Pengantar relativitas umum: Perbedaan antara revisi

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Revisi terkini sejak 14 Mei 2024 22.58

Uji presisi tinggi relativitas umum oleh roket luar angkasa Cassini (gambaran pelukis): sinyal radio yang dikirim antara Bumi dan probe (gelombang hijau) yang tertunda oleh kelengkungan dari ruang-waktu (garis biru) karena massa Matahari.

Relativitas umum adalah teori gravitasi yang dikembangkan oleh Albert Einstein antara tahun 1907 dan 1915. Menurut relativitas umum, efek gravitasi teramati antara beberapa massa merupakan hasil dari pembengkokan mereka dari ruang-waktu.

Pada awal abad ke-20, hukum-hukum Newton tentang gravitasi universal telah diterima selama lebih dari dua ratus tahun sebagai penjelasan valid dari gaya gravitasi antar massa. Dalam model Newton, gravitasi adalah hasil dari kekuatan tarik antara benda-benda besar. Meskipun bahkan Newton bermasalah dengan sifat alami gaya tersebut yang tidak diketahui, kerangka dasar ini sangat sukses dalam menggambarkan gerak.

Percobaan dan pengamatan menunjukkan bahwa deskripsi Einstein mengenai gravitasi memperhitungan beberapa efek yang tidak dapat dijelaskan oleh hukum Newton, seperti anomali menit dalam orbit dari Merkurius dan planet-planet lainnya. Relativitas umum juga memprediksi efek novel gravitasi, seperti gelombang gravitasi, lensa gravitasi dan efek gravitasi pada waktu yang dikenal sebagai dilatasi waktu gravitasi. Banyak dari prediksi ini telah dikonfirmasi oleh percobaan atau pengamatan, yang paling baru adalah gelombang gravitasi.

Relativitas umum telah berkembang menjadi alat penting dalam astrofisika modern. Teori ini memberikan dasar untuk pemahaman lubang hitam, daerah ruang di mana efek gravitasi begitu kuat sehingga bahkan cahaya tidak dapat lolos. Gravitasi yang begitu kuat dianggap menjadi penyebab atas radiasi intensi yang dipancarkan oleh beberapa tipe objek astronomi (seperti inti galaksi aktif atau mikrokuasar). Relativitas umum juga merupakan bagian dari kerangka standar model kosmologi Ledakan Dahsyat.

Meskipun relativitas umum bukan hanya teori relativistik satu-satunya, teori ini adalah teori paling sederhana yang konsisten dengan data eksperimen. Namun demikian, sejumlah pertanyaan tetap terbuka, yang paling mendasar adalah bagaimana relativitas umum dapat digabungkan dengan hukum fisika kuantum untuk menghasilkan teori gravitasi kuantum yang lengkap dan konsisten.

Dari relativitas khusus ke relativitas umum

Pada bulan September 1905, Albert Einstein menerbitkan teorinya mengenai relativitas khusus, yang menggabungkan hukum Newton tentang gerak dengan elektrodinamika (interaksi antara benda dengan muatan listrik). Relativitas khusus memperkenalkan kerangka kerja baru untuk ilmu fisika dengan mengusulkan konsep-konsep baru tentang ruang dan waktu. Beberapa teori fisika yang kemudian diterima inkonsisten dengan kerangka itu; contohnya adalah teori Newton tentang gravitasi, yang menggambarkan saling tarik yang dialami oleh tubuh karena massa mereka.

Beberapa fisikawan, termasuk Einstein, mencari sebuah teori yang dapat menggabungkan hukum gravitasi Newton dan relativitas khusus. Hanya teori Einstein terbukti konsisten dengan eksperimen dan pengamatan. Untuk memahami ide-ide dasar teori, maka mengikuti pikiran Einstein antara 1907 dan 1915, dari yang eksperimen pemikiran sederhana yang melibatkan pengamat jatuh bebas ke teori gravitasi geometriknya.^[1]

Prinsip yang setara

Seseorang dalam elevator yang jatuh bebas akan mengalami kehilangan bobot; benda melayang tak bergerak atau melayang pada kecepatan konstan. Karena segala sesuatu di lift jatuh bersama-sama, tidak ada efek gravitasi dapat diamati. Dengan cara ini, pengalaman dari seorang pengamat yang jatuh bebas tidak dapat dibedakan dari orang-orang dari pengamat di luar angkasa, jauh dari sumber gravitasi yang signifikan. Pengamat tersebut adalah yang diistimewakan ("inersia") yang dijelaskan Einstein dalam teorinya relativitas khusus: pengamat untuk siapa cahaya bergerak sepanjang garis lurus dengan kecepatan konstan.^[2]

Secara kasar, prinsip ini menyatakan bahwa seseorang dalam lift yang jatuh bebas tidak bisa mengatakan bahwa mereka sedang jatuh bebas. Setiap percobaan dalam keadaan lingkungan jatuh bebas memiliki hasil yang sama seperti pengamat pada saat diam atau bergerak di angkasa secara seragam, jauh dari semua sumber gravitasi.^[3]

Gravitasi dan percepatan

Sebagian besar efek gravitasi hilang pada jatuh bebas, tetapi efek yang terlihat sama seperti gravitasi tersebut dapat diproduksi oleh kerangka acuan yang dipercepat. Seorang pengamat di sebuah ruangan tertutup tidak bisa mengatakan yang mana dari berikut ini benar:

Benda-benda yang jatuh ke lantai karena ruangan sedang diam di permukaan Bumi dan objek yang ditarik ke bawah oleh gravitasi.
Benda-benda yang jatuh ke lantai karena ruangan berada di atas roket luar angkasa, yang dipercepat pada 9.81 m/s² dan jauh dari sumber gravitasi. Benda-benda yang ditarik menuju lantai sama seperti "gaya inersia" yang menekan pengemudi ke belakang pada mobil yang dipercepat.

Sebaliknya, efek teramati pada kerangka acuan yang dipercepat juga harus diamati dalam medan gravitasi dengan kekuatan yang setara. Prinsip ini memungkinkan Einstein untuk memprediksi beberapa efek novel gravitasi pada tahun 1907, seperti yang dijelaskan dalam bagian berikutnya.

Lihat juga

Catatan

^ This development is traced e.g. in Renn 2005, p. 110ff., in chapters 9 through 15 of Pais 1982, and in Janssen 2005.
^ This is described in detail in chapter 2 of Wheeler 1990.
^ While the equivalence principle is still part of modern expositions of general relativity, there are some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept, cf.

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[1] This development is traced e.g. in Renn 2005, p. 110ff., in chapters 9 through 15 of Pais 1982, and in Janssen 2005.

[2] This is described in detail in chapter 2 of Wheeler 1990.

[3] While the equivalence principle is still part of modern expositions of general relativity, there are some differences between the modern version and Einstein's original concept, cf.

[1]

[2]

[3]

@@ Baris 1: / Baris 1: @@
 [[Berkas:Cassini-science-br.jpg|ka|jmpl|341x341px|Uji presisi tinggi relativitas umum oleh roket luar angkasa [[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]] (gambaran pelukis): sinyal radio yang dikirim antara Bumi dan probe (gelombang hijau) yang [[Shapiro effect|tertunda]] oleh kelengkungan dari [[Ruang waktu|ruang-waktu]] (garis biru) karena massa [[Matahari]].]]
 {{General relativity sidebar}}
-'''Relativitas umum''' adalah [[teori]] dari [[gravitasi]] yang dikembangkan oleh [[Albert Einstein]] antara tahun 1907 dan 1915. Menurut relativitas umum, efek gravitasi teramati antara beberapa massa merupakan hasil dari pembengkokan mereka dari [[Ruang waktu|ruang-waktu]].
+'''Relativitas umum''' adalah [[teori]] [[gravitasi]] yang dikembangkan oleh [[Albert Einstein]] antara tahun 1907 dan 1915. Menurut relativitas umum, efek gravitasi teramati antara beberapa massa merupakan hasil dari pembengkokan mereka dari [[Ruang waktu|ruang-waktu]].
 Pada awal abad ke-20, [[Hukum gravitasi universal Newton|hukum-hukum Newton tentang gravitasi universal]] telah diterima selama lebih dari dua ratus tahun sebagai penjelasan valid dari gaya gravitasi antar massa. Dalam model Newton, gravitasi adalah hasil dari kekuatan tarik antara benda-benda besar. Meskipun bahkan Newton bermasalah dengan sifat alami gaya tersebut yang tidak diketahui, kerangka dasar ini sangat sukses dalam menggambarkan gerak.
@@ Baris 7: / Baris 7: @@
 Percobaan dan pengamatan menunjukkan bahwa deskripsi Einstein mengenai gravitasi memperhitungan beberapa efek yang tidak dapat dijelaskan oleh hukum Newton, seperti anomali menit dalam [[orbit]] dari [[Merkurius]] dan [[Planet|planet-planet]] lainnya. Relativitas umum juga memprediksi efek novel gravitasi, seperti [[gelombang gravitasi]], [[lensa gravitasi]] dan efek gravitasi pada waktu yang dikenal sebagai [[dilatasi waktu gravitasi]]. Banyak dari prediksi ini telah dikonfirmasi oleh percobaan atau pengamatan, [[pengamatan gelombang gravitasi|yang paling baru adalah gelombang gravitasi]].
-Relativitas umum telah berkembang menjadi alat penting dalam [[astrofisika]] modern. Teori ini memberikan dasar untuk pemahaman [[lubang hitam]], daerah ruang di mana efek gravitasi begitu kuat sehingga bahkan cahaya tidak dapat lolos. Gravitasi yang begitu kuat dianggap menjadi penyebab atas [[radiasi]] intensi yang dipancarkan oleh beberapa tipe objek astronomi (seperti [[inti galaksi aktif]] atau [[Microquasar|mikrokuasar]]). Relativitas umum juga merupakan bagian dari kerangka standar model kosmologi [[Ledakan Dahsyat]].
+Relativitas umum telah berkembang menjadi alat penting dalam [[astrofisika]] modern. Teori ini memberikan dasar untuk pemahaman [[lubang hitam]], daerah ruang di mana efek gravitasi begitu kuat sehingga bahkan cahaya tidak dapat lolos. Gravitasi yang begitu kuat dianggap menjadi penyebab atas [[radiasi]] intensi yang dipancarkan oleh beberapa tipe [[objek astronomi]] (seperti [[inti galaksi aktif]] atau [[Microquasar|mikrokuasar]]). Relativitas umum juga merupakan bagian dari kerangka standar model kosmologi [[Ledakan Dahsyat]].
 Meskipun relativitas umum bukan hanya teori relativistik satu-satunya, teori ini adalah teori paling sederhana yang konsisten dengan data eksperimen. Namun demikian, sejumlah pertanyaan tetap terbuka, yang paling mendasar adalah bagaimana relativitas umum dapat digabungkan dengan hukum [[Pengantar mekanika kuantum|fisika kuantum]] untuk menghasilkan teori [[gravitasi kuantum]] yang lengkap dan konsisten.
@@ Baris 14: / Baris 14: @@
 Pada bulan September 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] menerbitkan teorinya mengenai [[relativitas khusus]], yang menggabungkan [[Hukum gerak Newton|hukum Newton tentang gerak]] dengan [[elektrodinamika]] (interaksi antara benda dengan [[muatan listrik]]). Relativitas khusus memperkenalkan kerangka kerja baru untuk ilmu fisika dengan mengusulkan konsep-konsep baru tentang [[ruang]] dan waktu. Beberapa teori fisika yang kemudian diterima inkonsisten dengan kerangka itu; contohnya adalah teori Newton tentang [[gravitasi]], yang menggambarkan saling tarik yang dialami oleh tubuh karena massa mereka.
-Beberapa fisikawan, termasuk Einstein, mencari sebuah teori yang dapat menggabungkan hukum gravitasi Newton dan relativitas khusus. Hanya teori Einstein terbukti konsisten dengan eksperimen dan pengamatan. Untuk memahami ide-ide dasar teori, maka mengikuti pikiran Einstein antara 1907 dan 1915, dari yang [[Percobaan pikiran|eksperimen pemikiran]] sederhana yang melibatkan pengamat jatuh bebas ke teori gravitasi geometriknya.<ref>This development is traced e.g. in [[Pengantar relativitas umum#CITEREFRenn2005|Renn 2005]]<span>, p. 110ff.</span>, in chapters 9 through 15 of [[Introduction to general relativity#CITEREFPais1982|Pais 1982]], and in [[Introduction to general relativity#CITEREFJanssen2005|Janssen 2005]]. </ref>
+Beberapa [[fisikawan]], termasuk Einstein, mencari sebuah teori yang dapat menggabungkan hukum gravitasi Newton dan relativitas khusus. Hanya teori Einstein terbukti konsisten dengan eksperimen dan pengamatan. Untuk memahami ide-ide dasar teori, maka mengikuti pikiran Einstein antara 1907 dan 1915, dari yang [[Percobaan pikiran|eksperimen pemikiran]] sederhana yang melibatkan pengamat jatuh bebas ke teori gravitasi geometriknya.<ref>This development is traced e.g. in [[Pengantar relativitas umum#CITEREFRenn2005|Renn 2005]]<span>, p. 110ff.</span>, in chapters 9 through 15 of [[Introduction to general relativity#CITEREFPais1982|Pais 1982]], and in [[Introduction to general relativity#CITEREFJanssen2005|Janssen 2005]]. </ref>
 === Prinsip yang setara ===
@@ Baris 42: / Baris 42: @@
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+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFAshby2003">Ashby, Neil (2003), [http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2003-1/index.html "Relativity in the Global Positioning System"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704102558/http://relativity.livingreviews.org/Articles/lrr-2003-1/index.html |date=2007-07-04 }}, ''Living Reviews in Relativity'', '''6''': 1, [[Bibcode]]:[[bibcode:2003LRR.....6....1A|2003LRR.....6....1A]], [[Pengenal objek digital|doi]]:[[doi:10.12942/lrr-2003-1|10.12942/lrr-2003-1]]<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-06</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFAshby2003"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Relativity+in+the+Global+Positioning+System&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.aulast=Ashby&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frelativity.livingreviews.org%2FArticles%2Flrr-2003-1%2Findex.html&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003LRR.....6....1A&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12942%2Flrr-2003-1&rft.jtitle=Living+Reviews+in+Relativity&rft.pages=1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=6">&nbsp;</span>
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@@ Baris 48: / Baris 48: @@
 * <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFBlairMcNamara1997">Blair, David; McNamara, Geoff (1997), ''Ripples on a Cosmic Sea. ''</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFBlairMcNamara1997">''The Search for Gravitational Waves'', Perseus, [[ISBN]]&nbsp;0-7382-0137-5</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFBlairMcNamara1997"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.aufirst=David&rft.aulast=Blair&rft.au=McNamara%2C+Geoff&rft.btitle=Ripples+on+a+Cosmic+Sea.+The+Search+for+Gravitational+Waves&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-7382-0137-5&rft.pub=Perseus&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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-* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006">Chrusciel, Piotr (2006), "How many different kinds of black hole are there?"</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006">, [http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/bh_uniqueness/ ''Einstein Online'']<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-15</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=How+many+different+kinds+of+black+hole+are+there%3F&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft.aulast=Chrusciel&rft.btitle=Einstein+Online&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.einstein-online.info%2Fspotlights%2Fbh_uniqueness%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006">Chrusciel, Piotr (2006), "How many different kinds of black hole are there?"</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006">, [http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/bh_uniqueness/ ''Einstein Online''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414115127/http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/bh_uniqueness |date=2011-04-14 }}<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-07-15</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFChrusciel2006"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=How+many+different+kinds+of+black+hole+are+there%3F&rft.aufirst=Piotr&rft.aulast=Chrusciel&rft.btitle=Einstein+Online&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.einstein-online.info%2Fspotlights%2Fbh_uniqueness%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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@@ Baris 63: / Baris 63: @@
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-* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFJanssen2005">Janssen, Michel (2005), [https://netfiles.umn.edu/users/janss011/home%20page/potsandholes.pdf "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity"] (PDF), ''Annalen der Physik'', '''14''' (S1): 58–85, [[Bibcode]]:[[bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J|2005AnP...517S..58J]], [[Pengenal objek digital|doi]]:[[doi:10.1002/andp.200410130|10.1002/andp.200410130]]</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFJanssen2005"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Of+pots+and+holes%3A+Einstein%27s+bumpy+road+to+general+relativity&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.aulast=Janssen&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetfiles.umn.edu%2Fusers%2Fjanss011%2Fhome%2520page%2Fpotsandholes.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AnP...517S..58J&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.200410130&rft.issue=S1&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.pages=58-85&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=14">&nbsp;</span>
+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFJanssen2005">Janssen, Michel (2005), [https://netfiles.umn.edu/users/janss011/home%20page/potsandholes.pdf "Of pots and holes: Einstein's bumpy road to general relativity"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170713055330/https://netfiles.umn.edu/users/janss011/home%20page/potsandholes.pdf |date=2017-07-13 }} (PDF), ''Annalen der Physik'', '''14''' (S1): 58–85, [[Bibcode]]:[[bibcode:2005AnP...517S..58J|2005AnP...517S..58J]], [[Pengenal objek digital|doi]]:[[doi:10.1002/andp.200410130|10.1002/andp.200410130]]</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFJanssen2005"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Of+pots+and+holes%3A+Einstein%27s+bumpy+road+to+general+relativity&rft.aufirst=Michel&rft.aulast=Janssen&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=article&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnetfiles.umn.edu%2Fusers%2Fjanss011%2Fhome%2520page%2Fpotsandholes.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2005AnP...517S..58J&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.200410130&rft.issue=S1&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik&rft.pages=58-85&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=14">&nbsp;</span>
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 * <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFKennefick2007">Kennefick, Daniel (2007), "Not Only Because of Theory: Dyson, Eddington and the Competing Myths of the 1919 Eclipse Expedition", ''Proceedings of the 7th Conference on the History of General Relativity, Tenerife, 2005'', '''0709''', p.&nbsp;685, [[arXiv]]:<span class="plainlinks">[//arxiv.org/abs/0709.0685 0709.0685]</span>[[Berkas:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg|pra=|14x14px|free to read]], [[Bibcode]]:[[bibcode:2007arXiv0709.0685K|2007arXiv0709.0685K]]</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFKennefick2007"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Not+Only+Because+of+Theory%3A+Dyson%2C+Eddington+and+the+Competing+Myths+of+the+1919+Eclipse+Expedition&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft.aulast=Kennefick&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+7th+Conference+on+the+History+of+General+Relativity%2C+Tenerife%2C+2005&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F0709.0685&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007arXiv0709.0685K&rft.pages=685&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
 * <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFKramer2004">Kramer, Michael (2004), "Millisecond Pulsars as Tools of Fundamental Physics", in Karshenboim, S. G.; Peik, E., ''Astrophysics, Clocks and Fundamental Constants (Lecture Notes in Physics Vol. 648)'', Springer, pp.&nbsp;33–54</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Millisecond+Pulsars+as+Tools+of+Fundamental+Physics&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.btitle=Astrophysics%2C+Clocks+and+Fundamental+Constants+%28Lecture+Notes+in+Physics+Vol.+648%29&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.pages=33-54&rft.pub=Springer&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span> (E-Print at [http://de.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0405178 astro-ph/0405178])
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+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFLochner2007">Lochner, Jim, ed. (2007), [http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/grav_lens.html "Gravitational Lensing"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617115947/http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/news/grav_lens.html |date=2007-06-17 }}, ''Imagine the Universe website'', NASA GSFC<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-12</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFLochner2007"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Gravitational+Lensing&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fimagine.gsfc.nasa.gov%2Fdocs%2Ffeatures%2Fnews%2Fgrav_lens.html&rft.jtitle=Imagine+the+Universe+website&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal">&nbsp;</span>
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+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFNewbury1997">Newbury, Pete (1997), [http://www.iam.ubc.ca/old_pages/newbury/lenses/research.html ''Gravitational lensing webpages''] {{Webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20121206023615/http://www.iam.ubc.ca/old_pages/newbury/lenses/research.html |date=2012-12-06 }}<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-12</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFNewbury1997"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.aufirst=Pete&rft.aulast=Newbury&rft.btitle=Gravitational+lensing+webpages&rft.date=1997&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iam.ubc.ca%2Fold_pages%2Fnewbury%2Flenses%2Fresearch.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFNieto2006">Nieto, Michael Martin (2006), [http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/42/article4.pdf "The quest to understand the Pioneer anomaly"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629140354/http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/42/article4.pdf |date=2007-06-29 }} (PDF), ''EurophysicsNews'', '''37''' (6): 30–34, [[Bibcode]]:[[bibcode:2006ENews..37...30N|2006ENews..37...30N]], [[Pengenal objek digital|doi]]:[[doi:10.1051/epn:2006604|10.1051/epn:2006604]]</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFNieto2006"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=The+quest+to+understand+the+Pioneer+anomaly&rft.aufirst=Michael+Martin&rft.aulast=Nieto&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.europhysicsnews.com%2Ffull%2F42%2Farticle4.pdf&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2006ENews..37...30N&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1051%2Fepn%3A2006604&rft.issue=6&rft.jtitle=EurophysicsNews&rft.pages=30-34&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=37">&nbsp;</span>
 * <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFPais1982">Pais, Abraham (1982), ''<nowiki/>'Subtle is the Lord&nbsp;.''</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFPais1982">''..' ''</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFPais1982">''The Science and life of Albert Einstein'', Oxford University Press, [[ISBN]]&nbsp;0-19-853907-X</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFPais1982"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.btitle=%27Subtle+is+the+Lord+...%27+The+Science+and+life+of+Albert+Einstein&rft.date=1982&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=0-19-853907-X&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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@@ Baris 88: / Baris 88: @@
 * <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFStachel1989">Stachel, John (1989), "The Rigidly Rotating Disk as the 'Missing Link in the History of General Relativity'", in Howard, D.; Stachel, J., ''Einstein and the History of General Relativity (Einstein Studies, Vol. 1)'', Birkhäuser, pp.&nbsp;48–62, [[ISBN]]&nbsp;0-8176-3392-8</cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFStachel1989"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=The+Rigidly+Rotating+Disk+as+the+%27Missing+Link+in+the+History+of+General+Relativity%27&rft.aufirst=John&rft.aulast=Stachel&rft.btitle=Einstein+and+the+History+of+General+Relativity+%28Einstein+Studies%2C+Vol.+1%29&rft.date=1989&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=0-8176-3392-8&rft.pages=48-62&rft.pub=Birkh%C3%A4user&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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-* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFTrimbleBarstow2007">Trimble, Virginia; Barstow, Martin (2007), "Gravitational redshift and White Dwarf stars", [http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/redshift_white_dwarfs/ ''Einstein Online'']<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-13</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFTrimbleBarstow2007"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Gravitational+redshift+and+White+Dwarf+stars&rft.au=Barstow%2C+Martin&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rft.aulast=Trimble&rft.btitle=Einstein+Online&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.einstein-online.info%2Fspotlights%2Fredshift_white_dwarfs%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
+* <cite class="citation" id="CITEREFTrimbleBarstow2007">Trimble, Virginia; Barstow, Martin (2007), "Gravitational redshift and White Dwarf stars", [http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/redshift_white_dwarfs/ ''Einstein Online''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828094228/http://www.einstein-online.info/spotlights/redshift_white_dwarfs |date=2011-08-28 }}<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-06-13</span></span></cite><cite class="citation" id="CITEREFTrimbleBarstow2007"></cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wiki-indonesia.club%3AIntroduction+to+general+relativity&rft.atitle=Gravitational+redshift+and+White+Dwarf+stars&rft.au=Barstow%2C+Martin&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rft.aulast=Trimble&rft.btitle=Einstein+Online&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=bookitem&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.einstein-online.info%2Fspotlights%2Fredshift_white_dwarfs%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook">&nbsp;</span>
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+{{Pengantar artikel sains}}
 [[Kategori:Gravitasi]]