Verus]] during the [[Roman–Parthian War of 161–166]].<ref>Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=wL1tAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAmoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Volume 3, Part 1, Number 2''] [[Yale University Press]]. p 288 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Harald Ingholt. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=y3JQAAAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+165+AD&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI25feh5neyAIVhboaCh0xawTk ''Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, Oct. 14 Through Nov. 14, 1954''] Yale University Art Gallery, 1954. p 2</ref><ref>Minna Lönnqvist. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=1GsMAQAAMAAJ&q=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CCoQ6AEwAmoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz ''Jebel Bishri in Context: Introduction to the Archaeological Studies and the Neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in Central Syria: Proceedings of a Nordic Research Training Seminar in Syria, May 2004''] Archaeopress, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1407303031}} p 100 (original from the [[University of Michigan]])</ref><ref>Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref>
The townspeople however retained considerable freedom as a regional headquarters for the section of the river between the Khabur and modern Abu Kemal.<ref name="Monuments of Syria: A Guide">[Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref> As historian Ross Burns states, in exchange the city's military role was abandoned. Its population, originally based on the Greek settler element, were increasingly outnumbered by people of Semitic stock and by the first century BC, the city was predominantly eastern in character.<ref name="Monuments of Syria: A Guide"/> The Romans called the city with the name ''Dura Europus'', because the local aristocracy was made of Macedonians descendants (pinpointing so that the city was ruled by "Europeans" from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]).
The townspeople however retained considerable freedom as a regional headquarters for the section of the river between the Khabur and modern Abu Kemal.<ref name="Monuments of Syria: A Guide">[Ross Burns. [https://books.google.nl/books?id=z_IBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149&dq=parthians+conquered+palmyra+113+BC&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CFIQ6AEwCGoVChMIjuSC6pXeyAIVyNoaCh0x_grz#v=onepage&q=parthians%20conquered%20palmyra%20113%20BC&f=false ''Monuments of Syria: A Guide''] I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 {{ISBN|978-0857714893}} p 149</ref> As historian Ross Burns states, in exchange the city's military role was abandoned. Its population, originally based on the Greek settler element, were increasingly outnumbered by people of Semitic stock and by the first century BC, the city was predominantly eastern in character.<ref name="Monuments of Syria: A Guide"/> The Romans called the city with the name ''Dura Europus'', because the local aristocracy was made of Macedonians descendants (pinpointing so that the city was ruled by "Europeans" from [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]).


Baris 196: Baris 191:


In January 2009, researchers claimed they had found evidence that the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] used [[poisonous gas]]es at Dura against the Roman defenders during the siege. [[Excavation (archaeology)|Excavations]] at Dura have discovered the remains of 19 Roman and 1 Persian soldiers at the base of the city walls.<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/13113-ancient-chemical-warfare-romans-persians.html Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon, LiveScience]</ref> An archaeologist at the University of Leicester suggested that [[bitumen]] and [[sulphur]] crystals were ignited to create poisonous gas, which was then funnelled through the tunnel with the use of underground chimneys and bellows.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7837826.stm Ancient Persians 'gassed Romans', BBC NEWS]</ref> The Roman soldiers had been constructing a countermine, and Sassanian forces are believed to have released the gas when their mine was breached by the Roman countermine. The lone Persian soldier discovered among the bodies is believed to be the individual responsible for releasing the gas before the fumes overcame him as well.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/syria.html Earliest Chemical Warfare - Dura-Europos, Syria]</ref>
In January 2009, researchers claimed they had found evidence that the [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Empire]] used [[poisonous gas]]es at Dura against the Roman defenders during the siege. [[Excavation (archaeology)|Excavations]] at Dura have discovered the remains of 19 Roman and 1 Persian soldiers at the base of the city walls.<ref>[http://www.livescience.com/13113-ancient-chemical-warfare-romans-persians.html Buried Soldiers May Be Victims of Ancient Chemical Weapon, LiveScience]</ref> An archaeologist at the University of Leicester suggested that [[bitumen]] and [[sulphur]] crystals were ignited to create poisonous gas, which was then funnelled through the tunnel with the use of underground chimneys and bellows.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/7837826.stm Ancient Persians 'gassed Romans', BBC NEWS]</ref> The Roman soldiers had been constructing a countermine, and Sassanian forces are believed to have released the gas when their mine was breached by the Roman countermine. The lone Persian soldier discovered among the bodies is believed to be the individual responsible for releasing the gas before the fumes overcame him as well.<ref>[http://www.archaeology.org/1001/topten/syria.html Earliest Chemical Warfare - Dura-Europos, Syria]</ref>
-->


==Archaeology==
== Arkeologi ==
[[File:A08 Dura Europos 615.jpg|thumb|left|View of excavations and [[Euphrates]].]]
[[Berkas:A08 Dura Europos 615.jpg|jmpl|kiri|Foto ekskavasi dan [[sungai Efrat]].]]
The existence of Dura-Europos was long known through literary sources. It was rediscovered by the American "Wolfe Expedition" in 1885, when the Palmyrene Gate was photographed by [[John Henry Haynes]].<ref name=ousterhout>{{cite book |title=John Henry Haynes: A Photographer and Archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire 1881-1900 |last1=Ousterhout |first1=Robert |year=2011 |publisher=Kayık Yayıncılık |location=Istanbul | page=41}}</ref>
Keberadaan Dura-Europos sudah lama diketahui dari sumber literatur. Baru diketemukan kembali oleh "Wolfe Expedition" Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1885, ketika Palmyrene Gate difoto oleh [[John Henry Haynes]].<ref name=ousterhout>{{cite book |title=John Henry Haynes: A Photographer and Archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire 1881-1900 |last1=Ousterhout |first1=Robert |year=2011 |publisher=Kayık Yayıncılık |location=Istanbul | page=41}}</ref>


British troops under Capt. Murphy in the aftermath of [[World War I]] and the [[Arab Revolt]] also explored the ruins. On March 30, 1920, a soldier digging a trench uncovered brilliantly fresh [[wall-painting]]s. The American archeologist [[James Henry Breasted]], then at [[Baghdad]], was alerted. Major [[Excavation (archaeology)|excavations]] were carried out in the 1920s and 1930s by French and American teams. The first archaeology on the site, undertaken by [[Franz Cumont]] and published in 1922-23, identified the site with Dura-Europos, and uncovered a temple, before renewed hostilities in the area closed it to archaeology. Later, renewed campaigns directed by [[Michael Rostovtzeff]] continued until 1937, when funds ran out with only part of the excavations published. [[World War II]] intervened. Since 1986 excavations have resumed in a joint Franco-Syrian effort under the direction of Pierre Leriche.
Tentara Britania di bawah Kapten Murphy setelah [[Perang Dunia I]] dan [[Arab Revolt|Revolusi Arab]] juga menyelidiki reruntuhan itu. Pada tanggal 30 Maret 1920, seorang prajurit menggali sebuah ''trench'' ketika menemukan suatu [[wall-painting|lukisan dinding]] segar dan indah. Arkeolog Amerika Serikat [[James Henry Breasted]], ketika itu di [[Baghdad]], segera dikabari. [[Excavation (archaeology)|ekskavasi]] besar dilakukan pada tahun 1920-an dan 1930-an oleh tim Prancis dan Amerika Serikat. Arkeologi pertama mengenai situs itu, dilakukan oleh [[Franz Cumont]] dan dipublikasikan pada tahun 1922-23, mengidentifikasi situs itu dengan Dura-Europos, dan menemukan sebuah kuil, sebelum permusuhan berkembang lagi di daerah itu sehingga tertutup untuk arkeologi. Kemudian, penggalian dilakukan lagi di bawah [[Michael Rostovtzeff]] sampai tahun 1937, ketika dana habis dan hanya sebagian ekskavasi dipublikasikan serta pecahnya [[Perang Dunia II]] menghentikan pekerjaan. Sejak tahun 1986 ekskavasi dilanjutkan dengan upaya bersama Prancis-Suriah di bawah arahan Pierre Leriche.


Not the least of the finds were astonishingly well-preserved arms and [[armour]] belonging to the [[Roman army|Roman]] garrison at the time of the final [[Sassanian]] siege of 256 AD. Finds included painted wooden shields and complete horse armour, preserved by the very finality of the destruction of the city that journalists have called "the [[Pompeii]] of the desert". Finds from Dura-Europos are on display in the [[Deir ez-Zor Museum]] and the [[Yale University Art Gallery]].<ref name=bonatz>{{cite book |title=Rivers and steppes. Cultural heritage and environment of the Syrian Jezireh. Catalogue to the Museum of Deir ez-Zor |last1=Bonatz |first1=Dominik |last2=Kühne |first2=Hartmut |last3=Mahmoud |first3=As'ad |year=1998 |publisher=Ministry of Culture |location=Damascus |oclc=638775287 }}</ref>
<!--Not the least of the finds were astonishingly well-preserved arms and [[armour]] belonging to the [[Roman army|Roman]] garrison at the time of the final [[Sassanian]] siege of 256 AD. Finds included painted wooden shields and complete horse armour, preserved by the very finality of the destruction of the city that journalists have called "the [[Pompeii]] of the desert". Finds from Dura-Europos are on display in the [[Deir ez-Zor Museum]] and the [[Yale University Art Gallery]].<ref name=bonatz>{{cite book |title=Rivers and steppes. Cultural heritage and environment of the Syrian Jezireh. Catalogue to the Museum of Deir ez-Zor |last1=Bonatz |first1=Dominik |last2=Kühne |first2=Hartmut |last3=Mahmoud |first3=As'ad |year=1998 |publisher=Ministry of Culture |location=Damascus |oclc=638775287 }}</ref>


=== Budaya ===
=== Budaya ===
Dura-Europos was a [[Multicultural|cosmopolitan]] society, controlled by a tolerant [[Macedon]]ian [[aristocracy]] descended from the original settlers. In the course of its excavation, over a hundred [[parchment]] and [[papyrus]] fragments and many [[inscriptions]] have revealed texts in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (the latter including a [[sator square]]), [[Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Hatrian]], [[Safaitic alphabet|Safaitic]], and [[Pahlavi script|Pahlavi]]. The excavations revealed temples to [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Palmyrene Empire|Palmyrene]] gods. There was a [[Mithraeum]], as one would expect in a Roman military city.
Dura-Europos was a [[Multicultural|cosmopolitan]] society, controlled by a tolerant [[Macedon]]ian [[aristocracy]] descended from the original settlers. In the course of its excavation, over a hundred [[parchment]] and [[papyrus]] fragments and many [[inscriptions]] have revealed texts in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] (the latter including a [[sator square]]), [[Palmyrene alphabet|Palmyrene]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Hatrian]], [[Safaitic alphabet|Safaitic]], and [[Pahlavi script|Pahlavi]]. The excavations revealed temples to [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Palmyrene Empire|Palmyrene]] gods. There was a [[Mithraeum]], as one would expect in a Roman military city.
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=== Sinagoga ===
=== Sinagoge ===
{{main article|Sinagoga Dura-Europos}}
{{main article|Sinagoge Dura-Europos}}
[[Berkas:DuraEuropos-AdonisSynagogue.jpg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Reruntuhan sinagoge]]
[[Berkas:Doura Europos synagogue courtyard.jpg|jmpl|ka|250px|Halaman, lorong sebelah barat dan ruang doa pada reruntuhan sinagoga Dura-Europos.]]
[[Berkas:DuraSyn-WB4-Ark and Temple of Dagon.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|Lukisan orang Filistin dan Tabut Perjanjian di sinagoga Dura-Europos.]]
[[Berkas:Doura Europos synagogue courtyard.jpg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Halaman, lorong sebelah barat dan ruang doa pada reruntuhan sinagoge Dura-Europos.]]
[[Berkas:DuraSyn-WB4-Ark and Temple of Dagon.jpg|jmpl|kiri|250px|Lukisan orang Filistin dan Tabut Perjanjian di sinagoge Dura-Europos.]]
[[Sinagoga]] [[Yudaisme|Yahudi]] terletak pada tembok barat antara menara 18 dan 19. Tahap pembangunan terakhir diketahui tarikhnya dari suatu prasasti [[bahasa Aram]], yaitu tahun 244. Merupakan yang terlestarikan paling baik di antara banyak sinagoga kuno dari zaman itu yang telah digali oleh para arkeolog. Pelestarian yang baik dikarenakan pengisian tanah pada bangunan itu untuk memperkuat pertahanan kota melawan serangan tentara [[[[Kekaisaran Sassaniyah|Sassaniyah]] pada tahun 256. Diketemukan pada tahun 1932 oleh [[Clark Hopkins]], yang mendapati adanya halaman depan dan rumah pertemuan dengan tembok yang dihiasi [[fresko]] menggambarkan orang dan binatang, serta sebuah tempat penyimpanan [[Taurat]] pada tembok sebelah barat yang menghadap [[Yerusalem]]. Pada awalnya dikira sebuah kuil Yunani.
[[Sinagoge]] [[Yudaisme|Yahudi]] terletak pada tembok barat antara menara 18 dan 19. Tahap pembangunan terakhir diketahui tarikhnya dari suatu prasasti [[bahasa Aram]], yaitu tahun 244. Merupakan yang terlestarikan paling baik di antara banyak sinagoge kuno dari zaman itu yang telah digali oleh para arkeolog. Pelestarian yang baik dikarenakan pengisian tanah pada bangunan itu untuk memperkuat pertahanan kota melawan serangan tentara [[Kekaisaran Sassaniyah|Sassaniyah]] pada tahun 256. Diketemukan pada tahun 1932 oleh [[Clark Hopkins]], yang mendapati adanya halaman depan dan rumah pertemuan dengan tembok yang dihiasi [[fresko]] menggambarkan orang dan binatang, serta sebuah tempat penyimpanan [[Taurat]] pada tembok sebelah barat yang menghadap [[Yerusalem]]. Pada awalnya dikira sebuah kuil Yunani. Lukisan pada sinagoge, suatu siklus cerita alkitabiah bersambungan tertua yang terlestarikan,<ref>Joseph Gutmann, "The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art" ''Artibus et Historiae'' '''9''''.17 (1988), pp. 25-29. Gutmann concluded that in their brief visible career the paintings had not had an appreeciable effect on later paintings.</ref> sekarang disimpan di [[Damaskus]], bersama dengan sebuah perlengkapan senjata kuda Romawi lengkap.


[[Berkas:Duraeuropa-1-.gif|jmpl|250px|kiri|Lukisan dari [[Kitab Ester]] di sinagoge Dura-Europos, tahun 244 M]]
Lukisan pada sinagoga, suatu siklus cerita alkitabiah bersambungan tertua yang terlestarikan,<ref>Joseph Gutmann, "The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art" ''Artibus et Historiae'' '''9''''.17 (1988), pp. 25-29. Gutmann concluded that in their brief visible career the paintings had not had an appreeciable effect on later paintings.</ref> sekarang disimpan di [[Damaskus]], bersama dengan sebuah perlengkapan senjata kuda Romawi lengkap.
Para pakar berpendapat bahwa lukisan-lukisan itu merupakan alat peraga untuk mengajar sejarah dan hukum agama Yahudi. Ada yang berpikir bahwa sinagoge itu diberi lukisan untuk bersaing dengan praktik keagamaan lain di Dura Europos; ada sebuah gereja Kristen yang lebih baru dan ukurannya lebih kecil tampaknya dibuka sesaat sebelum lukisan-lukisan yang ditemukan itu mulai dibuat di sinagoge. Seni lukis dalam skala besar di sinagoge mengejutkan banyak pakar, meskipun mereka sudah menduga bahwa ada tradisi seni agama naratif Yahudi pada periode ini, yang terhilang, dan meninggalkan bekas-bekas pada seni Kristen di kemudian hari. Penemuan sinagoge ini membantu menolak interpretasi sempit akan larangan membuat gambar visual yang menjadi sejarah lama Yudaisme.


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=== Gereja rumah ===
=== Gereja rumah ===
{{main article|Gereja Dura-Europos}}
{{main article|Gereja Dura-Europos}}
There was also identified the [[Dura-Europos church]], the earliest [[Christian]] [[house church]], located by the 17th tower and preserved by the same defensive fill that saved the synagogue. "Their evidently open and tolerated presence in the middle of a major Roman [[garrison]] town reveals that the history of the early Church was not simply a story of [[Paganism|pagan]] persecution".<ref>Simon James, from his webpage [http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm].</ref>
Ada juga bangunan yang diidentifikasi sebagai [[Gereja Dura-Europos]], suatu [[house church|gereja rumah]] [[Kristen]] tertua, terletak pada menara ke-17 dan dilestarikan oleh pengisian tanah untuk pertahanan yang sama dengan yang akhirnya melestarikan sinagoge. "Kehadiran mereka yang jelas terbuka dan ditoleransi di tengah suatu kota [[garrison|garnisun]] Romawi utama mengungkapkan bahwa sejarah Gereja mula-mula bukan hanya sekadar cerita penganiayaan [[Paganisme|pagan]] ".<ref>Simon James, from his webpage [http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123213117/http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm |date=2009-01-23 }}.</ref>


The building consists of a house conjoined to a separate hall-like room, which functioned as the meeting room for the church. The surviving frescoes of the [[baptistry]] room are probably the most ancient Christian [[painting]]s. We can see the "[[Good Shepherd]]" (this iconography had a very long history in the Classical world), the "Healing of the paralytic" and "Christ and Peter walking on the water". These are the earliest depictions of Jesus Christ ever found and date back to 235 AD.<ref>{{cite book |last=McKay |first=John|last2=Hill|first2=Bennett |title=A History of World Societies, Combined Volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM0BrBDztzgC&pg=PA166 |edition=9|accessdate=August 5, 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan |location=United States of America |isbn=9780312666910 |page=166}}</ref>
<!--The building consists of a house conjoined to a separate hall-like room, which functioned as the meeting room for the church. The surviving frescoes of the [[baptistry]] room are probably the most ancient Christian [[painting]]s. We can see the "[[Good Shepherd]]" (this iconography had a very long history in the Classical world), the "Healing of the paralytic" and "Christ and Peter walking on the water". These are the earliest depictions of Jesus Christ ever found and date back to 235 AD.<ref>{{cite book |last=McKay |first=John|last2=Hill|first2=Bennett |title=A History of World Societies, Combined Volume |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BM0BrBDztzgC&pg=PA166 |edition=9|accessdate=August 5, 2013 |year=2011 |publisher=Macmillan |location=United States of America |isbn=9780312666910 |page=166}}</ref>


A much larger fresco depicts two women (and a third, mostly lost) approaching a large sarcophagus, i.e. probably [[the three Marys]] visiting Christ's tomb. There were also frescoes of Adam and Eve as well as David and Goliath. The frescoes clearly followed the [[Hellenistic Jewish]] [[iconographic]] tradition but they are more crudely done than the paintings of the nearby synagogue.
A much larger fresco depicts two women (and a third, mostly lost) approaching a large sarcophagus, i.e. probably [[the three Marys]] visiting Christ's tomb. There were also frescoes of Adam and Eve as well as David and Goliath. The frescoes clearly followed the [[Hellenistic Jewish]] [[iconographic]] tradition but they are more crudely done than the paintings of the nearby synagogue.
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Fragmen-fragmen gulungan [[perkamen]] dengan tulisan Ibrani juga telah diketemukan; sukar diterjemahkan sampai [[J.L. Teicher]] menunjukkan bahwa itu merupakan doa Ekaristi Kristen, begitu dekat dengan doa-doa dalam [[Didache]] sehingga ia bisa mengisi kekosongan dari teks ''Didache''.<ref>J.L. Teicher, "Ancient Eucharistic Prayers in Hebrew (Dura-Europos Parchment D. Pg. 25)" ''The Jewish Quarterly Review'' New Series '''54'''.2 (October 1963), pp. 99-109.</ref>


Pada tahun 1933, di antara fragmen-fragmen teks yang ditemukan dari sampah kota di luar [[Palmyrene Gate]], sebuah teks terfragmentasi, yang sekarang disebut ''[[Dura Parchment 24]]'', dikenali memuat [[harmoni Injil]] dalam [[bahasa Yunani]] — terkait dengan ''[[Diatessaron]]'' karya [[Tatian]].
Fragments of [[parchment]] scrolls with Hebrew texts have also been unearthed; they resisted meaningful translation until [[J.L. Teicher]] pointed out that they were Christian Eucharistic prayers, so closely connected with the prayers in [[Didache]] that he was able to fill lacunae in the light of the ''Didache'' text.<ref>J.L. Teicher, "Ancient Eucharistic Prayers in Hebrew (Dura-Europos Parchment D. Pg. 25)" ''The Jewish Quarterly Review'' New Series '''54'''.2 (October 1963), pp. 99-109.</ref>
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=== Mithraeum ===
In 1933, among fragments of text recovered from the town dump outside the [[Palmyrene Gate]], a fragmentary text was unearthed from an unknown ''[[Dura Parchment 24|Greek harmony of the gospel]]'' accounts — comparable to [[Tatian]]'s ''[[Diatessaron]]'', but independent of it.

===The Mithraeum===
Also partially preserved by the defensive embankment was the [[Mithraeum]] (''[[CIMRM]]'' 34-70), located between towers 23 and 24. It was unearthed in January 1934 after years of expectation as to whether Dura would reveal traces of the Roman [[Mithras]] cult. The earliest archaeological traces found within the temple are from between AD 168 and 171,<ref>Hopkins, p. 200</ref> which coincides with the arrival of Lucius Verus and his troops. At this stage it was still a room in a private home. It was extended and renovated between 209 and 211, and most of the frescoes are from this period. The ''tabula ansata'' of 210 offers salutation to Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Geta. The construction was managed by a ''centurio principe praepositus'' of the legio IIII Scythicae et XVI Flaviae firmae (''CIMRM'' 53), and it seems that construction was done by imperial troops. The mithraeum was enlarged again in 240, but in 256—with war with [[Sassanians]] looming—the sanctuary was filled in and became part of the strengthened fortifications. Following excavations, the temple was transported in pieces to New Haven, Connecticut, where it was rebuilt (and is now on display) at the Yale University Art Gallery.
Also partially preserved by the defensive embankment was the [[Mithraeum]] (''[[CIMRM]]'' 34-70), located between towers 23 and 24. It was unearthed in January 1934 after years of expectation as to whether Dura would reveal traces of the Roman [[Mithras]] cult. The earliest archaeological traces found within the temple are from between AD 168 and 171,<ref>Hopkins, p. 200</ref> which coincides with the arrival of Lucius Verus and his troops. At this stage it was still a room in a private home. It was extended and renovated between 209 and 211, and most of the frescoes are from this period. The ''tabula ansata'' of 210 offers salutation to Septimus Severus, Caracalla and Geta. The construction was managed by a ''centurio principe praepositus'' of the legio IIII Scythicae et XVI Flaviae firmae (''CIMRM'' 53), and it seems that construction was done by imperial troops. The mithraeum was enlarged again in 240, but in 256—with war with [[Sassanians]] looming—the sanctuary was filled in and became part of the strengthened fortifications. Following excavations, the temple was transported in pieces to New Haven, Connecticut, where it was rebuilt (and is now on display) at the Yale University Art Gallery.


Baris 236: Baris 233:
==International prize and UNESCO recognition==
==International prize and UNESCO recognition==
The Jury of the International Carlo Scarpa Prize for Gardens has unanimously decided that the twenty-first of these annual awards (2010) will go to Dura Europos.<ref>[http://www.settoreweb.com/fondazione/eng/pagine.php?s=&pg=577 Fondazione Benetton Studi e Ricerche]</ref> In 1999 Dura Europos has been included in the possible "Tentative List" of [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1295/ Dura Europos]</ref> Successively in 2011 has been included again, in the possible nominated list, with the nearby ancient city of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]].
The Jury of the International Carlo Scarpa Prize for Gardens has unanimously decided that the twenty-first of these annual awards (2010) will go to Dura Europos.<ref>[http://www.settoreweb.com/fondazione/eng/pagine.php?s=&pg=577 Fondazione Benetton Studi e Ricerche]</ref> In 1999 Dura Europos has been included in the possible "Tentative List" of [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1295/ Dura Europos]</ref> Successively in 2011 has been included again, in the possible nominated list, with the nearby ancient city of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]].
-->
== Keadaan terakhir ==
Menurut foto satelit tahun 2015, lebih dari 70% lokasi Dura-Europos dihancurkan oleh penjarah selama [[Perang Saudara Suriah]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Amos|first1=Deborah|last2=Meuse|first2=Alison|title=Via Satellite, Tracking The Plunder Of Middle East Cultural History|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/03/10/392077801/via-satellite-tracking-the-plunder-of-middle-east-cultural-history|accessdate=19 January 2016|work=[[NPR]]|date=10 March 2015}}</ref>


National Geographic melaporkan bahwa penjarahan terus berlangsung dalam skala besar oleh grup teroris [[ISIS]] untuk mendapatkan dana bagi serangan penghancuran mereka di daerah itu.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/]</ref>
==Current situation==
According to satellite imagery, more than 70% of Dura-Europos was destroyed by looters during the [[Syrian Civil War]].<ref>{{cite news|last1=Amos|first1=Deborah|last2=Meuse|first2=Alison|title=Via Satellite, Tracking The Plunder Of Middle East Cultural History|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/03/10/392077801/via-satellite-tracking-the-plunder-of-middle-east-cultural-history|accessdate=19 January 2016|work=[[NPR]]|date=10 March 2015}}</ref>

National Geographic reports further looting on a massive scale by the terrorist group [[ISIS]] in order to fund their aggressive devastation on the region.<ref>[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/09/150901-isis-destruction-looting-ancient-sites-iraq-syria-archaeology/]</ref>

==Popular culture==
''Fire in the East'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/Warrior-Rome-I-Fire-East/dp/0141032294/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=|title=Fire in the East|last=Sidebottom|first=Harry|date=September 6, 2017|website=Amazon.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127103456/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Warrior-Rome-I-Fire-East/dp/0141032294/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding%3DUTF8%26qid%3D%26sr%3D|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=yes|access-date=}}</ref> the first book in the Warrior of Rome series by the Oxford scholar Dr Harry Sidebottom, is centred around a detailed description of the Sassanid siege of Dura-Europos in 256 AD, based on the archeological finds in the site, albeit the city name has been changed to "Arete."
-->
== Lukisan dinding ==
Karena adanya lukisan-lukisan di dindingnya, sinagoga ini mulanya dikira sebuah kuil Yunani. Terdiri dari halaman depan dan gedung pertemuan yang dindingnya berlukisan orang-orang serta binatang, juga sebuah ruang penyimpanan [[Taurat]] di dinding sebelah barat yang mengarah ke [[Yerusalem]]. Lukisan yang menutupi dinding ruang pertemuan ("Assembly Room"), menggunakan 3 tingkatan gambar di atas bagian ''dado'' (dinding sebelah bawah) yang berisikan ''frieze'' dengan lambang-lambang di banyak tempat, mencapai ketinggian sekitar 7 meter. Gambar-gambarnya berasal dari kisah yang terdapat dalam [[Alkitab Ibrani]], meliputi banyak lukisan naratif, dan beberapa "foto" perseorangan — total 58 lukisan, mungkin merupakan sekitar 60% dari jumlah mula-mula.


== Budaya populer ==
[[Berkas:Duraeuropa-1-.gif|jmpl|300px|Lukisan dari [[Kitab Ester]] di sinagoga Dura-Europos, tahun 244 M]]
''Fire in the East'',<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amazon.co.uk/Warrior-Rome-I-Fire-East/dp/0141032294/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=&sr=|title=Fire in the East|last=Sidebottom|first=Harry|date=September 6, 2017|website=Amazon.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127103456/https://www.amazon.co.uk/Warrior-Rome-I-Fire-East/dp/0141032294/ref=tmm_pap_swatch_0?_encoding%3DUTF8%26qid%3D%26sr%3D|archive-date=2018-01-27|dead-url=yes|access-date=}}</ref> buku pertama dalam serial "''Warrior of Rome''" karya sarjana Oxford, Dr Harry Sidebottom, dipusatkan sekitar suatu penggambaran cermat pengepungan tentara Sassaniyah di Dura-Europos pada tahun 256 M, berdasarkan penemuan-penemuan arkeologi di situs itu, meskipun nama kota diubah menjadi "Arete."
Para pakar berpendapat bahwa lukisan-lukisan itu merupakan alat peraga untuk mengajar sejarah dan hukum agama Yahudi. Ada yang berpikir bahwa sinagoga itu diberi lukisan untuk bersaing dengan praktik keagamaan lain di Dura Europos; ada sebuah gereja Kristen yang lebih baru dan ukurannya lebih kecil tampaknya dibuka sesaat sebelum lukisan-lukisan yang ditemukan itu mulai dibuat di sinagoga. Seni lukis dalam skala besar di sinagoga mengejutkan banyak pakar, meskipun mereka sudah menduga bahwa ada tradisi seni agama naratif Yahudi pada periode ini, yang terhilang, dan meninggalkan bekas-bekas pada seni Kristen di kemudian hari. Penemuan sinagoga ini membantu menolak interpretasi sempit akan larangan membuat gambar visual yang menjadi sejarah lama Yudaisme.


== Lihat pula ==
== Lihat pula ==
* [[Dura Parchment 24]]
* [[Dura Parchment 24]]
* [[Sinagoga]]
* [[Sinagoge]]
*[[:en:Cities of the ancient Near East|Kota-kota kuno di Timur Dekat]]
* [[Cities of the ancient Near East|Kota-kota kuno di Timur Dekat]]
*[[:en:Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL|Penghancuran warisan budaya oleh ISIL]]
* [[Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL|Penghancuran warisan budaya oleh ISIL]]


== Referensi ==
== Referensi ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}
[[File:DuraEuropos-AdonisSynagogue.jpg|thumb|Reruntuhan sinagoga]]


== Pustaka ==
== Pustaka ==
*Dirven, L.A. 1999 ''The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos : a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria'' (Leiden: Brill).
* Dirven, L.A. 1999 ''The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria'' (Leiden: Brill).
*Hopkins, C, 1979 ''The Discovery of Dura Europos'', (New Haven and London).
* Hopkins, C, 1979 ''The Discovery of Dura Europos'', (New Haven and London).
*[[Michael Rostovtzeff|Rostovtzeff, M.I.]], 1938. ''Dura-Europos and Its Art'' (Oxford University Press).
* [[Michael Rostovtzeff|Rostovtzeff, M.I.]], 1938. ''Dura-Europos and Its Art'' (Oxford University Press).
* {{citation|last=Cumont|first=Franz |year=1975 |ref=CITEREFCumont1975|author2=Francis, Eric David, ed., trans.|chapter=The Dura Mithraeum|pages=I.151–214|title=Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|publisher=Manchester UP}}.
* {{citation|last=Cumont|first=Franz |year=1975 |ref=CITEREFCumont1975|author2=Francis, Eric David, ed., trans.|chapter=The Dura Mithraeum|pages=I.151–214|title=Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|publisher=Manchester UP}}.
* {{citation|last=Francis|first=Eric David|year=1975b|chapter=Mithraic graffiti from Dura-Europos|pages=II.424–445|title=Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|publisher=Manchester UP}}.
* {{citation|last=Francis|first=Eric David|year=1975b|chapter=Mithraic graffiti from Dura-Europos|pages=II.424–445|title=Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies|editor-last=Hinnells|editor-first=John R.|publisher=Manchester UP}}.
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== Pustaka tambahan ==
== Pustaka tambahan ==
*{{cite journal|last=James|first=Simon|title=Stratagems, Combat, and "Chemical Warfare" in the Siege Mines of Dura-Europos|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|year=2011|volume=115|issue=1|pages=69–101|url=http://www.ajaonline.org/article/360}}
* {{cite journal|last=James|first=Simon|title=Stratagems, Combat, and "Chemical Warfare" in the Siege Mines of Dura-Europos|journal=American Journal of Archaeology|year=2011|volume=115|issue=1|pages=69–101|url=http://www.ajaonline.org/article/360}}
*{{cite book|editor-last=Weitzmann|editor-first=Kurt|editor-link=Kurt Weitzmann|year=1979|title= Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. Catalogue of the Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, November 19, 1977, Through February 12, 1978|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780870991790 | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Weitzmann|editor-first=Kurt|editor-link=Kurt Weitzmann|year=1979|title= Age of Spirituality: Late Antique and Early Christian Art, Third to Seventh Century. Catalogue of the Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, November 19, 1977, Through February 12, 1978|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|location=New York, NY|isbn=9780870991790 | url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/156533}}
*''Dura Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity'' [Exh. Cat.], eds. Lisa R. Brody and Gail L. Hoffman. Chestnut Hill, MA: McMullen Museum of Art, with University of Chicago Press, 2011.
* ''Dura Europos: Crossroads of Antiquity'' [Exh. Cat.], eds. Lisa R. Brody and Gail L. Hoffman. Chestnut Hill, MA: McMullen Museum of Art, with University of Chicago Press, 2011.
*''Edge of Empires: Pagans, Jews, and Christians at Roman Dura-Europos'' [Exh. Cat.], eds. Jennifer Y. Chi and Sebastian Heath. NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, and Princeton University Press, 2011.
* ''Edge of Empires: Pagans, Jews, and Christians at Roman Dura-Europos'' [Exh. Cat.], eds. Jennifer Y. Chi and Sebastian Heath. NY: Institute for the Study of the Ancient World, New York University, and Princeton University Press, 2011.


== Pranala luar ==
== Pranala luar ==
{{Commons|Dura Europos}}
{{Commons|Dura Europos}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120519121338/http://artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/ "Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity" at the Yale University Art Gallery]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120519121338/http://artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/ "Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity" at the Yale University Art Gallery]
*[http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm Simon James, "Dura-Europos, the 'Pompeii of the Desert'"]
* [http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm Simon James, "Dura-Europos, the 'Pompeii of the Desert'"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090123213117/http://www.le.ac.uk/ar/stj/dura/index.htm |date=2009-01-23 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071225145907/http://people.vanderbilt.edu/~james.p.burns/chroma/baptism/dura2.html Illustration of the tomblike baptistry of the Christian church]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071225145907/http://people.vanderbilt.edu/~james.p.burns/chroma/baptism/dura2.html Illustration of the tomblike baptistry of the Christian church]
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/dura.html The Dura-Europos Gospel Harmony]
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/dura.html The Dura-Europos Gospel Harmony]
*[http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/Dura-Europos.pdf "7 vs. 8: The Battle Over the Holy Day at Dura-Europos"]
* [http://www.duke.edu/~goranson/Dura-Europos.pdf "7 vs. 8: The Battle Over the Holy Day at Dura-Europos"]
*[https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/science/dura-europos-a-melting-pot-at-the-intersection-of-empires.html?src=me&ref=general New York Times: "A Melting Pot at the Intersection of Empires for Five Centuries" By John Noble Wilford] December 19, 2011
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/20/science/dura-europos-a-melting-pot-at-the-intersection-of-empires.html?src=me&ref=general New York Times: "A Melting Pot at the Intersection of Empires for Five Centuries" By John Noble Wilford] December 19, 2011
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[[Kategori:Yudaisme]]
[[Kategori:Dura-Europos| ]]
[[Kategori:Dura-Europos| ]]
[[Kategori:Yudaisme]]
[[Kategori:Tempat di Suriah]]
[[Kategori:Tempat di Suriah]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah Suriah]]
[[Kategori:Sejarah Suriah]]

Revisi terkini sejak 28 Desember 2022 12.57

Dura-Europos
Kuil Bel di Dura-Europos
Dura-Europos di Syria
Dura-Europos
Lokasi di Syria
Lokasidekat Salhiyah, Suriah
Koordinat34°44′49″N 40°43′48″E / 34.747°N 40.730°E / 34.747; 40.730
Jenispemukiman
Sejarah
Didirikan~ 300 SM
Ditinggalkan256–257 M
BudayaHelenistik, Parthia, Romawi
Catatan situs
Tanggal ditemukan1922—1937
1986—sekarang
ArkeologJames Henry Breasted
Franz Cumont
Michael Rostovtzeff
Pierre Leriche
Kondisireruntuhan; dihancurkan
Pemilikpublik
Akses umumya
Pembandangan wadi sebelah selatan dan sebagian tembok kota Dura Europos.

Dura-Europos (bahasa Yunani: Δοῦρα Εὐρωπός; juga ditulis "Dura Europas" atau "Dura Europus") adalah suatu tempat di Suriah di mana ditemukan reruntuhan sinagoge kuno pada tahun 1932. Fase terakhir pembangunannya adalah tahun 244 M seperti tertulis dalam prasasti bahasa Aram yang ada di sana. Dengan demikian merupakan salah satu sinagoge tertua di dunia. Keunikannya adalah penggalian arkeologi menemukan bangunan ini diawetkan hampir utuh, dan di dalamnya terdapat sejumlah besar lukisan dinding (fresco) yang menggambarkan kisah-kisah Alkitab. Semua fresco ini dipamerkan di Museum Nasional Damaskus, Damaskus, Suriah.

Dura-Europas merupakan kota garisun dan perdagangan di tepi sungai Efrat, dan biasanya di batas antara Kekaisaran Romawi Timur dan Kekaisaran Parthia serta akhirnya Kekaisaran Sassaniyah dari Persia. Kota ini berpindah-pindah tangan beberapa kali tetapi dikuasai Kerajaan Romawi sejak tahun 165. Sebelum Persia menghancurkan kota ini pada tahun 256-257, sebagian sinagoge yang berbatasan dengan tembok utama kota ini tampaknya diambil alih dan ditimbun dengan pasir sebagai tindakan pertahanan. Kota ini ditinggalkan setelah direbut dan tidak pernah dihuni lagi. Tembok-tembok sebelah bawah dari kamar-kamarnya tetap terkubur dan masih utuh sampai diekskavasi. Sewaktu digali, juga ditemukan sejumlah lukisan dinding dari tempat ibadah Kristen dan Mithraisme, serta potongan teks Kristen dalam bahasa Ibrani.

Peristiwa di Dura[1]

~ 300 SM

Dura didirikan oleh Seleukia sebagai sebuah benteng

[+187 tahun]

~ 113 SM

Parthia merebut Dura

~ 65-19 SM

Tembok kota dibangun, termasuk sejumlah menara

[+80 tahun]

~ 33 SM

Dura menjadi suatu pusat administrasi provinsi dari Parthia

[+16 tahun]

c. 17-16 SM

Palmyrene Gate dibangun

[+133 tahun]

116 M

Trajan merebut Dura. Gerbang kemenangan dibangun

[+5 tahun]

121 M

Parthia merebut Dura kembali

[+39 years]

160 M

Gempa bumi

[+4 tahun]

164 M

Romawi di bawah Lucius Verus menguasai Dura kembali

~ 168-171 M

Mithraeum pertama kali dibangun

~ 165-200 M

Rumah diubah menjadi sinagoge

[+47 tahun]

'~ 211 M

Dura menjadi koloni Romawi

setelah 216 M

Tembok besar dibangun lebih tinggi

[+13 tahun]

~ 224 M

(Parthians defeated by Sassaniyah)

~ 232-256 M

Rumah diubah menjadi suatu kapel Kristen dan didekorasi

[+14 tahun]

238 M

Graffito (tulisan tembok) yang menyatakan "Orang Persia turun ke atas kita" ditulis

[+2 tahun]

~ 240 M

Mithraeum dibangun kembali

~ 244-254 M

Lukisan di sinagoge

[+13 tahun]

253 M

Serangan Sassaniyah pertama [2]

setelah 254 M

Defensive embankment dibangun untuk memperkuat tembok kota

[+3 tahun]

256-257 M

Dura direbut oleh pasukan raja Sassaniyah, Shapur I, yang mendeportasi penduduknyat[3]
"Palmyrene Gate", pintu masuk utama kota Dura Europos.

Asal mulanya sebuah benteng,[4] didirikakn pada tahun 303 SM dengan nama Dura oleh Kekaisaran Seleukia pada persimpangan jalur perdagangan timur-barat dan jalur perdagangan yang menyusuri sungai Efrat.[5] Dura mengontrol penyeberangan sungai pada jalur antara kota-kota yang baru didirikan, Antiokhia dan Seleucia on the Tigris. Pembangunannya kembali sebagai suatu kota besar mengikuti pola Hippodamia, dengan blok-blok persegi panjang dibatasi oleh jalan-jalan bersilangan melingkari suatu pusat agora besar, yang secara formal diletakkan pada abad ke-2 SM. Pandangan tradisional Dura-Europos sebagai suatu kota karavan besar menjadi berkembang setelah penemuan pabrik-pabrik lokal dan jejak-jejak hubungan erat dengan Palmyra (James). Sebaliknya, Dura Europos berkembang karena perannya sebagai ibu kota regional.[4]

Pada tahun 113 M, Kekaisaran Parthia dari Iran menguasai Dura-Europos, dan bertahan di sana, dengan satu jeda singkat, sampai tahun 165 M, ketika direbut oleh orang Romawi.[6][7][8][9][10] Periode Parthia merupakan suatu tahap perluasan di Dura Europos— suatu perluasan yang didorong oleh ditinggalkannya fungsi kota sebagai kota militer. Semua ruang yang tertutup tembok lambat laun dihuni, dan menetapnya penduduk baru dengan nama Semitik dan Iran bersama-sama keturunan penduduk koloni Makedonia asal menambah jumlah penduduk,[4] sehingga menjadi beragam budaya, sebagaimana dibuktikan dengan adanya prasasti-prasasti dalam bahasa Yunani, Latin, Aram, Ibrani, Suryani, Hatria, Palmyrene, Persia tengah, Parthia, dan Safaitik. Pada akhir abad ke-1 SM, menjadi benteng terdepan dari Kekaisaran Parthia.[11]


Arkeologi

[sunting | sunting sumber]
Foto ekskavasi dan sungai Efrat.

Keberadaan Dura-Europos sudah lama diketahui dari sumber literatur. Baru diketemukan kembali oleh "Wolfe Expedition" Amerika Serikat pada tahun 1885, ketika Palmyrene Gate difoto oleh John Henry Haynes.[12]

Tentara Britania di bawah Kapten Murphy setelah Perang Dunia I dan Revolusi Arab juga menyelidiki reruntuhan itu. Pada tanggal 30 Maret 1920, seorang prajurit menggali sebuah trench ketika menemukan suatu lukisan dinding segar dan indah. Arkeolog Amerika Serikat James Henry Breasted, ketika itu di Baghdad, segera dikabari. ekskavasi besar dilakukan pada tahun 1920-an dan 1930-an oleh tim Prancis dan Amerika Serikat. Arkeologi pertama mengenai situs itu, dilakukan oleh Franz Cumont dan dipublikasikan pada tahun 1922-23, mengidentifikasi situs itu dengan Dura-Europos, dan menemukan sebuah kuil, sebelum permusuhan berkembang lagi di daerah itu sehingga tertutup untuk arkeologi. Kemudian, penggalian dilakukan lagi di bawah Michael Rostovtzeff sampai tahun 1937, ketika dana habis dan hanya sebagian ekskavasi dipublikasikan serta pecahnya Perang Dunia II menghentikan pekerjaan. Sejak tahun 1986 ekskavasi dilanjutkan dengan upaya bersama Prancis-Suriah di bawah arahan Pierre Leriche.

Reruntuhan sinagoge
Halaman, lorong sebelah barat dan ruang doa pada reruntuhan sinagoge Dura-Europos.
Lukisan orang Filistin dan Tabut Perjanjian di sinagoge Dura-Europos.

Sinagoge Yahudi terletak pada tembok barat antara menara 18 dan 19. Tahap pembangunan terakhir diketahui tarikhnya dari suatu prasasti bahasa Aram, yaitu tahun 244. Merupakan yang terlestarikan paling baik di antara banyak sinagoge kuno dari zaman itu yang telah digali oleh para arkeolog. Pelestarian yang baik dikarenakan pengisian tanah pada bangunan itu untuk memperkuat pertahanan kota melawan serangan tentara Sassaniyah pada tahun 256. Diketemukan pada tahun 1932 oleh Clark Hopkins, yang mendapati adanya halaman depan dan rumah pertemuan dengan tembok yang dihiasi fresko menggambarkan orang dan binatang, serta sebuah tempat penyimpanan Taurat pada tembok sebelah barat yang menghadap Yerusalem. Pada awalnya dikira sebuah kuil Yunani. Lukisan pada sinagoge, suatu siklus cerita alkitabiah bersambungan tertua yang terlestarikan,[13] sekarang disimpan di Damaskus, bersama dengan sebuah perlengkapan senjata kuda Romawi lengkap.

Lukisan dari Kitab Ester di sinagoge Dura-Europos, tahun 244 M

Para pakar berpendapat bahwa lukisan-lukisan itu merupakan alat peraga untuk mengajar sejarah dan hukum agama Yahudi. Ada yang berpikir bahwa sinagoge itu diberi lukisan untuk bersaing dengan praktik keagamaan lain di Dura Europos; ada sebuah gereja Kristen yang lebih baru dan ukurannya lebih kecil tampaknya dibuka sesaat sebelum lukisan-lukisan yang ditemukan itu mulai dibuat di sinagoge. Seni lukis dalam skala besar di sinagoge mengejutkan banyak pakar, meskipun mereka sudah menduga bahwa ada tradisi seni agama naratif Yahudi pada periode ini, yang terhilang, dan meninggalkan bekas-bekas pada seni Kristen di kemudian hari. Penemuan sinagoge ini membantu menolak interpretasi sempit akan larangan membuat gambar visual yang menjadi sejarah lama Yudaisme.

Gereja rumah

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Ada juga bangunan yang diidentifikasi sebagai Gereja Dura-Europos, suatu gereja rumah Kristen tertua, terletak pada menara ke-17 dan dilestarikan oleh pengisian tanah untuk pertahanan yang sama dengan yang akhirnya melestarikan sinagoge. "Kehadiran mereka yang jelas terbuka dan ditoleransi di tengah suatu kota garnisun Romawi utama mengungkapkan bahwa sejarah Gereja mula-mula bukan hanya sekadar cerita penganiayaan pagan ".[14]

Fragmen-fragmen gulungan perkamen dengan tulisan Ibrani juga telah diketemukan; sukar diterjemahkan sampai J.L. Teicher menunjukkan bahwa itu merupakan doa Ekaristi Kristen, begitu dekat dengan doa-doa dalam Didache sehingga ia bisa mengisi kekosongan dari teks Didache.[15]

Pada tahun 1933, di antara fragmen-fragmen teks yang ditemukan dari sampah kota di luar Palmyrene Gate, sebuah teks terfragmentasi, yang sekarang disebut Dura Parchment 24, dikenali memuat harmoni Injil dalam bahasa Yunani — terkait dengan Diatessaron karya Tatian.

Keadaan terakhir

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Menurut foto satelit tahun 2015, lebih dari 70% lokasi Dura-Europos dihancurkan oleh penjarah selama Perang Saudara Suriah.[16]

National Geographic melaporkan bahwa penjarahan terus berlangsung dalam skala besar oleh grup teroris ISIS untuk mendapatkan dana bagi serangan penghancuran mereka di daerah itu.[17]

Budaya populer

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Fire in the East,[18] buku pertama dalam serial "Warrior of Rome" karya sarjana Oxford, Dr Harry Sidebottom, dipusatkan sekitar suatu penggambaran cermat pengepungan tentara Sassaniyah di Dura-Europos pada tahun 256 M, berdasarkan penemuan-penemuan arkeologi di situs itu, meskipun nama kota diubah menjadi "Arete."

Lihat pula

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Referensi

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  1. ^ Berdasarkan kronologi yang terdapat pada Hopkins, 1979, halaman 269-271.
  2. ^ Analisis lebih baru meragukan peristiwa ini. Lihat: David McDonald, "Dating the Fall of Dura-Europos", Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, V.35/1 (1986), pp.45-68.
  3. ^ McDonald, 1986, p.68, condong kepada kejatuhan pada tahun 257, berdasarkan tarikh akhir tahun pembuatan mata uang koin di Dura yang memuat tahun 256. Ia juga berpendapat bahwa suatu garnisun pasukan Sassaniyah mungkin tinggal di kota kira-kira setahun setelah penduduk setempat telah dideportasi.
  4. ^ a b c Pierre Leriche, D. N. MacKenzie, "Dura Europos", Encyclopaedia Iranica, December 15, 1996, last updated December 2, 2011.
  5. ^ "History of Dura Europos". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2009-01-23. Diakses tanggal 2018-03-12. 
  6. ^ Michael Ivanovitch Rostovtzeff. The Excavations at Dura-Europos, Volume 3, Part 1, Number 2 Yale University Press. p 288 (original from the University of Michigan)
  7. ^ Harald Ingholt. Palmyrene and Gandharan Sculpture: An Exhibition Illustrating the Cultural Interrelations Between the Parthian Empire and Its Neighbors West and East, Palmyra and Gandhara, Oct. 14 Through Nov. 14, 1954 Yale University Art Gallery, 1954. p 2
  8. ^ Minna Lönnqvist. Jebel Bishri in Context: Introduction to the Archaeological Studies and the Neighbourhood of Jebel Bishri in Central Syria: Proceedings of a Nordic Research Training Seminar in Syria, May 2004 Archaeopress, 2008 ISBN 978-1407303031 p 100 (original from the University of Michigan)
  9. ^ Ross Burns. Monuments of Syria: A Guide I.B.Tauris, 30 jun. 2009 ISBN 978-0857714893 p 149
  10. ^ F. Millar, "Dura-Europos under Parthian rule," in Das Partherreich und sein Zeugnisse/The Arsacid Empire: Sources and Documentation, J. Weisehöfer, ed. (Stuttgart) 1998
  11. ^ F. Millar, The Roman Near east, 31 BC-AD337 (Harvard University Press) 1993, pp 445-52, 467-72.
  12. ^ Ousterhout, Robert (2011). John Henry Haynes: A Photographer and Archaeologist in the Ottoman Empire 1881-1900. Istanbul: Kayık Yayıncılık. hlm. 41. 
  13. ^ Joseph Gutmann, "The Dura Europos Synagogue Paintings and Their Influence on Later Christian and Jewish Art" Artibus et Historiae 9'.17 (1988), pp. 25-29. Gutmann concluded that in their brief visible career the paintings had not had an appreeciable effect on later paintings.
  14. ^ Simon James, from his webpage [1] Diarsipkan 2009-01-23 di Wayback Machine..
  15. ^ J.L. Teicher, "Ancient Eucharistic Prayers in Hebrew (Dura-Europos Parchment D. Pg. 25)" The Jewish Quarterly Review New Series 54.2 (October 1963), pp. 99-109.
  16. ^ Amos, Deborah; Meuse, Alison (10 March 2015). "Via Satellite, Tracking The Plunder Of Middle East Cultural History". NPR. Diakses tanggal 19 January 2016. 
  17. ^ [2]
  18. ^ Sidebottom, Harry (September 6, 2017). "Fire in the East". Amazon.co.uk. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-01-27. 
  • Dirven, L.A. 1999 The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria (Leiden: Brill).
  • Hopkins, C, 1979 The Discovery of Dura Europos, (New Haven and London).
  • Rostovtzeff, M.I., 1938. Dura-Europos and Its Art (Oxford University Press).
  • Cumont, Franz; Francis, Eric David, ed., trans. (1975), "The Dura Mithraeum", dalam Hinnells, John R., Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Manchester UP, hlm. I.151–214 .
  • Francis, Eric David (1975b), "Mithraic graffiti from Dura-Europos", dalam Hinnells, John R., Mithraic studies: Proceedings of the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Manchester UP, hlm. II.424–445 .
  • Young, Penny, 2014 Dura Europos A City for Everyman, Twopenny Press

Pustaka tambahan

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Pranala luar

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