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[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib Keltik di Knock, Irlandia.]]
[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib Keltik di Knock, Irlandia.]]
'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal]].<ref name="Koch431">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=431}}</ref> "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "'''Gereja Kelt'''" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik "Roma"]], sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=431–432}}</ref> Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.<ref name="Corning18">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=18}}</ref> Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik [[Tonsur|mencukur ubun-ubun (tonsur)]], sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai [[Penitensi|penebusan dosa]], dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".<ref name=Corning18/> Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau [[Pulau Irlandia|Irlandia]], tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.
'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal]].<ref name="Koch431">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=431}}</ref> "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "'''Gereja Kelt'''" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik "Roma"]], sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=431–432}}</ref> Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.<ref name="Corning18">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=18}}</ref> Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik [[Tonsur|mencukur ubun-ubun (tonsur)]], sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai [[Penitensi|penebusan dosa]], dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".<ref name=Corning18/> Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau [[Pulau Irlandia|Irlandia]], tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.


Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari mainstream [[Dunia Kristiani|Kristen]] Barat.<ref>{{harvnb|Ó Cróinín|1995}}; {{harvnb|Charles-Edwards|2000}}; {{harvnb|Davies|1992|pp=12–21}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|1981|pp=1–20}}; Kathleen Hughes, ''The Church in Early English Society'' (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, ''The Celtic Church'' (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).</ref> Yang lain lebih memilih istilah "Kekristenan Insuler".<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2003|pp=16, 51, 129, 132}}</ref> Sebagaimana Patrick Wormald menjelaskan, "salah satu kesalahpahaman umum adalah bahwa ada suatu 'Gereja Romawi' yang ditentang secara nasional oleh bangsa 'Kelt'."<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|p=207}}</ref> Di Jerman, digunakan istilah "Iroschottisch", di mana von Lutz Padberg menempatkannya juga pada dikotomi antara Kekristenan Irlandia-Skotlandia dan Kekristenan Romawi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0HFQAAACAAJ|title=Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter|last=Padberg|first=Lutz von|publisher=Reclam|year=1998|isbn=9783150170151|author-link=Lutz von Padberg}}</ref> Wilayah berbahasa Keltik adalah bagian dari Kekristenan Latin secara keseluruhan pada suatu waktu di mana tidak ada variasi regional dari liturgi dan struktur yang signifikan dengan penghormatan kolektif secara umum bagi [[Paus (Gereja Katolik)|Uskup Roma]] yang sama kuatnya di daerah berbahasa Keltik.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharpe|1984|pp=230-270}}; {{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=207–208, 220 n. 3}}</ref>
Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari arus utama [[Dunia Kristiani|Kristen]] Barat.<ref>{{harvnb|Ó Cróinín|1995}}; {{harvnb|Charles-Edwards|2000}}; {{harvnb|Davies|1992|pp=12–21}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|1981|pp=1–20}}; Kathleen Hughes, ''The Church in Early English Society'' (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, ''The Celtic Church'' (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).</ref> yang lain lebih memilih istilah "Kekristenan Insuler".<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2003|pp=16, 51, 129, 132}}</ref> Sebagaimana Patrick Wormald menjelaskan, "salah satu kesalahpahaman umum adalah bahwa ada suatu 'Gereja Romawi' yang ditentang secara nasional oleh bangsa 'Kelt'."<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|p=207}}</ref> Di Jerman, digunakan istilah "''Iroschottisch''", di mana von Lutz Padberg menempatkannya juga pada dikotomi antara Kekristenan Irlandia-Skotlandia dan Kekristenan Romawi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0HFQAAACAAJ|title=Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter|last=Padberg|first=Lutz von|publisher=Reclam|year=1998|isbn=9783150170151|author-link=Lutz von Padberg}}</ref> Wilayah berbahasa Keltik adalah bagian dari Kekristenan Latin secara keseluruhan pada suatu waktu di mana tidak ada variasi regional dari liturgi dan struktur yang signifikan dengan penghormatan kolektif secara umum bagi [[Paus (Gereja Katolik)|Uskup Roma]] yang sama kuatnya di daerah berbahasa Keltik.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharpe|1984|pp=230-270}}; {{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=207–208, 220 n. 3}}</ref>


Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick]] yang berasal dari Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=223–224 n. 1}}</ref> Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.
Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick]] yang berasal dari Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=223–224 n. 1}}</ref> Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.
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The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as [[Tertullian]] and [[Origen]] in the first years of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]], although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier.
The earliest certain historical evidence of Christianity among the [[Celtic Britons|Britons]] is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as [[Tertullian]] and [[Origen]] in the first years of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]], although the first Christian communities probably were established at least some decades earlier.


Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, [[Roman legion]]aries and immigrants introduced other cults such as [[Mithraism]]. At various times, the Christians risked [[Roman persecutions|persecution]], although the earliest known [[Christian martyrs]] in Britain&mdash;[[Saint Alban]] and "[[Amphibalus]]"&mdash;probably lived in the early [[4th century]].{{efn|The date of Alban's execution has been a subject of discussion among historians with [[John Morris (historian)|John Morris]] proposing that it took place during the persecutions of Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] as early as 209.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.roca.org/OA/35/35e.htm | work = Orthodoxy's Western Heritage | title = St. Alban the Martyr}}</ref> The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' lists the year 283,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=James |editor1-last=Ingram |editor2-first=J.A. |editor2-last=Giles |orig-year=1847 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt | title = Anglo-Saxon Chronicles | publisher = [[Project Gutenburg]] }}</ref> and [[Venerable Bede|Bede]] places it in 305. Still others argue that sometime during the persecutors [[Decius]] or [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (251-259) is more likely.}} [[Julius and Aaron]], citizens of [[Caerleon]], were said to have been martyred during the [[Diocletianic Persecution]], although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the [[folk etymology]] of [[Lichfield]] as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42340|title=Explaining the origin of the 'field of the dead' legend |publisher= British History Online |accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref>
Initially, Christianity was but one of a number of religions: in addition to the native and syncretic local forms of paganism, [[Roman legion]]aries and immigrants introduced other cults such as [[Mithraism]]. At various times, the Christians risked [[Roman persecutions|persecution]], although the earliest known [[Christian martyrs]] in Britain—[[Saint Alban]] and "[[Amphibalus]]"—probably lived in the early [[4th century]].{{efn|The date of Alban's execution has been a subject of discussion among historians with [[John Morris (historian)|John Morris]] proposing that it took place during the persecutions of Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] as early as 209.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.roca.org/OA/35/35e.htm | work = Orthodoxy's Western Heritage | title = St. Alban the Martyr}}</ref> The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' lists the year 283,<ref>{{cite book |editor1-first=James |editor1-last=Ingram |editor2-first=J.A. |editor2-last=Giles |orig-year=1847 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt | title = Anglo-Saxon Chronicles | publisher = [[Project Gutenburg]] }}</ref> and [[Venerable Bede|Bede]] places it in 305. Still others argue that sometime during the persecutors [[Decius]] or [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (251-259) is more likely.}} [[Julius and Aaron]], citizens of [[Caerleon]], were said to have been martyred during the [[Diocletianic Persecution]], although there is no textual or archaeological evidence to support the [[folk etymology]] of [[Lichfield]] as deriving from another thousand martyrs during the same years.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=42340|title=Explaining the origin of the 'field of the dead' legend |publisher= British History Online |accessdate=20 November 2008}}</ref>


[[Christianization]] intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under [[Constantine the Great]] in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] bishops, including [[metropolitan bishop|Archbishop]]&nbsp;[[Restitutus]] of [[Bishop of London|London]], are known to have been present at the [[Synod of Arles]] in 314.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/1640/1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london |last=Williams |first=Rowan |author-link=Rowan Williams |date=22 May 2004 |title=1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London |website=Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury }}</ref> Others attended the [[Council of Serdica]] in 347 and that of [[Council of Ariminum]] in 360. A number of references to the church in [[Roman Britain]] are also found in the writings of [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th-century]] Christian fathers. Britain was the home of [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]], who opposed [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrine of [[original sin]]; [[Germanus of Auxerre|St&nbsp;Germanus]] was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated [[Pelagianism|his heresy]].
[[Christianization]] intensified with the legalisation of the Christian religion under [[Constantine the Great]] in the early 4th century and its promotion by subsequent Christian emperors. Three [[Romano-British culture|Romano-British]] bishops, including [[metropolitan bishop|Archbishop]]&nbsp;[[Restitutus]] of [[Bishop of London|London]], are known to have been present at the [[Synod of Arles]] in 314.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rowanwilliams.archbishopofcanterbury.org/articles.php/1640/1400th-anniversary-of-the-re-organisation-of-the-diocese-of-london |last=Williams |first=Rowan |author-link=Rowan Williams |date=22 May 2004 |title=1400th anniversary of the re-organisation of the Diocese of London |website=Dr Rowan Williams: 104th Archbishop of Canterbury }}</ref> Others attended the [[Council of Serdica]] in 347 and that of [[Council of Ariminum]] in 360. A number of references to the church in [[Roman Britain]] are also found in the writings of [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th-century]] Christian fathers. Britain was the home of [[Pelagius (British monk)|Pelagius]], who opposed [[Augustine of Hippo]]'s doctrine of [[original sin]]; [[Germanus of Auxerre|St&nbsp;Germanus]] was said to have visited the island in part to oppose the bishops who advocated [[Pelagianism|his heresy]].


Around 367, the [[Great Conspiracy]] saw the troops along [[Hadrian's Wall]] mutiny, allowing and even joining the [[Picts]] in overrunning the northern areas of Roman Britain in concert with [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by [[Theodosius the Elder]] the next year, but many [[Romano-Britons]] had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine&nbsp;III]] declared himself "emperor of the West" and [[Roman withdrawal from Britain|withdrew his legions]] to [[Gaul]]. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Zosimus]] ({{circa|lk=no|500}}) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defense against [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Saxon invasion of Britain|Saxon raids and invasions]] caused the Britons and [[Gauls]] to fully revolt from the [[Roman Empire]], rejecting [[Roman law]] and reverting to [[Celtic law|their native customs]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Christopher A.|author-link=Christopher Snyder|year=1998|title=An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D.&nbsp;400–600|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|publication-date=1998|publication-place=University Park|page=22|isbn=0-271-01780-5}}</ref> In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the [[Visigoths]]' [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the capital]] in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread [[Saxon invasions of Britain|Saxon immigration]] to [[Hengist and Horsa|mercenaries]] hired by the British king [[Vortigern]]. The Saxon communities followed [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|a form of Germanic paganism]], driving Christian Britons back to [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Brittany]] or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence.
Around 367, the [[Great Conspiracy]] saw the troops along [[Hadrian's Wall]] mutiny, allowing and even joining the [[Picts]] in overrunning the northern areas of Roman Britain in concert with [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] attacks on the coast. The Roman provinces seem to have been retaken by [[Theodosius the Elder]] the next year, but many [[Romano-Britons]] had already been killed or taken as slaves. In 407, [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine&nbsp;III]] declared himself "emperor of the West" and [[Roman withdrawal from Britain|withdrew his legions]] to [[Gaul]]. The [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] historian [[Zosimus]] ({{circa|lk=no|500}}) stated that Constantine's neglect of the area's defense against [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] and [[Saxon invasion of Britain|Saxon raids and invasions]] caused the Britons and [[Gauls]] to fully revolt from the [[Roman Empire]], rejecting [[Roman law]] and reverting to [[Celtic law|their native customs]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Snyder|first=Christopher A.|author-link=Christopher Snyder|year=1998|title=An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D.&nbsp;400–600|url=https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|publication-date=1998|publication-place=University Park|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageoftyrantsbrit0000snyd/page/22 22]|isbn=0-271-01780-5}}</ref> In any case, Roman authority was greatly weakened following the [[Visigoths]]' [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of the capital]] in 410. Medieval legend attributed widespread [[Saxon invasions of Britain|Saxon immigration]] to [[Hengist and Horsa|mercenaries]] hired by the British king [[Vortigern]]. The Saxon communities followed [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|a form of Germanic paganism]], driving Christian Britons back to [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Brittany]] or subjugating them under kingdoms with no formal church presence.


[[Sub-Roman Britain|5th and 6th-century Britain]], although poorly attested, saw the "Age of [[list of Welsh saints|Saints]]" among the Welsh.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas |first=Jeffrey L. |url=http://www.castlewales.com/saints.html |title=The Age of Saints |website=The Castles of Wales |date=2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref> [[Saint Dubric]], [[Saint Illtud]], and others first completed the [[Christianity in Wales|Christianization of Wales]]. Unwilling or unable to [[mission (Christianity)|missionize]] among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as [[Saint Patrick]]{{efn|Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|St&nbsp;Palladius]], a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by [[Pope Celestine I]].}} and [[Finnian of Clonard]] were then responsible for the [[Christianity in Ireland|Christianization of Ireland]]<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=41}}</ref> and made up the [[seven founder saints of Brittany|Seven Founder Saints]] of [[History of Christianity in Brittany|Brittany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=26}}</ref> The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. [[Saint Columba|St&nbsp;Columba]]&mdash;then began the conversion of the [[Dál Riata#Religion and art|Dál Riata]] and the other peoples of [[History of Christianity in Scotland|Scotland]], although native saints such as [[Saint Mungo|Mungo]] also arose. The history of [[Christianity in Cornwall]] is more obscure, but the native church seems to have been greatly strengthened by Welsh and Irish missionaries such as SS&nbsp;[[Saint Petroc|Petroc]], [[Saint Piran|Piran]], and [[Saint Breaca|Breaca]]. Extreme weather (as [[extreme weather events of 535–536|around 535]]) and the attendant famines and disease, particularly the arrival of the [[Plague of Justinian]] in Wales around 547 and Ireland around 548, may have contributed to these missionary efforts.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=310–311}}</ref>
[[Sub-Roman Britain|5th and 6th-century Britain]], although poorly attested, saw the "Age of [[list of Welsh saints|Saints]]" among the Welsh.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thomas |first=Jeffrey L. |url=http://www.castlewales.com/saints.html |title=The Age of Saints |website=The Castles of Wales |date=2009 |access-date=6 February 2015 }}</ref> [[Saint Dubric]], [[Saint Illtud]], and others first completed the [[Christianity in Wales|Christianization of Wales]]. Unwilling or unable to [[mission (Christianity)|missionize]] among the Saxons in England, Briton refugees and missionaries such as [[Saint Patrick]]{{efn|Note, however, that many events of Patrick's hagiographies may have originally intended the earlier [[Palladius (bishop of Ireland)|St&nbsp;Palladius]], a Gaul dispatched to Ireland by [[Pope Celestine I]].}} and [[Finnian of Clonard]] were then responsible for the [[Christianity in Ireland|Christianization of Ireland]]<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=41}}</ref> and made up the [[seven founder saints of Brittany|Seven Founder Saints]] of [[History of Christianity in Brittany|Brittany]].<ref>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=26}}</ref> The Irish in turn made Christians of the Picts and English. [[Saint Columba|St&nbsp;Columba]]—then began the conversion of the [[Dál Riata#Religion and art|Dál Riata]] and the other peoples of [[History of Christianity in Scotland|Scotland]], although native saints such as [[Saint Mungo|Mungo]] also arose. The history of [[Christianity in Cornwall]] is more obscure, but the native church seems to have been greatly strengthened by Welsh and Irish missionaries such as SS&nbsp;[[Saint Petroc|Petroc]], [[Saint Piran|Piran]], and [[Saint Breaca|Breaca]]. Extreme weather (as [[extreme weather events of 535–536|around 535]]) and the attendant famines and disease, particularly the arrival of the [[Plague of Justinian]] in Wales around 547 and Ireland around 548, may have contributed to these missionary efforts.<ref>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=310–311}}</ref>


The title of "[[Christian Saint|Saint]]" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of Gerald of Mayo's presiding over 3300 "Saints" and Welsh claims that [[Bardsey Island]] held the remains of {{nowrap|20&thinsp;000}}.{{efn|The [[Bollandists]] compiling the ''[[Acta Sanctorum]]'' were even driven to complain of the Irish "canonising dead men in troops whenever they seemed to be somewhat better than usual".<ref>Quoted translated from the Latin in {{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=39}}</ref>}} More often, the title was given to the founder of any ecclesiastical settlement, which would thenceforth be known as their ''[[llan (placename)|llan]]''. Such communities were organized on tribal models: founding saints were almost invariably lesser members of local dynasties, they were not infrequently married, and their successors were often chosen from among their kin.<ref name=sabi/> In the [[6th century]], the "[[Welsh Triads|Three Saintly Families of Wales]]"&mdash;those of the invading [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] Brychan and [[Hen Ogledd]]'s [[Cunedda Wledig]] and [[Caw of Strathclyde]]&mdash;displaced many of the local [[Siluria]]n rulers in favor of their own families and clans.<ref name=sabi>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|pp=30-40}}</ref> By some estimates,<ref>{{cite web |first=Rowan |last=Williams |url=http://www.walesbooks.com/reviews1.php |title=Reviews and comments on ''The Book of Welsh Saints'' }}</ref> these traditions produced over 800 [[pre-congregational saint]]s that were venerated locally in Wales, but invasions by [[Saxon invasions of Wales|Saxons]], [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irishmen]], [[Viking invasions of Wales|Vikings]], [[Norman invasion of Wales|Normans]], and others destroyed many ecclesiastical records. Similarly, the distance from Rome, hostility to native practices and cults, and relative unimportance of the local sees has left only two local Welsh saints in the [[General Roman Calendar]]: Saints [[Saint David|David]] and [[Saint Winifred|Winifred]].
The title of "[[Christian Saint|Saint]]" was used quite broadly by British, Irish, and English Christians. Extreme cases are Irish accounts of Gerald of Mayo's presiding over 3300 "Saints" and Welsh claims that [[Bardsey Island]] held the remains of {{nowrap|20 000}}.{{efn|The [[Bollandists]] compiling the ''[[Acta Sanctorum]]'' were even driven to complain of the Irish "canonising dead men in troops whenever they seemed to be somewhat better than usual".<ref>Quoted translated from the Latin in {{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|p=39}}</ref>}} More often, the title was given to the founder of any ecclesiastical settlement, which would thenceforth be known as their ''[[llan (placename)|llan]]''. Such communities were organized on tribal models: founding saints were almost invariably lesser members of local dynasties, they were not infrequently married, and their successors were often chosen from among their kin.<ref name=sabi/> In the [[6th century]], the "[[Welsh Triads|Three Saintly Families of Wales]]"—those of the invading [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irish]] Brychan and [[Hen Ogledd]]'s [[Cunedda Wledig]] and [[Caw of Strathclyde]]—displaced many of the local [[Siluria]]n rulers in favor of their own families and clans.<ref name=sabi>{{harvnb|Baring-Gould|1898|pp=30-40}}</ref> By some estimates,<ref>{{cite web |first=Rowan |last=Williams |url=http://www.walesbooks.com/reviews1.php |title=Reviews and comments on ''The Book of Welsh Saints'' }}</ref> these traditions produced over 800 [[pre-congregational saint]]s that were venerated locally in Wales, but invasions by [[Saxon invasions of Wales|Saxons]], [[Irish invasions of Wales|Irishmen]], [[Viking invasions of Wales|Vikings]], [[Norman invasion of Wales|Normans]], and others destroyed many ecclesiastical records. Similarly, the distance from Rome, hostility to native practices and cults, and relative unimportance of the local sees has left only two local Welsh saints in the [[General Roman Calendar]]: Saints [[Saint David|David]] and [[Saint Winifred|Winifred]].


Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the ''[[computus]]'' of [[Easter controversy|Easter]], as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity:<ref name=Lloyd175176>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=175–177}}</ref> the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while others continued to solemnly observe [[Lent]].{{efn|Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King [[Oswiu of Northumbria]], whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=176}} and note.</ref>}} [[Christian monasticism|Monasticism]] spread widely; the [[Llandaff Charters]] record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the ''[[clasau]]'' were rather modest affairs, great [[monasteries]] and [[monastic schools]] also developed at [[Llantwit Major]] (''{{lang|cy|Llanilltud Fawr}}''), [[Bangor Cathedral#History|Bangor]], and [[Iona#History|Iona]]. The [[tonsure]] differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century),<ref name=powys>{{cite web |url=http://history.powys.org.uk/history/common/early1.html |title=Early Christianity in Wales |website=Powys Digital History Project }}</ref> and illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priest but not an established [[parish]] system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.<ref name=powys/>
Insular Christianity developed distinct traditions and practices, most pointedly concerning the ''[[computus]]'' of [[Easter controversy|Easter]], as it produced the most obvious signs of disunity:<ref name=Lloyd175176>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=175–177}}</ref> the old and new methods did not usually agree, causing Christians following one system to begin celebrating the feast of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] while others continued to solemnly observe [[Lent]].{{efn|Indeed, this is noted as occurring in the household of King [[Oswiu of Northumbria]], whose kingdom had been evangelised by both Irish and Roman missionaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=176}} and note.</ref>}} [[Christian monasticism|Monasticism]] spread widely; the [[Llandaff Charters]] record over fifty religious foundations in southeast Wales alone. Although the ''[[clasau]]'' were rather modest affairs, great [[monasteries]] and [[monastic schools]] also developed at [[Llantwit Major]] (''{{lang|cy|Llanilltud Fawr}}''), [[Bangor Cathedral#History|Bangor]], and [[Iona#History|Iona]]. The [[tonsure]] differed from that elsewhere and also became a point of contention. A distinction that became increasingly important was the nature of church organisation: some monasteries were led by married clergy, inheritance of religious offices was common (in Wales, as late as the 12th century),<ref name=powys>{{cite web |url=http://history.powys.org.uk/history/common/early1.html |title=Early Christianity in Wales |website=Powys Digital History Project }}</ref> and illegitimacy was treated much more leniently with fathers simply needing to acknowledge the child for him to inherit an equal share with his brothers. Prior to their conquest by England, most churches have records of bishops and priest but not an established [[parish]] system. Pre-conquest, most Christians would not attend regular services but relied on members of the monastic communities who would occasionally make preaching tours through the area.<ref name=powys/>
Baris 36: Baris 36:
====Wales====
====Wales====
<!--{{see also|List of Welsh saints}}
<!--{{see also|List of Welsh saints}}
At the end of the 6th century, [[Pope Gregory I]] dispatched a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] under [[Augustine of Canterbury]] to convert the [[Anglo-Saxons]], establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the [[metropolitan bishop]] over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences&mdash;known as the [[Synod of Chester]]&mdash;that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The [[Northumbria]]n cleric [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site on the border of the [[Kingdom of Kent]] that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' [[Easter controversy|obsolete method for calculating Easter]]; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly.<ref name=Lloyd174175>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=174–175}}</ref> Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking outrage. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.<ref name=Lloyd174175/> [[John Edward Lloyd]] argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with Anglo-Saxon Kent.<ref name=Lloyd177>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=177}}</ref>
At the end of the 6th century, [[Pope Gregory I]] dispatched a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] under [[Augustine of Canterbury]] to convert the [[Anglo-Saxons]], establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the [[metropolitan bishop]] over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences—known as the [[Synod of Chester]]—that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The [[Northumbria]]n cleric [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site on the border of the [[Kingdom of Kent]] that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' [[Easter controversy|obsolete method for calculating Easter]]; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly.<ref name=Lloyd174175>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=174–175}}</ref> Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking outrage. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.<ref name=Lloyd174175/> [[John Edward Lloyd]] argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with Anglo-Saxon Kent.<ref name=Lloyd177>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=177}}</ref>


The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[Yusuf Arimatea]] in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at [[Diocese of St David's|St David's]], [[Diocese of Llandaff|Llandaff]], and [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]]. It was not until the death of [[Bishop of St Davids|Bishop]] [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bernard]] ({{circa|lk=no|1147}}) that St&nbsp;Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the [[Province of Canterbury]], by which point the popularity of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s pseudohistorical ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] and followers of [[John Wycliffe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=B. |date=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=0-345-34957-1 }}</ref> as well as by English Catholics during the [[English Reformation]]. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in [[William Blake]]'s 1804 poem "[[And did those feet in ancient time]]". The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by [[Hubert Parry]] as the well-known hymn or anthem "Jerusalem".
The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[Yusuf Arimatea]] in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at [[Diocese of St David's|St David's]], [[Diocese of Llandaff|Llandaff]], and [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]]. It was not until the death of [[Bishop of St Davids|Bishop]] [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bernard]] ({{circa|lk=no|1147}}) that St&nbsp;Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the [[Province of Canterbury]], by which point the popularity of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s pseudohistorical ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] and followers of [[John Wycliffe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=B. |date=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=0-345-34957-1 }}</ref> as well as by English Catholics during the [[English Reformation]]. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in [[William Blake]]'s 1804 poem "[[And did those feet in ancient time]]". The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by [[Hubert Parry]] as the well-known hymn or anthem "Jerusalem".
Baris 111: Baris 111:
The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433/>
The focus on powerful abbots and monasteries was limited to the Irish Church, however, and not in Britain. The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433/>


Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of [[St. Brigid]] and [[St. Columba]].<ref name="de Paor 1958">{{cite book|last1=de Paor|first1=Máire|last2=de Paor|first2=Liam|title=Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places|year=1958|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
Irish monasticism was notable for its permeability. In permeable monasticism, people were able to move freely in and out of the monastic system at different points of life. Young boys and girls would enter the system to pursue Latin scholarship. Students would sometimes travel from faraway lands to enter the Irish monasteries. When these students became adults, they would leave the monastery to live out their lives. Eventually, these people would retire back to secure community provided by the monastery and stay until their death. However, some would stay within the monastery and become leaders. Since most of the clergy were Irish, native traditions were well-respected. Permeable monasticism popularised the use of vernacular and helped mesh the norms of secular and monastic element in Ireland, unlike other parts of Europe where monasteries were more isolated. Examples of these intertwining motifs can be seen in the hagiographies of [[St. Brigid]] and [[St. Columba]].<ref name="de Paor 1958">{{cite book|last1=de Paor|first1=Máire|last2=de Paor|first2=Liam|title=Early Christian Ireland: Ancient Peoples and Places|url=https://archive.org/details/earlychristianir00depa|year=1958|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}


This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education, without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.<ref name="de Paor 1958"/>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
This willingness to learn, and also to teach, was a hallmark of the "permeable monasticism" that so characterised the Irish monastery. While a hermitage was still the highest form of dedication, the monasteries were very open to allowing students and children within the walls for an education, without requiring them to become monks. These students were then allowed to leave and live within the community, and were welcomed back in their old age to retire in peace. This style of monasticism allowed for the monastery to connect with, and become a part of, the community at large. The availability of the monks to the people was instrumental in converting Ireland from paganism to Christianity, allowing a blend of the two cultures.<ref name="de Paor 1958"/>{{Page needed|date=May 2017}}
Baris 185: Baris 185:
* {{cite book |title=Annales Cambriae |editor-first=John |editor-last=Williams |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts |date=1860 |url=https://archive.org/details/annalescambriae00willgoog |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |title=Annales Cambriae |editor-first=John |editor-last=Williams |location=London |publisher=Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts |date=1860 |url=https://archive.org/details/annalescambriae00willgoog |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Bede |title=Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum |series=Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |location=Oxonii |publisher=E Typographeo Clarendoniano |date=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/historiamecclesi02bedeuoft |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Bede |title=Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum |series=Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica |editor-first=Charles |editor-last=Plummer |location=Oxonii |publisher=E Typographeo Clarendoniano |date=1896 |url=https://archive.org/details/historiamecclesi02bedeuoft |via=Internet Archive }}
* {{cite book |author=Cummian |title=De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi |editor1-first=Maura |editor1-last=Walsh |editor2-first=Dáibhí |editor2-last=Ó Cróinín |editor2-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |location=Toronto |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |date=1988 |pages=93-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Cummian |title=De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi |editor1-first=Maura |editor1-last=Walsh |editor2-first=Dáibhí |editor2-last=Ó Cróinín |<!--editor2-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín -->|location=Toronto |publisher=Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies |date=1988 |pages=93-5 }}
* {{cite book |author=Gildas |title=De Excidio Brittaniae |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |editor-link=J. A. Giles |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |author=Gildas |title=De Excidio Brittaniae |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |<!--editor-link=J. A. Giles--> |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Historia Brittonum |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Historia Brittonum |editor-first=J.A. |editor-last=Giles |series=Six Old English Chronicles |location=London |date=1848 }}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Handbooks of Penance |editor1-first=John T. |editor1-last=McNeill |editor2-first=Helena M. |editor2-last=Gamer |location=New York |publisher=Columba University Press |date=1938 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |title=Medieval Handbooks of Penance |url=https://archive.org/details/medievalhandbook0000mcne_b0u4 |editor1-first=John T. |editor1-last=McNeill |editor2-first=Helena M. |editor2-last=Gamer |location=New York |publisher=Columba University Press |date=1938 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |author=Patrick (Saint) |title=Confessio |editor-first=John |editor-last=Skinner |translator=John Skinner |publisher=Image |date=1998 }}
* {{cite book |author=Patrick (Saint) |title=Confessio |editor-first=John |editor-last=Skinner |translator=John Skinner |publisher=Image |date=1998 }}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |title=The Lives of the British Saints |date=1907 }} Scanned by Google; [http://www.celticchristianity.infinitesoulutions.com/saints_alpha.html alphabetized].
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |title=The Lives of the British Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/b3136035x_0001 |date=1907 }} Scanned by Google; [http://www.celticchristianity.infinitesoulutions.com/saints_alpha.html menurut abjad].
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Baris 196: Baris 196:
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofsaints16bari |title=The Lives of the Saints |volume=16 |chapter=The Celtic Church and its Saints |publisher=Longmans, Green, & Co. |location=New York |date=1898 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Baring-Gould |first=Sabine |url=https://archive.org/details/livesofsaints16bari |title=The Lives of the Saints |volume=16 |chapter=The Celtic Church and its Saints |publisher=Longmans, Green, & Co. |location=New York |date=1898 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last= Bradley |first= Ian |authorlink=Ian Bradley |title= Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x9pjqsKAG4AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate= 9 May 2013 |year= 1999 |publisher= Edinburgh University Press |location= |isbn= 0-7486-1047-2 |page= |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last= Bradley |first= Ian |3= |title= Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=x9pjqsKAG4AC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |accessdate= 9 May 2013 |year= 1999 |publisher= Edinburgh University Press |location= |isbn= 0-7486-1047-2 |page= |ref= harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2003 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Peter |authorlink=Peter Brown (historian) |title=The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofwesternchr0002brow |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2003 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Charles-Edwards |first=T.M. |title=Early Christian Ireland |publisher=Cambridge |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Charles-Edwards |first=T.M. |title=Early Christian Ireland |publisher=Cambridge |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Caitlin Corning |last=Corning |first=Caitlin |title= The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year= 2006 |isbn=1-4039-7299-0 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Caitlin Corning |last=Corning |first=Caitlin |title= The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church| publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year= 2006 |isbn=1-4039-7299-0 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ó Cróinín |first=Dáibhí |authorlink=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |title=Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200 |location=London |date=1995 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ó Cróinín |first=Dáibhí |authorlink=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |title=Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200 |location=London |date=1995 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Wendy |chapter=The Myth of the Celtic Church |title=The Early Church in Wales and the West |series=Oxbow Monograph |volume=16 |editor1-first=Nancy |editor1-last=Edwards |editor2-first=Alan |editor2-last=Lane |pages=12-21 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Davies |first=Wendy |chapter=The Myth of the Celtic Church |title=The Early Church in Wales and the West |series=Oxbow Monograph |volume=16 |editor1-first=Nancy |editor1-last=Edwards |editor2-first=Alan |editor2-last=Lane |pages=12-21 |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxbow |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Flechner |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Meeder |editor2-first=Sven| title=The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion|url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U5wmDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |year= 2016|location=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137430595 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Flechner |editor-first=Roy |editor2-last=Meeder |editor2-first=Sven |title=The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=U5wmDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |year=2016 |location=London |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9781137430595 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Herren|first1=Michael W.|last2=Brown|first2= Shirley Ann|authorlink= |title=Christ in Celtic Christianity |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |year=2002 |isbn=0-85115-889-7 |url={{google books|ZFqNUMa8bfYC|plainurl=yes}} |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Herren|first1=Michael W.|last2=Brown|first2= Shirley Ann|authorlink= |title=Christ in Celtic Christianity |publisher=Boydell Press |location=Woodbridge |year=2002 |isbn=0-85115-889-7 |url={{google books|ZFqNUMa8bfYC|plainurl=yes}} |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite book|author-link=Kathleen Hughes (historian) |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975 |journal=[[Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies]] |volume=1 |year=1981 |pages=1–20 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Kathleen Hughes (historian) |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975 |journal=[[Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies]] |volume=1 |year=1981 |pages=1–20 |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite book|last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Church in Early Irish Society |location=London |publisher=Methuen |year=1966|isbn=1-59740-067-X |oclc=711797907 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |title=The Church in Early Irish Society |location=London |publisher=Methuen |year=1966|isbn=1-59740-067-X |oclc=711797907 |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |editor-last=Ó Cróinín |editor-first= Dáibhí |editor-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |year=2005 |title=The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800|encyclopedia= A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland|publisher= Oxford University Press |volume= |isbn=978-0-19-922665-8|issue= |pages= |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DgqOOkVrofcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false|doi=|ref=harv}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=SJSDj1dDvNUC&pg=PA301&dq=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society+Hughes&ei=JDdIStbSDImSyASz0Mld Google Books link 2]
* {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hughes |first=Kathleen |editor-last=Ó Cróinín |editor-first=Dáibhí |editor-link=Dáibhí Ó Cróinín |year=2005 |title=The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800 |encyclopedia=A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume= |isbn=978-0-19-922665-8 |issue= |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DgqOOkVrofcC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |doi= |ref=harv }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=SJSDj1dDvNUC&pg=PA301&dq=The+Church+in+Early+Irish+Society+Hughes&ei=JDdIStbSDImSyASz0Mld Google Books link 2]
*{{cite book |last=John |first=Eric |authorlink=Eric John |chapter=The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church |title=Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings |editor-first=David A. E. |editor-last=Pelteret |location=New York |publisher=Garland Publishing |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=John |first=Eric |authorlink=Eric John |chapter=The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church |title=Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings |editor-first=David A. E. |editor-last=Pelteret |location=New York |publisher=Garland Publishing |date=2000 |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite book|last= Koch|first= John T.|coauthors= |title= Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia| publisher= ABC-CLIO|year=2006 |isbn= |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last= Koch|first= John T.|coauthors= |title= Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia| publisher= ABC-CLIO|year=2006 |isbn= |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite book|title=A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest|last= Lloyd|first= John Edward|authorlink= John Edward Lloyd|coauthors= |year= 1912|publisher= Longmans, Green, and Co.|location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= https://books.google.com/?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lloyd+history+of+Wales#v=onepage&q= |accessdate=17 May 2010|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|title= A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest|last= Lloyd|first= John Edward|authorlink= John Edward Lloyd|coauthors= |year= 1912|publisher= Longmans, Green, and Co.|location= |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= https://books.google.com/?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Lloyd+history+of+Wales#v=onepage&q=|accessdate= 17 May 2010|ref= harv}}
*{{Cite journal|last= McCarthy|first= Daniel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2003|month= |title= On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure|journal= Celtica |volume= 24|issue= |pages= 140–167|id= |url= http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf|accessdate=18 June 2009 |quote= |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite journal|last= McCarthy|first= Daniel|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2003|month= |title= On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure|journal= Celtica|volume= 24|issue= |pages= 140–167|id= |url= http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf|accessdate= 18 June 2009|quote= |ref= harv|archive-date= 2009-03-26|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090326224341/http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c24/c24-140-167.pdf|dead-url= yes}}
*{{Cite journal|last= Meeder|first= Sven|authorlink= |year= 2011|month= |title= Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens |journal= Church History |volume= 80|issue= |pages= 251–80|id= |url= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8274031&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0009640711000035 |accessdate= 1 August 2016 |quote= |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite journal|last= Meeder|first= Sven|authorlink= |year= 2011|month= |title= Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens|journal= Church History|volume= 80|issue= |pages= 251–80|id= |url= http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=8274031&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0009640711000035|accessdate= 1 August 2016|quote= |ref= harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Nordenfalk |first=Carl |title=Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800 |location=New York |publisher=George Braziller |date=1977 }}
* {{cite book |last=Nordenfalk |first=Carl |title=Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/celticanglosaxon00nord |location=New York |publisher=George Braziller |date=1977 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pächt |first=Otto |title=Book Illumination in the Middle Ages |date=1986 |publisher=Harvey Miller Publishers |location=London |isbn=0-19-921060-8 |ref=harv }} (trans fr German)
* {{cite book |last=Pächt |first=Otto |title=Book Illumination in the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/bookillumination0000pcht |date=1986 |publisher=Harvey Miller Publishers |location=London |isbn=0-19-921060-8 |ref=harv }} (trans fr German)
* {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=John |title=Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development |publisher=Talbot Press |location=Dublin |date=1931 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Ryan |first=John |title=Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development |url=https://archive.org/details/irishmonasticism0000unse_q5d2 |publisher=Talbot Press |location=Dublin |date=1931 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sharpe |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland |journal=[[Peritia]] |volume=3 |pages=230-70 |date=1984 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sharpe |first=Richard |authorlink=Richard Sharpe (historian) |title=Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland |journal=[[Peritia]] |volume=3 |pages=230-70 |date=1984 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Stancliffe |first=Clare |chapter=Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops |title=Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Constable |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Rouche |pages=205-14 |location=Paris |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |last=Stancliffe |first=Clare |chapter=Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops |title=Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot |editor1-first=G. |editor1-last=Constable |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Rouche |pages=205-14 |location=Paris |date=1992 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Patrick Wormald |last=Wormald |first=Patrick |chapter=Bede and the 'Church of the English' |title=The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last=Baxter |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2006 |ref=harv }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Patrick Wormald |last=Wormald |first=Patrick |chapter=Bede and the 'Church of the English' |title=The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian |editor-first=Stephen |editor-last=Baxter |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |date=2006 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Yorke |first=Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|last=Yorke |first=Barbara|authorlink= Barbara Yorke |title=The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800 |url=https://archive.org/details/conversionofbrit0000york |publisher=Pearson/Longman |location=London |year=2006 |isbn=0-582-77292-3 |ref=harv }}
*{{Cite book|editor1-first=Susan |editor1-last=Youngs |title='The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD |year=1989 |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=0-7141-0554-6 |ref=harv }}
* {{Cite book|editor1-first=Susan |editor1-last=Youngs |title='The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD |url=https://archive.org/details/workofangelsmast0000unse |year=1989 |publisher=British Museum Press |location=London |isbn=0-7141-0554-6 |ref=harv }}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


== Pustaka tambahan ==
== Pustaka tambahan ==
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book|year=1996 |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=How the Irish Saved Civilization |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=0-385-41849-3 }}
* {{Cite book|year=1996 |last=Cahill |first=Thomas |title=How the Irish Saved Civilization |url=https://archive.org/details/howirishsavedciv0000cahi |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=0-385-41849-3 }}
*{{cite book |authorlink=Henry Mayr-Harting |last=Mayr-Harting |first=Henry |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=B.T. Batsford Ltd |date=1991 }}
* {{cite book |authorlink=Henry Mayr-Harting |last=Mayr-Harting |first=Henry |title=The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England |url=https://archive.org/details/comingofchristia0000mayr |edition=3rd |location=London |publisher=B.T. Batsford Ltd |date=1991 }}
{{refend}}
{{refend}}


Revisi terkini sejak 11 Juli 2023 09.33

Sebuah Salib Keltik di Knock, Irlandia.

Kekristenan Kelt (Celtic Christianity) atau Kekristenan Insuler (Insular Christianity) merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari agama Kristen yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan bahasa Keltik pada masa Abad Pertengahan Awal.[1] "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "Gereja Kelt" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari Gereja Katolik "Roma", sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.[2] Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.[3] Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik mencukur ubun-ubun (tonsur), sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai penebusan dosa, dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".[3] Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau Irlandia, tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.

Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari arus utama Kristen Barat.[4] yang lain lebih memilih istilah "Kekristenan Insuler".[5] Sebagaimana Patrick Wormald menjelaskan, "salah satu kesalahpahaman umum adalah bahwa ada suatu 'Gereja Romawi' yang ditentang secara nasional oleh bangsa 'Kelt'."[6] Di Jerman, digunakan istilah "Iroschottisch", di mana von Lutz Padberg menempatkannya juga pada dikotomi antara Kekristenan Irlandia-Skotlandia dan Kekristenan Romawi.[7] Wilayah berbahasa Keltik adalah bagian dari Kekristenan Latin secara keseluruhan pada suatu waktu di mana tidak ada variasi regional dari liturgi dan struktur yang signifikan dengan penghormatan kolektif secara umum bagi Uskup Roma yang sama kuatnya di daerah berbahasa Keltik.[8]

Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh St. Patrick yang berasal dari Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).[9] Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.

Definisi[sunting | sunting sumber]

"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di  wilayah yang berbahasa Keltik, dan banyak pengertian itu sekarang didiskreditkan dalam wacana akademik modern.[10][11] Salah satu fitur yang sangat menonjol dari Kekristenan Kelt adalah perbedaan khas inheren – dan umumnya menentang – Gereja Katolik.[12] Klaim umum lainnya adalah bahwa Kekristenan Kelt menolak otoritas Paus, kurang otoriter daripada Gereja Katolik, lebih spiritual, lebih ramah untuk perempuan, lebih terhubung dengan alam, dan lebih nyaman berhadapan dengan politeisme Kelt.[12] Salah satu pandangan, yang memperoleh traksi ilmiah substansial pada abad ke-19, adalah bahwa ada suatu "Gereja Kelt", suatu tubuh Kristus atau denominasi yang diorganisir secara signifikan menyatukan orang Kelt dan memisahkan mereka dari gereja "Roma" di benua Eropa.[13] Contohnya ditemukan di "Study of History" karya Toynbee, yang mengidentifikasi Kekristenan Kelt dengan sebuah "Peradaban Barat Jauh yang Digugurkan" – inti sebuah masyarakat baru, yang dicegah untuk berakar oleh Gereja Roma, bangsa Viking, dan Normandia.[14] Yang lain telah konten untuk berbicara tentang "Kekristenan Kelt" yang terdiri dari beberapa tradisi dan kepercayaan intrinsik untuk bangsa Kelt.[15]

Namun, para sarjana modern telah mengidentifikasi masalah dengan semua klaim ini, dan menemukan istilah "Kekristenan Kelt" bermasalah dalam dan dari dirinya sendiri.[1] Ide adanya "Gereja Kelt" ini ditolak mentah-mentah oleh para sarjana modern karena kurangnya bukti kuat.[15] Memang, ada tradisi gereja yang berbeda di Irlandia dan Inggris, masing-masing dengan praktik mereka sendiri, dan ada variasi lokal signifikan bahkan dalam masing-masing lingkungan individu Irlandia dan Inggris.[16] Sementara ada beberapa tradisi yang diketahui telah umum untuk gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Inggris, meskipun ini relatif sedikit. Bahkan kesamaan ini bukannya ada karena daerah itu bercorak "Kelt", melainkan karena sejarah dan faktor geografis lainnya. Selain itu, orang-orang Kristen dari Irlandia dan Inggris tidaklah "anti-Roma"; otoritas Roma dan kepausan juga dihormati kuat di daerah orang Kelt sebagaimana di wilayah lain di Eropa.[17] Caitlin Corning lebih lanjut mencatat bahwa "Irlandia dan Inggris tidak lebih pro-perempuan, pro-lingkungan, atau bahkan lebih rohani dari bagian Gereja lainnya."[12]

Sejarah[sunting | sunting sumber]

Britania Raya[sunting | sunting sumber]

Menurut tradisi Abad Pertengahan, Kekristenan tiba di Britania Raya dalam abad ke-1 atau ke-2.

Tradisi Pan-Keltik[sunting | sunting sumber]

Caitlin Corning mengidentifikasi empat kebiasaan umum yang terdapat pada gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Britania tetapi dijalankan di tempat lain dalam dunia Kristen.[18]

Lihat pula[sunting | sunting sumber]

Catatan[sunting | sunting sumber]

Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber]

  1. ^ a b Koch 2006, hlm. 431
  2. ^ Koch 2006, hlm. 431–432
  3. ^ a b Corning 2006, hlm. 18
  4. ^ Ó Cróinín 1995; Charles-Edwards 2000; Davies 1992, hlm. 12–21; Hughes 1981, hlm. 1–20; Kathleen Hughes, The Church in Early English Society (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, The Celtic Church (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).
  5. ^ Brown 2003, hlm. 16, 51, 129, 132
  6. ^ Wormald 2006, hlm. 207
  7. ^ Padberg, Lutz von (1998). Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter. Reclam. ISBN 9783150170151. 
  8. ^ Sharpe 1984, hlm. 230-270; Wormald 2006, hlm. 207–208, 220 n. 3
  9. ^ Wormald 2006, hlm. 223–224 n. 1
  10. ^ Corning 2006, hlm. xii
  11. ^ Bradley 1999, hlm. vii–ix
  12. ^ a b c Corning 2006, hlm. 1
  13. ^ Koch 2006, hlm. 432
  14. ^ Toynbee, Arnold; Somervell, David (1987). A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6. New York: Oxford U Press. hlm. 154–156. ISBN 978-0195050806. 
  15. ^ a b Koch 2006, hlm. 432–434
  16. ^ Corning 2006, hlm. 4
  17. ^ Corning 2006, hlm. 1, 4
  18. ^ Corning 2006, hlm. 1–19

Daftar pustaka[sunting | sunting sumber]

Sumber primer[sunting | sunting sumber]

  • Adomnan (1991). Anderson, A.O.; Anderson, M.O., ed. Life of Columba (edisi ke-2nd). Oxford Medieval Texts. 
  • Williams, John, ed. (1860). Annales Cambriae. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts – via Internet Archive. 
  • Bede (1896). Plummer, Charles, ed. Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum. Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica. Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano – via Internet Archive. 
  • Cummian (1988). Walsh, Maura; Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, ed. De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. hlm. 93–5. 
  • Gildas (1848). Giles, J.A., ed. De Excidio Brittaniae. Six Old English Chronicles. London. 
  • Giles, J.A., ed. (1848). Historia Brittonum. Six Old English Chronicles. London. 
  • McNeill, John T.; Gamer, Helena M., ed. (1938). Medieval Handbooks of Penance. New York: Columba University Press. 
  • Patrick (Saint) (1998). Skinner, John, ed. Confessio. Diterjemahkan oleh John Skinner. Image. 
  • Baring-Gould, Sabine (1907). The Lives of the British Saints.  Scanned by Google; menurut abjad.

Sumber sekunder[sunting | sunting sumber]

Pustaka tambahan[sunting | sunting sumber]

Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/w/index.php?title=Kekristenan_Kelt&oldid=23835111"