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'''Sejarah arsitektur''' melacak perubahan dalam arsitektur melewati berbagai tradisi, wilayah, tren gaya keseluruhan, dan periode. Awal dari semua tradisi ini dianggap sebagai upaya manusia untuk memenuhi kebutuhan yang sangat mendasar, yaitu tempat tinggal dan perlindungan.<ref>Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13</ref> Istilah "arsitektur" secara umum mengacu pada bangunan, tetapi pada dasarnya jauh lebih luas, termasuk bidang-bidang yang sekarang kita anggap sebagai bentuk-bentuk praktik yang terspesialisasi, seperti urbanisme, teknik sipil, angkatan laut, militer,<ref>Architecture. Def. 1. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0)
Oxford University Press 2009</ref> dan lanskap.


'''Sejarah arsitektur''' melacak perubahan dalam arsitektur melewati berbagai tradisi, wilayah, tren gaya keseluruhan, dan periode. Semuanya dianggap berawal dari upaya manusia untuk memenuhi kebutuhan yang sangat mendasar, yaitu tempat tinggal dan perlindungan.<ref>Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13</ref> Istilah "arsitektur" secara umum mengacu pada bangunan, tetapi pada dasarnya jauh lebih luas, termasuk bidang-bidang yang sekarang kita anggap sebagai bentuk-bentuk praktik yang terspesialisasi, seperti [[urbanisme]], [[teknik sipil]], [[teknik perkapalan]], [[teknik militer]],<ref>Architecture. Def. 1. ''Oxford English Dictionary'' Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0)
Tren dalam arsitektur dipengaruhi, di antara faktor-faktor lainnya, oleh inovasi teknologi, terutama pada abad ke-19, 20, dan 21. Peningkatan dan/atau penggunaan baja, besi cor, ubin, beton bertulang, dan kaca memicu kemunculan Art Nouveau dan membuat Beaux Arts menjadi lebih megah.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy|title=HOUSES - Extraordinary Living|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7809-6|page=9|url=|language=}}</ref>
Oxford University Press 2009</ref> dan [[arsitektur lanskap]].

Tren dalam arsitektur dipengaruhi, di antara faktor-faktor lainnya, oleh inovasi teknologi, terutama pada abad ke-19, 20, dan 21. Peningkatan dan/atau penggunaan baja, [[besi tuang]], [[ubin]], [[beton bertulang]], dan kaca misalnya memicu kemunculan [[Art Nouveau]] dan membuat [[Arsitektur Beaux-Arts|Beaux Arts]] menjadi semakin megah.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy|title=HOUSES - Extraordinary Living|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7809-6|page=9|url=|language=}}</ref>


==Dunia==
==Dunia==
Baris 11: Baris 13:


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Paris 75004 Temple du Marais (temple Sainte-Marie) 20151213.jpg|[[Temple du Marais]], Paris, by François Mansart, {{c.|1632}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=223}}
Paris 75004 Temple du Marais (temple Sainte-Marie) 20151213.jpg|[[Temple du Marais]], Paris, oleh François Mansart, {{c.|1632}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=223}}
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - Front.jpg|[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]], Rome, oleh [[Francesco Borromini]], 1638-1677{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=226}}

File:Palacio Real, Ámsterdam, Países Bajos, 2016-05-30, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg|[[Istana Raja Amsterdam]], [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]], oleh [[Jacob van Campen]], 1648–1665
San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane - Front.jpg|[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]], Rome, by [[Francesco Borromini]], 1638-1677{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=226}}
St Peter's Square, Vatican City - April 2007.jpg|[[St. Peter's Square]], Rome, oleh [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], 1656-1667{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=211}}

Kasteel van Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy 06.jpg|Taman di [[Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte|Vaux-le-Vicomte]], Prancis, by [[André Le Nôtre]], 1657-1661{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=328}}
File:Palacio Real, Ámsterdam, Países Bajos, 2016-05-30, DD 07-09 HDR.jpg|[[Royal Palace of Amsterdam]], [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]], by [[Jacob van Campen]], 1648–1665
Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg|Lapangan Marmer [[Istana Versailles]], [[Versailles]], Prancis, oleh [[Louis Le Vau]] and [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], {{c.|1660}} - 1715{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=102}}

St Peter's Square, Vatican City - April 2007.jpg|[[St. Peter's Square]], Rome, by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], 1656-1667{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=211}}
Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|[[Les Invalides|Dôme des Invalides]], Paris, oleh [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], 1677-1706{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=238}}
Palace of Versailles June 2010.jpg|Taman Palace of Versailles, oleh Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688

Kasteel van Vaux-le-Vicomte - Maincy 06.jpg|Gardens at [[Vaux-le-Vicomte]], France, by [[André Le Nôtre]], 1657-1661{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=328}}
Wien Graben Pestsäule Ostseite.jpg|[[Plague Column, Vienna|Plague Column]], Vienna, oleh[[Matthias Rauchmiller]] and [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1682 and 1694{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=216}}

Cour de Marbre du Château de Versailles October 5, 2011.jpg|Marble Court of the [[Palace of Versailles]], [[Versailles]], France, by [[Louis Le Vau]] and [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], {{c.|1660}} - 1715{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=102}}

Cathédrale Saint-Louis-des-Invalides, 140309 2.jpg|[[Les Invalides|Dôme des Invalides]], Paris, by [[Jules Hardouin-Mansart]], 1677-1706{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=238}}

Palace of Versailles June 2010.jpg|Garden façade of the Palace of Versailles, by Jules Hardouin-Mansart, 1678–1688

Wien Graben Pestsäule Ostseite.jpg|[[Plague Column, Vienna|Plague Column]], Vienna, by [[Matthias Rauchmiller]] and [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1682 and 1694{{sfn|Bailey|2012|p=216}}

Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|[[Chapels of Versailles#Fifth Chapel|Chapel of the Palace of Versailles]], 1696–1710<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Henry|title=Le Style Louis XIV|date=1927|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=|page=39|url=|language=fr}}</ref>
Versailles Chapel - July 2006 edit.jpg|[[Chapels of Versailles#Fifth Chapel|Chapel of the Palace of Versailles]], 1696–1710<ref>{{cite book|last1=Martin|first1=Henry|title=Le Style Louis XIV|date=1927|publisher=Flammarion|isbn=|page=39|url=|language=fr}}</ref>
Karlskirche Wien September 2016.jpg|[[Karlskirche]], [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], oleh[[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1715-1737{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=230}}

100130 150006 Dresden Frauenkirche winter blue sky-2.jpg|[[Frauenkirche, Dresden|Frauenkirche]], [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], oleh[[George Bähr]], 1726–1743
Karlskirche Wien September 2016.jpg|[[Karlskirche]], [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], by [[Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach]], 1715-1737{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=230}}
Residenz Wuerzburg Vorderan.jpg|[[Würzburg Residence]], [[Würzburg]], [[Germany]], oleh [[Balthasar Neumann]], 1744–1780

100130 150006 Dresden Frauenkirche winter blue sky-2.jpg|[[Frauenkirche, Dresden|Frauenkirche]], [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], by [[George Bähr]], 1726–1743

Residenz Wuerzburg Vorderan.jpg|The [[Würzburg Residence]], [[Würzburg]], [[Germany]], by [[Balthasar Neumann]], 1744–1780

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Baris 57: Baris 46:
Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}
Wieskirche, Gemeinde Steingaden Ortsteil Wies.JPG|[[Wieskirche|Pilgrimage Church of Wies]], [[Steingaden]], Germany, by [[Dominikus Zimmermann|Dominikus]] and [[Johann Baptist Zimmermann]], 1754{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=238}}
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The name ''Rococo'' derives from the French word ''[[rocaille]]'', which describes shell-covered rock-work, and ''coquille'', meaning seashell. Rococo architecture is fancy and fluid, accentuating asymmetry, with an abundant use of curves, scrolls, gilding and ornaments. The style enjoyed great popularity with the ruling elite of Europe during the first half of the 18th century. It developed in France out of a new fashion in interior decoration, and spread across Europe. Domestic Rococo abandoned Baroque's high moral tone, its weighty allegories and its obsession with legitimacy: in fact, its abstract forms and carefree, pastoral subjects related more to notions of refuge and joy that created a more forgiving atmosphere for polite conversations. Rococo rooms are typically smaller than their Baroque counterparts, reflecting a movement towards domestic intimacy. Even the grander salons used for entertaining were more modest in scale, as social events involved smaller numbers of guests.

Nama Rokoko berasal dari kata Prancis ''rocaille'', yang menggambarkan cangkang pada kerajinan batu berhias cangkang, dan ''coquille'', yang berarti kerang. Arsitektur Rococo menampilkan kesan mewah dan mengalir, menonjolkan asimetri, dengan penggunaan lekukan, gulungan, penyepuhan, dan ornamen yang melimpah. Gaya ini sangat populer di kalangan elite penguasa Eropa selama paruh pertama abad ke-18. Gaya ini berkembang di Prancis sebagai mode baru dalam dekorasi interior, dan menyebar ke seluruh Eropa.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=30}} Rokoko domestik mengesampingkan atribut Barok yang tinggi; alegori beratnya dan obsesinya terhadap legitimasi: pada kenyataannya, bentuk-bentuk abstrak dan tema-tema pastoral yang riang dan bebas lebih berkaitan dengan pesan perlindungan dan kegembiraan yang menciptakan suasana yang lebih bersahabat untuk percakapan yang sopan. Kamar-kamar Rococo biasanya lebih kecil daripada kamar Barok, yang mencerminkan gerakan menuju keintiman domestik. Bahkan salon-salon megah yang digunakan untuk menjamu tamu pun berskala lebih sederhana, karena acara-acara sosial melibatkan jumlah tamu yang lebih sedikit.
Nama Rokoko berasal dari kata Prancis ''rocaille'', yang menggambarkan cangkang pada kerajinan batu berhias cangkang, dan ''coquille'', yang berarti kerang. Arsitektur Rococo menampilkan kesan mewah dan mengalir, menonjolkan asimetri, dengan penggunaan lekukan, gulungan, penyepuhan, dan ornamen yang melimpah. Gaya ini sangat populer di kalangan elite penguasa Eropa selama paruh pertama abad ke-18. Gaya ini berkembang di Prancis sebagai mode baru dalam dekorasi interior, dan menyebar ke seluruh Eropa.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=30}} Rokoko domestik mengesampingkan atribut Barok yang tinggi; alegori beratnya dan obsesinya terhadap legitimasi: pada kenyataannya, bentuk-bentuk abstrak dan tema-tema pastoral yang riang dan bebas lebih berkaitan dengan pesan perlindungan dan kegembiraan yang menciptakan suasana yang lebih bersahabat untuk percakapan yang sopan. Kamar-kamar Rococo biasanya lebih kecil daripada kamar Barok, yang mencerminkan gerakan menuju keintiman domestik. Bahkan salon-salon megah yang digunakan untuk menjamu tamu pun berskala lebih sederhana, karena acara-acara sosial melibatkan jumlah tamu yang lebih sedikit.


Baris 122: Baris 109:
Penggalian selama abad ke-18 di [[Pompeii]] dan [[Herculaneum]], yang keduanya terkubur di bawah abu vulkanik selama letusan Gunung Vesuvius pada tahun 79 Masehi, mengilhami kembalinya keteraturan dan rasionalitas, sebagian besar berkat tulisan-tulisan dari Johann Joachim Winckelmann.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=31}}<ref>http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/critics/winckelmann.htm</ref> Pada pertengahan abad ke-18, zaman kuno dijunjung tinggi sebagai standar arsitektur yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya. Neoklasikisme adalah penyelidikan mendasar tentang dasar-dasar bentuk dan makna arsitektur. Pada tahun 1750-an, kerja sama eksplorasi arkeologi dan teori arsitektur dimulai, yang akan terus berlanjut pada abad ke-19. Marc-Antoine Laugier menulis pada tahun 1753 bahwa 'Arsitektur benar-benar berutang kepada orang-orang Yunani'.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=9, 14}}
Penggalian selama abad ke-18 di [[Pompeii]] dan [[Herculaneum]], yang keduanya terkubur di bawah abu vulkanik selama letusan Gunung Vesuvius pada tahun 79 Masehi, mengilhami kembalinya keteraturan dan rasionalitas, sebagian besar berkat tulisan-tulisan dari Johann Joachim Winckelmann.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=31}}<ref>http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/critics/winckelmann.htm</ref> Pada pertengahan abad ke-18, zaman kuno dijunjung tinggi sebagai standar arsitektur yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya. Neoklasikisme adalah penyelidikan mendasar tentang dasar-dasar bentuk dan makna arsitektur. Pada tahun 1750-an, kerja sama eksplorasi arkeologi dan teori arsitektur dimulai, yang akan terus berlanjut pada abad ke-19. Marc-Antoine Laugier menulis pada tahun 1753 bahwa 'Arsitektur benar-benar berutang kepada orang-orang Yunani'.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=9, 14}}


== Referensi ==
=== Revivalism and Eclecticism ===
{{reflist|2}}
{{main|Revivalism (architecture)}}
{{See also|Eclecticism in architecture|Victorian architecture|Napoleon III style#Architecture}}

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File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg|[[Russian Revival architecture|Russian Revival]] - [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]], [[Moscow]], Russia, 1839–1860, destroyed in 1931 and rebuilt in 1995–2000

All Saints Margaret Street Interior 2, London, UK - Diliff.jpg|[[Gothic Revival Architecture|Gothic Revival]] - Interior of the [[All Saints, Margaret Street|All Saints]], London, by [[William Butterfield]], 1850–1859

Saint Augustin Church Paris.jpg|[[Eclecticism in architecture|Eclectic]] - The [[Saint-Augustin, Paris|Église Saint-Augustin de Paris]], by [[Victor Baltard]], 1860–1868

Chhatrapati_Shivaji_Terminus_%28Victoria_Terminus%29.jpg|[[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]] - The [[Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus]], previously Victoria Terminus, a mixture of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Mughal architecture|Mughal]] elements [[Mumbai]], [[Maharashtra]], by [[Frederick William Stevens]] 1878&ndash;1888

File:Cathedral Saint Alexander Nevsky (23997180108).jpg|[[Byzantine Revival architecture|Byzantine Revival]] - [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]], [[Sofia]], Bulgaria, by [[Alexander Pomerantsev]], 1882–1912

Belfast City Hall 2.jpg|[[Baroque Revival architecture|Neo-Baroque]] - [[Belfast City Hall]], [[Belfast]], UK, by [[Brumwell Thomas]], 1898–1906

Beaney Institute 002.jpg|[[Tudor Revival architecture]] - The [[Beaney House of Art and Knowledge]], [[Canterbury]], England, by A.H. Campbell, 1899

Immeuble rue La Boétie, rue de Miromesnil, Paris 8e.jpg|[[Rococo Revival]] - Apartment building no. 8 on [[Rue de Miromesnil]], Paris, by P. Lobrot, 1900

Place Beauvau (731).jpg|Louis XVI Revival - Apartment building no. 2 on Rue de Miromesnil, Paris, unknown architect, {{circa}}1900

File:La haye palais paix jardin face.JPG|[[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] - [[Peace Palace]], [[The Hague]], Netherlands, by [[Louis Marie Cordonnier]], 1907

56, Bulevardul Dacia, Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] - The C.N. Câmpeanu House on Bulevardul Dacia, [[Bucharest]], Romania, {{c.|1923}}, by Constantin Nănescu<ref>{{cite book|last1=Woinaroski|first1=Cristina|title=Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european|date=2013|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-30-8|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Ankara asv2021-10 img23 Ziraat Bank Museum.jpg|[[First national architectural movement|First national movement]] - [[Ziraat Bank|Ziraat Bank Museum]], [[Ankara]], Turkey, 1929, by [[Giulio Mongeri]]

12 Strada Armenească, Bucharest (03).jpg|[[Mediterranean Revival architecture|Mediterranean Revival]] - General Mandiros Ciomac and Simion Ciomac Building (Strada Armenească no. 12), Bucharest, by Ion Giurgea, 1938<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ghigeanu|first1=Mădălin|title=Curentul Mediteraneean în arhitectura interbelică|date=2022|publisher=Vremea|isbn=978-606-081-135-0|page=521|url=|language=}}</ref>
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The 19th century was dominated by a wide variety of stylistic revivals, variations, and interpretations. <!--Ruskin, etc.-->[[Revivalism (architecture)|Revivalism]] in [[architecture]] is the use of visual styles that consciously echo the style of a [[Architectural style|previous architectural era]]. Modern-day Revival styles can be summarized within [[New Classical architecture]], and sometimes under the umbrella term traditional architecture.

The idea that architecture might represent the glory of kingdoms can be traced to the dawn of civilisation, but the notion that architecture can bear the stamp of national character is a modern idea, that appeared in the 18th century historical thinking and given political currency in the wake of the [[French Revolution]]. As the map of Europe was repeatedly changing, architecture was used to grant the aura of a glorious past to even the most recent nations. In addition to the credo of universal Classicism, two new, and often contradictory, attitudes on historical styles existed in the early 19th century. Pluralism promoted the simultaneous use of the expanded range of style, while Revivalism held that a single historical model was appropriate for modern architecture. Associations between styles and building types appeared, for example: [[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]] for prisons, [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic]] for churches, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] for banks and exchanges. These choices were the result of other associations: the [[pharaoh]]s with [[death]] and [[eternity]], the [[Middle Ages]] with [[Christianity]], or the [[House of Medici|Medici family]] with the rise of banking and modern commerce.

[[File:View of Devonpart, near Plymouth, by John Foulston, 1820s, including an 'Egyptian' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive Doric' town hall, and a street of houses with a Roman Corinthian order.jpg|thumb|300px|View of [[Devonport, Plymouth|Devonpart]], near [[Plymouth]] (UK), by [[John Foulston]], 1820s, including an '[[Egyptian Revival architecture|Egyptian]]' library, a 'Hindoo' nonconformist chapel, a 'primitive [[Doric order|Doric]]' town hall, and a street of houses with a [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]] [[Corinthian order]]]]
Whether their choice was [[Neoclassical architecture|Classical]], medieval, or [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance]], all revivalists shared the strategy of advocating a particular style based on national history, one of the great enterprises of historians in the early 19th century. Only one historic period was claimed to be the only one capable of providing models grounded in national traditions, institutions, or values. Issues of style became matters of state.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139, 140, 141}}

The most well-known Revivalist style is the [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]] one, that appeared in the mid-18th century in the houses of a number of wealthy antiquarians in England, a notable example being the [[Strawberry Hill House]]. German [[Romanticism|Romantic]] writers and architects were the first to promote Gothic as a powerful expression of national character, and in turn use it as a symbol of national identity in territories still divided. [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] posed the question 'Why should we always imitate foreigners, as if we were Greeks or Romans?'.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=139–142, 145}}

In art and architecture history, the term [[Orientalism]] refers to the works of the Western artists who specialized in Oriental subjects, produced from their travels in [[Western Asia]], during the 19th century. In that time, artists and scholars were described as Orientalists, especially in France.

In India, during the [[British Raj]], a new style, [[Indo-Saracenic architecture|Indo-Saracenic]], (also known as '''Indo-Gothic''', '''Mughal-Gothic''', '''Neo-Mughal''', or '''Hindoo style''') was getting developed, which incorporated varying degrees of Indian elements into the Western European style. The [[Churches and convents of Goa]] are another example of the blending of traditional Indian styles with western European architectural styles. Most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed between 1858 and 1947, with the peaking at 1880.<ref>Jayewardene-Pillai, 6, 14</ref> The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals".<ref>Das, xi</ref> They were often built for modern functions such as transport stations, government offices, and law courts. It is much more evident in British power centres in the subcontinent like [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]], and [[Kolkata]].<ref>Das, xi, xiv, 98, 101</ref>

===Beaux-Arts===
{{Main|Beaux-Arts architecture}}
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Paris Palais Garnier 2010-04-06 16.55.07.jpg|Exterior of the [[Palais Garnier]], Paris, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Opera Garnier Grand Escalier.jpg|Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier, by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], 1860–1875{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=296}}

Palacio CEC, Bucarest, Rumanía, 2016-05-29, DD 91-93 HDR.jpg|The [[CEC Palace]] on [[Calea Victoriei|Victory Avenue]], [[Bucharest]], Romania, by [[Paul Gottereau]], 1897-1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marinache|first1=Oana|title=Paul Gottereau - Un Regal în Arhitectură|date=2017|publisher=Editura Istoria Artei|isbn=978-606-8839-09-7|page=184|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

The Cantacuzino Palace from Bucharest (Romania).jpg|[[Cantacuzino Palace]], Bucharest, by [[Ion D. Berindey]], 1898-1906<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat|title=Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide|date=2017|publisher=Ordinul Arhitecților din România|isbn=978-973-0-23884-6|page=90|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Petit-Palais-Paris-02-2018.jpg|[[Petit Palais]], Paris, by [[Charles Giraud]], 1900{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=294}}

Building at the intersection of Calea Victoriei with Strada Franklin, Bucharest, circa 1900, by Leonida Negrescu.jpg|Anker Building, Bucharest, by [[Leonida Negrescu]], {{circa}}1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oltean|first1=Radu|title=Bucureștii Belle Époque|date=2016|publisher=Art Historia|isbn=978-973-0-22923-3|page=47|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Image-Grand central Station Outside Night 2.jpg|[[Grand Central Terminal]], New York City, by [[Reed and Stem]] and [[Warren and Wetmore]], 1903{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=135}}

29 avenue Bugeaud Paris.jpg|Hôtel Roxoroid de Belfort, Paris, 1911, by [[André Arfvidson]]

Della Faillelaan 23, Antwerpen.jpg|Villa, [[Antwerp]], Belgium, by [[Michel de Braey]], 1913<ref>{{cite web|url=https://inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be/erfgoedobjecten/6694|title=Villa in neorégencestijl|website=inventaris.onroerenderfgoed.be|date=29 March 2019 |access-date=8 April 2022}}</ref>
</gallery>
The Beaux-Arts style takes its name from the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in Paris, where it developed and where many of the main exponents of the style studied. Due to the fact that international students studied here, there are buildings from the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century of this type all over the world, designed by architects like [[Charles Girault]], [[Thomas Hastings (architect)|Thomas Hastings]], [[Ion D. Berindey]] or [[Petre Antonescu]]. Today, from [[Bucharest]] to [[Buenos Aires]] and from [[San Francisco]] to [[Brussels]], the Beaux-Arts style survives in opera houses, civic structures, university campuses commemorative monuments, luxury hotels and townhouses. The style was heavily influenced by the [[Palais Garnier|Paris Opéra House]] (1860–1875), designed by [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]], the masterpiece of the 19th century [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|renovation of Paris]], dominating its entire neighbourhood and continuing to astonish visitors with its majestic staircase and reception halls. The Opéra was an aesthetic and societal turning point in French architecture. Here, Garnier showed what he called a ''style actuel'', which was influenced by the spirit of the time, aka [[Zeitgeist]], and reflected the designer's personal taste.

Beaux-Arts façades were usually imbricated, or layered with overlapping classical elements or sculpture. Often façades consisted of a high rusticated basement level, after it a few floors high level, usually decorated with pilasters or columns, and at the top an attic level and/or the roof. Beaux-Arts architects were often commissioned to design monumental civic buildings symbolic of the self-confidence of the town or city. The style aimed for a [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] opulence through lavishly decorated monumental structures that evoked [[Louis XIV]]'s [[Versailles]]. However, it was not just a revival of the Baroque, being more of a synthesis of Classicist styles, like [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]], Baroque, [[Rococo]], [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]] etc.{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=292, 295, 296}}{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=132, 133, 134, 135}}{{sfn|Bailey|2012|pp=413}}

===Industry and new technologies===
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Les Halles, Paris, by Victor Baltard, 1852-1855.jpg|[[Les Halles]], Paris, by [[Victor Baltard]], 1852-1855{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=248}}

Crystal.Palace.Paxton.Plan.jpg|Plan and elevation for [[the Crystal Palace]], London, by [[Joseph Paxton]], 1854{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=267}}

File:De Binnen Amstel gezien naar het in 1866 gedempte Amstelgrachtje, thans Maarten Jansz Kosterstraat, en het Paleis voor Volksvlijt op het Frederiksplein.jpg|[[Paleis voor Volksvlijt]], [[Amsterdam]], Netherlands, by [[Cornelis Outshoorn]], 1859–1964

Le Bon Marché, 001.jpg|[[Le Bon Marché]], Paris, by [[Louis-Charles Boileau]] in collaboration with the engineering firm of [[Gustave Eiffel]], 1872{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=236}}

Bradbury Atrium.jpg|Interior of the [[Bradbury Building]], with its exposed staircases and free-standing hydraulic elevators, [[Los Angeles]], USA, by [[George Wyman|George Herbert Wyman]], 1889-1893<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gössel|first1=Peter|last2=Leuthäuser|first2=Gabriele|title=Architecture in the 20th Century|date=2022|publisher=TASCHEN|isbn=978-3-8365-7090-9|page=54|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Warenhaus Tietz Leipziger Str. 1900.jpg|Tietz Department Store, with its huge shop windows running through all the floors, Berlin, Germany, by [[Bernhard Sehring]] and L.Lachmann, 1899-1900<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gössel|first1=Peter|last2=Leuthäuser|first2=Gabriele|title=Architecture in the 20th Century|date=2022|publisher=TASCHEN|isbn=978-3-8365-7090-9|page=78|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
Because of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the new technologies it brought, new types of buildings have appeared. By 1850 iron was quite present in dailylife at every scale, from mass-produced decorative architectural details and objects of apartment buildings and commercial buildings to train sheds. A well-known 19th century glass and iron building is [[the Crystal Palace]] from [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] (London), built in 1851 to house the [[Great Exhibition]], having an appearance similar with a greenhouse. Its scale was daunting.

The marketplace pioneered novel uses of iron and glass to create an architecture of display and consumption that made the temporary display of the world fairs a permanent feature of modern urban life. Just after a year after the Crystal Palace was dismantaled, [[Aristide Boucicaut]] opened what historians of mass consumption have labelled the first [[department store]], [[Le Bon Marché]] in Paris. As the store expanded, its exterior took on the form of a public monument, being highly decorated with French [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]] motifs. The entrances advanced subtly onto the pavemenet, hoping to captivate the attention of potential customers. Between 1872 and 1874, the interior was remodelled by [[Louis-Charles Boileau]], in collaboration with the young engineering firm of [[Gustave Eiffel]]. In place of the open courtyard required to permit more daylight into the interior, the new building focused around three skylight atria.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=207, 237, 238}}

===Art Nouveau===
{{main|Art Nouveau#Architecture and ornamentation}}
{{See also|Art Nouveau religious buildings}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="160px">
Tassel House stairway.JPG|[[Hôtel Tassel]], [[Brussels]], Belgium, by [[Victor Horta]], 1894{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=321}}

File:Castel Béranger, February 16, 2013.jpg|Entrance of the [[Castel Béranger]], Paris, by [[Hector Guimard]], 1895–1898<ref>{{cite book|last1=Madsen|first1=S. Tschudi|title=Art Nouveau|date=1977|publisher=Editura Meridiane|isbn=|page=|url=|language=ro}}</ref>

Wien, Friedrichstraße 12, Secession-20160621-011.jpg|[[Secession Building]], [[Vienna]], Austria, by [[Joseph Maria Olbrich]], 1897{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=323}}

FMarbeuf.jpg|[[La Fermette Marbeuf]], Paris, by [[Émile Hurtré]], 1898<ref>{{cite magazine|author = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->|title = Paris et l'Art Nouveau|url =|magazine = Nº281 Dossier de l'Art|location =|publisher = Éditions Faton|date = 2020|access-date =|language = fr}}</ref>

La colonie dartistes jugendstil (Mathildenhöhe, Darmstadt) (7882268852).jpg|Ernst Ludwig House in [[Mathildenhöhe|Darmstadt Artists' Colony]], [[Darmstadt]], [[Jugendstil|Germany]], by [[Joseph Maria Olbrich]] (1900)

Paris Metro 2 Porte Dauphine Libellule.JPG|The [[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine Métro Station]], Paris, by [[Hector Guimard]], 1900{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=141}}

Maison Huot de style art nouveau (Nancy) (7966479700).jpg|[[:commons:Category:Maison Huot (Nancy)|Maison Huot]], [[Nancy, France|Nancy]], France, by [[Émile André]], 1903{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=44}}

File:Casa Batllo Overview Barcelona Spain cut.jpg|[[Casa Batlló]], [[Barcelona]], Spain, by [[Antoni Gaudí]], 1904–1906{{sfn|Duncan|1994|p=52}}

9 Strada Biserica Amzei, Bucharest (01).jpg|[[Mița the Cyclist House]] ([[Bucharest]], Romania), 1908, by [[Nicolae C. Mihăescu]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mariana Celac, Octavian Carabela and Marius Marcu-Lapadat|title=Bucharest Architecture - an annotated guide|date=2017|publisher=Ordinul Arhitecților din România|isbn=978-973-0-23884-6|page=85|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
Popular in many countries from the early 1890s until the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Art Nouveau was an influential although relatively brief art and design movement and philosophy. Despite being a short-lived fashion, it paved the way for the [[modern architecture]] of the 20th century. Between {{c.}} 1870 and 1900, a crisis of historicism occurred, during which the historicist culture was critiqued, one of the voices being [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in 1874, who diagnosed 'a malignant historical fervour' as one of the crippling symptoms of a modern culture burdened by archaeological study and faith in the laws of historical progression.

Focusing on natural forms, asymmetry, sinuous lines and whiplash curves, architects and designers aimed to escape the excessively ornamental styles and historical replications, popular during the 19th century. However, the style was not completely new, since Art Nouveau artists drew on a huge range of influences, particularly [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], [[aestheticism]] and [[Japanese art|Japanese]] art. Buildings used materials associated in the 19th century with modernity, such as cast-iron and glass. A good example of this is the Paris Metro entrance at [[Porte Dauphine (Paris Métro)|Porte Dauphine]] by [[Hector Guimard]] (1900). Its cast-iron and glass canopy is as much sculpture as it is architecture. In Paris, Art Nouveau was even called Le Style Métro by some. The interest for stylized organic forms of ornamentation originated in the mid 19th century, when it was promoted in ''[[The Grammar of Ornament]]'' (1854), a pattern book by British architect [[Owen Jones (architect)]] (1809–1874).

[[Whiplash (decorative art)|Whiplash]] curves and sinuous organic lines are its most familiar hallmarks, however the style can not be summarized only to them, since its forms are much more varied and complex. The movement displayed many national interpretations. Depending on where it manifested, it was inspired by [[Celtic art]], [[Gothic Revival architecture|Gothic Revival]], [[Rococo Revival]], and [[Baroque Revival architecture|Baroque Revival]]. In Hungary, Romania and Poland, for example, Art Nouveau incorporated folkloric elements. This is true especially in Romania, because it facilitated the appearance of the [[Romanian Revival architecture|Romanian Revival]] style, which draws inspiration from [[Brâncovenesc architecture]] and traditional peasant houses and objects. The style also had different names, depending on countries. In Britain it was known as ''Modern Style'', in the Netherlands as ''Nieuwe Kunst'', in Germany and Austria as ''Jugendstil'', in Italy as ''[[Liberty style]]'', in Romania as ''Arta 1900'', and in Japan as ''Shiro-Uma''. It would be wrong to credit any particular place as the only one where the movement appeared, since it seems to have arisen in multiple locations.{{sfn|Bergdoll|2000|pp=269, 279}}{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=320, 321, 322}}{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=36}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Madsen|first1=S. Tschudi|title=Art Nouveau|date=1977|publisher=Editura Meridiane|pages=7|language=ro}}</ref>

===Modern===
{{Main|Modern architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Berlin AEG Turbinenfabrik.jpg|[[AEG turbine factory]], Berlin, Germany, by [[Peter Behrens]], 1909

Casa Steiner - Foto Fachada Trasera.jpg|Steiner House, [[Vienna]], Austria, by [[Adolf Loos]], 1910<ref>{{cite book|last1=Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy|title=HOUSES - Extraordinary Living|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7809-6|page=56|url=|language=}}</ref>

Fagus Gropius Hauptgebaeude 200705 wiki front.jpg|[[Fagus Factory]], [[Alfeld]], Germany, by [[Walter Gropius]], 1911{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=347}}

VT16_PD_zahrada.jpg|[[Villa Tugendhat]], [[Brno]], Czech Republic, by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] and [[Lilly Reich]], 1930{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=348}}
</gallery>

Rejecting ornament and embracing minimalism and modern materials, Modernist architecture appeared across the world in the early 20th century. [[Art Nouveau]] paved the way for it, promoting the idea of non-historicist styles. It developed initially in Europe, focusing on functionalism and the avoidance of decoration. Modernism reached its peak during the 1930s and 1940s with the [[Bauhaus]] and the [[International Style (architecture)|International Style]], both characterised by asymmetry, flat roofs, large ribbon windows, metal, glass, white rendering and open-plan interiors.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=37}}

====Art Deco====
{{main|Art Deco|Streamline Moderne}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
The boudoir of fashion designer Jeanne Lanvin, now in the Museum of Decorative Arts in Paris.png|The boudoir of fashion designer [[Jeanne Lanvin]] (now in the [[Musée des Arts décoratifs, Paris|Museum of Decorative Arts]], Paris), by [[Armand-Albert Rateau]], 1920-1922<ref>{{cite book|last1=Criticos|first1=Mihaela|title=Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism|date=2009|publisher=SIMETRIA|isbn=978-973-1872-03-2|page=43|url=|language=Romanian, English}}</ref>


Edgar brandt, porte da ascensore in ferro, vetro e bronzo, francia 1926 01.jpg|Elevator doors, now in the [[Calouste Gulbenkian Museum]], [[Lisbon]], Portugal, by [[Edgar Brandt]], 1926

La samaritaine as seen from the Pont Neuf.jpg|[[La Samaritaine]], Paris, by [[Henri Sauvage]], 1926–1928<ref>{{Cite book|title=Frantz Jourdain and the Samaritaine : art nouveau theory and criticism|last=L.|first=Clausen, Meredith|date=1987|publisher=E.J Brill|isbn=9789004078796|location=Leiden|oclc=27266259}}</ref>

28 Bulevardul Lascăr Catargiu, Bucharest (01).jpg|Door of [[Bulevardul Lascăr Catargiu]] no. 28, [[Bucharest]], Romania, unknown architect, {{circa}}1930

Chrysler Building spire, Manhattan, by Carol Highsmith (LOC highsm.04444).png|[[Chrysler Building]], New York City, by [[William Van Allen]], 1930{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=359}}

Biarritz - Musée de la mer (edited).jpg|[[Biarritz Aquarium|Musée de la Mer]], [[Biarritz]], France, by [[Joseph Hiriart]], 1933{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=360}}
</gallery>
Art Deco, named retrospectively after an exhibition held in Paris in 1925, originated in France as a luxurious, highly decorated style. It then spread quickly throughout the world - most dramatically in the United States - becoming more [[Streamline Moderne|streamlined]] and modernistic through the 1930s. The style was pervasive and popular, finding its way into the design of everything from jewellery to film sets, from the interiors of ordinary homes to cinemas, luxury streamliners and hotels. Its exuberance and fantasy captured the spirit of the 'roaring 20s' and provided an escape from the realities of the [[Great Depression]] during the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=Amy|title=Modern Art|date=2018|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-29322-5|page=70|url=|language=en}}</ref>

Although it ended with the start of World War II, its appeal has endured. Despite that it is an example of modern architecture, elements of the style drew on [[Ancient Egyptian architecture|ancient Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek]], [[Ancient Roman architecture|Roman]], [[African architecture|African]], [[Aztecs|Aztec]] and [[Japanese architecture|Japanese]] influences, but also on [[Futurism]], [[Cubism]] and the [[Bauhaus]]. Bold colours were often applied on low-reliefs. Predominant materials include [[chrome plating]], [[brass]], polished [[steel]] and [[aluminium]], inlaid wood, stone and stained glass.

====International Style====
{{Main|International Style (architecture)}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
The Barcelona Pavilion, Barcelona, 2010.jpg|[[Barcelona Pavilion]], [[Barcelona]], Spain, by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], 1929{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=164}}
VillaSavoye.jpg|[[Villa Savoye]], [[Poissy]], France, by [[Le Corbusier]], 1929-1930{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=134}}
Lever House 390 Park Avenue.jpg|[[Lever House]], New York City, by [[Skidmore, Owings & Merrill]], 1952{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=416}}
NewYorkSeagram 04.30.2008.JPG|[[Seagram Building]], New York City, by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, 1958{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=418}}
</gallery>
The International Style emerged in Europe after World War I, influenced by recent movements, including [[De Stijl]] and [[Streamline Moderne]], and had a close relationship to the [[Bauhaus]]. The antithesis of nearly every other architectural movement that preceded it, the International Style eliminated extraneous ornament and used modern industrial materials such as steel, glass, reinforced concrete and [[chrome plating]]. Rectilinear, flat-roofed, asymmetrical and white, it became a symbol of modernity across the world. It seemed to offer a crisp, clean, rational future after the horrors of war. Named by the architect [[Philip Johnson]] and historian [[Henry-Russell Hitchcock]] (1903–1987) in 1932, the movement was epitomized by [[Charles-Edouard Jeanneret]], or [[Le Corbusier]] and was clearly expressed in his statement that 'a house is a machine for living in'.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=42}}

====Brutalist====
{{Main|Brutalist architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Yale-Art-and-Architecture-Building-Rudolph-Hall-New-Haven-Connecticut-Apr-2014.jpg|alt=Rudolph Hall, New Haven, Connecticut, USA, by Paul Rudolph, 1963|[[Rudolph Hall]], [[New Haven, Connecticut]], US, by [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]], 1963{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=425}}
Montreal - QC - Habitat67 2.jpg|[[Habitat 67]], [[Montreal]], Canada, by [[Moshe Safdie]], 1966–1967{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=146}}
Geisel Library 3 2013-08-08.jpg|[[Geisel Library]], [[San Diego]], [[California]], US, by [[William Pereira]], 1970{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=426}}
Robarts Library-2.jpg|[[Robarts Library]], [[Toronto]], Canada, by Mathers & Halden Architects, 1973{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=425}}
Seattle Freeway Park 24.jpg|[[Freeway Park]] Fountain, [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], US, by [[Lawrence Halprin]], 1976{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=428}}
</gallery>
Based on social equality, Brutalism was inspired by [[Le Corbusier]]'s 1947-1952 [[Unité d'habitation]] in [[Marseilles]]. It seems the term was originally coined by Swedish architect [[Hans Asplund]] (1921–1994), but Le Corbusier's use of the description ''béton brut'', meaning raw concrete, for his choice of material for the Unité d'habitation was particularly influential. The style flourished from the 1950s to the mid-1970s, mainly using concrete, which although new in itself, was unconventional when exposed on facades. Before Brutalism, concrete was usually hidden beneath other materials.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=46}}

===Postmodern===
{{Main|Postmodern architecture}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:PiazzaDItalia1990.jpg|[[Piazza d'Italia (New Orleans)|Piazza d'Italia]], [[New Orleans]], USA, by [[Charles Moore (architect)|Charles Moore]], 1978{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=47}}
File:Stuttgart - Neue Staatsgalerie (35736927202).jpg|[[Neue Staatsgalerie]], [[Stuttgart]], Germany, by [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], 1984<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=William|title=Stone|date=2019|publisher=Phaidon|isbn=978-0-7148-7925-3|page=79|url=|language=en}}</ref>
File:Sony Building by David Shankbone crop.jpg|[[550 Madison Avenue|AT&T Headquarters]], New York City, by [[Philip Johnson]] and [[John Burgee]], 1984{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=502}}
File:The Walt Disney Company office.jpg|[[Team Disney]] Building, [[Los Angeles]], USA, by [[Michael Graves]], 1990{{sfn|Jones|2014|p=510}}

Pumping station, Stewart Street (geograph 4678320).jpg|[[Isle of Dogs Pumping Station]], London, [[John Outram]], 1988<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=121|url=|language=en}}</ref>

File:Cambridge University Judge Business School interior.jpg|Multicolour interior of the [[Cambridge Judge Business School]], [[Cambridge]], UK, by [[John Outram]], 1995<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gura|first1=Judith|title=Postmodern Design Complete|date=2017|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=978-0-500-51914-1|page=120|url=|language=en}}</ref>

A House For Essex - geograph.org.uk - 4471511.jpg|House for Essex, [[Wrabness]], [[Essex]], UK, by FAT and [[Grayson Perry]], 2014<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watkin|first1=David|title=A History of Western Architecture|date=2022|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-52942-030-2|page=722|url=|language=en}}</ref>
</gallery>
Not one definable style, Postmodernism is an eclectic mix of approaches that appeared in the late 20th century in reaction against Modernism, which was increasingly perceived as monotonous and conservative. As with many movements, a complete antithesis to Modernism developed. In 1966, the architect [[Robert Venturi]] (1925–2018) had published his book, ''Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture'', which praised the originality and creativity of [[Mannerist architecture|Mannerist]] and [[Baroque architecture]] of Rome, and encouraged more ambiguity and complexity in contemporary design. Complaining about the austerity and tedium of so many smooth steel and glass Modernist buildings, and in deliberate denunciation of the famous Modernist 'Less is more', Venturi stated 'Less is a bore'. His theories became a majore influence on the development of Postmodernism.{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=47}}

====Deconstructivist====
{{Main|Deconstructivism}}
<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
Wexner Center for the Arts by Peter Eisenman.jpg|[[Wexner Center for the Arts]], [[Ohio State University]], [[Columbus, Ohio]], US, by [[Peter Eisenman]], 1989{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=531}}

Vitra Campus - Hadid Fire Station - full view, blue sky.jpg|[[:commons:Category:Vitra fire station|Vitra Fire Station]], [[Weil am Rhein]], Germany, by [[Zaha Hadid]], 1989–1993{{sfn|Hodge|2019|p=154}}

Jewish Museum Berlin - panoramio (3).jpg|[[Jewish Museum Berlin|Jewish Museum]], Berlin, Germany, by [[Daniel Libeskind]], 1992–1999{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=205}}

Bilbao - Guggenheim aurore.jpg|[[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]], [[Bilbao]], Spain, by [[Frank Gehry]], opened in 1997{{sfn|Hopkins|2014|p=206}}

5307 Wolfsburg.JPG|[[Phaeno Science Center]], [[Wolfsburg]], Germany, by Zaha Hadid, 2005<ref>{{cite book|last1=Melvin|first1=Jeremy|title=…isme Să Înțelegem Stilurile Arhitecturale|date=2006|publisher=Enciclopedia RAO|isbn=973-717-075-X|page=137|url=|language=ro}}</ref>
</gallery>
Deconstructivism in architecture is a development of [[postmodern architecture]] that began in the late 1980s. It is characterized by ideas of fragmentation, [[Nonlinear (arts)|non-linear]] processes of design, an interest in manipulating ideas of a structure's surface or skin, and apparent [[non-Euclidean geometry]],<ref>Husserl, ''Origins of Geometry'', Introduction by Jacques Derrida</ref> (i.e., non-[[rectilinear polygon|rectilinear]] shapes) which serve to distort and dislocate some of the [[Design elements|elements of architecture]], such as structure and [[building envelope|envelope]]. The finished visual appearance of buildings that exhibit the many deconstructivist "styles" is characterised by a stimulating unpredictability and a controlled chaos.

Important events in the history of the Deconstructivist movement include the 1982 [[Parc de la Villette]] [[architectural design competition]] (especially the entry from the French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] and the American architect [[Peter Eisenman]]<ref>Jacques Derrida and Peter Eisenman, ''Chora L Works'' (New York: Monacelli Press, 1997)</ref> and [[Bernard Tschumi]]'s winning entry), the [[Museum of Modern Art]]'s 1988 ''Deconstructivist Architecture'' exhibition in New York, organized by [[Philip Johnson]] and [[Mark Wigley]], and the 1989 opening of the [[Wexner Center for the Arts]] in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], designed by Peter Eisenman. The New York exhibition featured works by [[Frank Gehry]], [[Daniel Libeskind]], [[Rem Koolhaas]], [[Peter Eisenman]], [[Zaha Hadid]], [[Coop Himmelblau]], and [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Since the exhibition, many of the architects who were associated with Deconstructivism have distanced themselves from the term. Nonetheless, the term has stuck and has now, in fact, come to embrace a general trend within contemporary architecture.

Revisi per 3 Juli 2024 08.21

Sejarah arsitektur melacak perubahan dalam arsitektur melewati berbagai tradisi, wilayah, tren gaya keseluruhan, dan periode. Semuanya dianggap berawal dari upaya manusia untuk memenuhi kebutuhan yang sangat mendasar, yaitu tempat tinggal dan perlindungan.[1] Istilah "arsitektur" secara umum mengacu pada bangunan, tetapi pada dasarnya jauh lebih luas, termasuk bidang-bidang yang sekarang kita anggap sebagai bentuk-bentuk praktik yang terspesialisasi, seperti urbanisme, teknik sipil, teknik perkapalan, teknik militer,[2] dan arsitektur lanskap.

Tren dalam arsitektur dipengaruhi, di antara faktor-faktor lainnya, oleh inovasi teknologi, terutama pada abad ke-19, 20, dan 21. Peningkatan dan/atau penggunaan baja, besi tuang, ubin, beton bertulang, dan kaca misalnya memicu kemunculan Art Nouveau dan membuat Beaux Arts menjadi semakin megah.[3]

Dunia

Barok

Artikel utama: Arsitektur Barok
Lihat pula: Gaya Louis XIV style dan Taman Barok

Barok muncul dari Reformasi Katolik sebagai upaya Gereja Katolik Roma untuk menyampaikan kekuatannya dan menekankan keagungan Tuhan. Barok dan variannya yang terakhir, Rokoko, merupakan gaya pertama yang benar-benar mendunia dalam seni. Mendominasi lebih dari dua abad seni dan arsitektur di Eropa, Amerika Latin, dan sekitarnya dari sekitar tahun 1580 hingga sekitar tahun 1800. Bermula di studio lukis Bologna dan Roma pada tahun 1580-an dan 1590-an, serta studio seni pahat dan arsitektur Romawi pada dekade kedua dan ketiga abad ke-17, Barok menyebar dengan cepat ke seluruh Italia, Spanyol dan Portugal, Flanders, Prancis, Belanda, Inggris, Skandinavia, dan Rusia, serta ke pusat-pusat Eropa tengah dan timur dari Munich (Jerman) hingga Vilnius (Lithuania). Kekaisaran Portugis, Spanyol, dan Prancis, serta jaringan perdagangan Belanda memiliki peran utama dalam menyebarkan kedua gaya ini ke Amerika serta Afrika dan Asia yang terjajah, ke berbagai tempat seperti Lima, Mozambik, Goa, dan Filipina.[13] Karena penyebarannya di wilayah dengan tradisi arsitektur yang berbeda, beberapa jenis Barok muncul menyesuaikan lokasi, berbeda dalam beberapa aspek, tetapi secara keseluruhan serupa. Sebagai contoh, Barok Prancis tampak tegas dan berbeda dari asalnya, mendahului Neoklasikisme dan arsitektur Zaman Pencerahan.[4] Arsitektur Barok campuran Amerika asli/Eropa pertama kali muncul di Amerika Selatan (bukannya Meksiko) pada akhir abad ke-17, setelah simbol dan gaya asli yang menjadi ciri khas varian Barok yang tidak biasa ini telah dipertahankan selama abad sebelumnya di media lain, contoh yang sangat baik dari hal ini adalah Gereja Jesuit di Arequipa (Peru).[14]

Rokoko

Artikel utama: Rokoko dan Rocaille
Lihat pula: Gaya Louis XV

Nama Rokoko berasal dari kata Prancis rocaille, yang menggambarkan cangkang pada kerajinan batu berhias cangkang, dan coquille, yang berarti kerang. Arsitektur Rococo menampilkan kesan mewah dan mengalir, menonjolkan asimetri, dengan penggunaan lekukan, gulungan, penyepuhan, dan ornamen yang melimpah. Gaya ini sangat populer di kalangan elite penguasa Eropa selama paruh pertama abad ke-18. Gaya ini berkembang di Prancis sebagai mode baru dalam dekorasi interior, dan menyebar ke seluruh Eropa.[19] Rokoko domestik mengesampingkan atribut Barok yang tinggi; alegori beratnya dan obsesinya terhadap legitimasi: pada kenyataannya, bentuk-bentuk abstrak dan tema-tema pastoral yang riang dan bebas lebih berkaitan dengan pesan perlindungan dan kegembiraan yang menciptakan suasana yang lebih bersahabat untuk percakapan yang sopan. Kamar-kamar Rococo biasanya lebih kecil daripada kamar Barok, yang mencerminkan gerakan menuju keintiman domestik. Bahkan salon-salon megah yang digunakan untuk menjamu tamu pun berskala lebih sederhana, karena acara-acara sosial melibatkan jumlah tamu yang lebih sedikit.

Eksotisme

Artikel utama: Eksotisme

Interaksi antara Timur dan Barat yang disebabkan oleh penjelajahan kolonialis meninggalkan jejak pada estetika. Sebagai sesuatu yang langka dan baru bagi orang Barat, beberapa gaya non-Eropa mendapat tempat selama abad ke-17, 18, dan 19. Beberapa bangsawan dan raja membangun bangunan kecil yang terinspirasi oleh gaya ini di taman istana mereka, atau mendekorasi beberapa ruangan istana dengan gaya ini. Karena tidak sepenuhnya memahami asal-usul dan prinsip-prinsip yang mengatur estetika eksotis ini, orang Eropa terkadang menciptakan pencampuran dari gaya yang mereka coba tiru dan yang menjadi tren saat itu. Contoh yang baik dari hal ini adalah chinoiserie, gaya dekoratif Barat, yang populer selama abad ke-18, yang sangat terinspirasi oleh seni Cina, tetapi juga oleh Rokoko pada saat yang sama. Karena bepergian ke Tiongkok atau negara Timur Jauh lainnya merupakan sesuatu yang sulit pada saat itu dan tetap asing bagi kebanyakan orang Barat, imajinasi Eropa didorong oleh persepsi Asia sebagai tempat kekayaan dan kemewahan, dan akibatnya, para penikmat seni dari kaisar hingga pedagang berlomba-lomba untuk menghiasi tempat tinggal mereka dengan barang-barang Asia dan mendekorasinya dengan gaya Asia. Ketika benda-benda Asia sulit didapat, para pengrajin dan pelukis Eropa melangkah maju untuk memenuhi permintaan tersebut, menciptakan perpaduan antara bentuk-bentuk Rokoko dan figur, motif, dan teknik Asia.

Neoklasik

Artikel utama: Arsitektur neoklasik
Lihat pula: Arsitektur Palladian, Gaya Louis XVI, Gaya Adam, dan Gaya Imperium

Arsitektur Neoklasik berfokus pada detail Yunani dan Romawi Kuno, dinding polos dan putih, serta kemegahan skala. Dibandingkan dengan gaya sebelumnya, Barok dan Rokoko, eksterior Neoklasik cenderung lebih minimalis, menampilkan garis-garis lurus dan bersudut, namun tetap berornamen. Garis-garis yang jelas dan rasa keseimbangan serta proporsi gaya ini bekerja dengan baik untuk bangunan-bangunan megah (seperti Panthéon di Paris) dan juga bangunan yang lebih kecil (seperti Petit Trianon).

Penggalian selama abad ke-18 di Pompeii dan Herculaneum, yang keduanya terkubur di bawah abu vulkanik selama letusan Gunung Vesuvius pada tahun 79 Masehi, mengilhami kembalinya keteraturan dan rasionalitas, sebagian besar berkat tulisan-tulisan dari Johann Joachim Winckelmann.[38][39] Pada pertengahan abad ke-18, zaman kuno dijunjung tinggi sebagai standar arsitektur yang belum pernah ada sebelumnya. Neoklasikisme adalah penyelidikan mendasar tentang dasar-dasar bentuk dan makna arsitektur. Pada tahun 1750-an, kerja sama eksplorasi arkeologi dan teori arsitektur dimulai, yang akan terus berlanjut pada abad ke-19. Marc-Antoine Laugier menulis pada tahun 1753 bahwa 'Arsitektur benar-benar berutang kepada orang-orang Yunani'.[40]

Referensi

  1. ^ Ching, Francis, D.K. and Eckler, James F. Introduction to Architecture. 2013. John Wiley & Sons. p13
  2. ^ Architecture. Def. 1. Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition on CD-ROM (v. 4.0) Oxford University Press 2009
  3. ^ Virginia McLeod, Belle Place, Sarah Kramer, Milena Harrison-Gray, and Cristopher Lacy (2019). HOUSES - Extraordinary Living. Phaidon. hlm. 9. ISBN 978-0-7148-7809-6. 
  4. ^ a b Jones 2014, hlm. 223.
  5. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 226.
  6. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 211.
  7. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 328.
  8. ^ Hodge 2019, hlm. 102.
  9. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 238.
  10. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 216.
  11. ^ Martin, Henry (1927). Le Style Louis XIV (dalam bahasa Prancis). Flammarion. hlm. 39. 
  12. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 230.
  13. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 4.
  14. ^ Bailey 2012, hlm. 364.
  15. ^ Hall, William (2019). Stone (dalam bahasa Inggris). Phaidon. hlm. 185. ISBN 978-0-7148-7925-3. 
  16. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 241.
  17. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture (dalam bahasa Inggris). Laurence King. hlm. 419. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2. 
  18. ^ a b Jones 2014, hlm. 238.
  19. ^ Hodge 2019, hlm. 30.
  20. ^ Sund 2019, hlm. 104.
  21. ^ "Kina slott, Drottningholm". www.sfv.se. National Property Board of Sweden. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 6 August 2014. Diakses tanggal 2 August 2014. 
  22. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 264.
  23. ^ Sund 2019, hlm. 151.
  24. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 262.
  25. ^ Sund 2019, hlm. 216.
  26. ^ Hopkins 2014, hlm. 130.
  27. ^ Texier, Simon (2022). Architectures Art Déco - Paris et Environs - 100 Bâtiments Remarquable (dalam bahasa Inggris). Parigramme. hlm. 37. ISBN 978-2-37395-136-3. 
  28. ^ Weston, Richard (2011). 100 Ideas That Changed Architecture (dalam bahasa Inggris). Laurence King. hlm. 84. ISBN 978-1-78627-567-7. 
  29. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 276.
  30. ^ a b Jones 2014, hlm. 273.
  31. ^ de Martin 1925, hlm. 17.
  32. ^ Fortenberry 2017, hlm. 274.
  33. ^ de Martin 1925, hlm. 61.
  34. ^ Jones 2014, hlm. 275.
  35. ^ Hall, William (2019). Stone (dalam bahasa Inggris). Phaidon. hlm. 159. ISBN 978-0-7148-7925-3. 
  36. ^ Steffens, Martin (2004). Schinkel (dalam bahasa Rumania). Taschen. hlm. 37. ISBN 973-7959-11-6. 
  37. ^ Hopkins 2014, hlm. 109.
  38. ^ Hodge 2019, hlm. 31.
  39. ^ http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/critics/winckelmann.htm
  40. ^ Bergdoll 2000, hlm. 9, 14.
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