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==== Dinasti Tang ====
==== Dinasti Tang ====
[[Berkas:Dinastia_tang,_caravaniere_straniero,_cina_del_nord,_vii_sec.JPG|jmpl| Pedagang karavan asing pada Dinasti Tang. ]]
[[Berkas:Dinastia_tang,_caravaniere_straniero,_cina_del_nord,_vii_sec.JPG|jmpl|Pedagang karavan asing pada Dinasti Tang.]]
Bangsawan [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Sasaniyah]], seperti [[Peroz III]] dan putranya, [[Narsieh]], lari dari invasi Islam Arab atas Sasaniyah Persia demi menyelamatkan diri ke Tiongkok pada zaman [[Dinasti Tang]]. Di sana mereka memperoleh suaka.
Bangsawan [[Kekaisaran Sasaniyah|Sasaniyah]], seperti [[Peroz III]] dan putranya, [[Narsieh]], lari dari invasi Islam Arab atas Sasaniyah Persia demi menyelamatkan diri ke Tiongkok pada zaman [[Dinasti Tang]]. Di sana mereka memperoleh suaka.


Bajak laut Tiongkok bernama Feng Ruofang menyimpan beberapa budak Persia di Hainan yang ditangkap dalam perompakan kapal pada abad ke-8.{{sfn|University of California|1951|p=407}} Feng menurunkan budak-budak Persia itu di Hainan dalam pelayaran mereka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=f0zZPMlu0L0C&pg=PA230&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=Archäologie und Frühe Texte|last=|first=|date=2004|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3447050609|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of South China and maritime Asia|location=|page=230|issn=0945-9286|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=glZODQAAQBAJ&pg=PT649&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|date=2016|publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing|isbn=978-1787201125|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CjibFs9JlgoC&pg=PA403&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order|last=|first=|date=2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-1934536568|volume=Volume 4 of Penn Museum international research conferences|location=|page=403|author-link=}}</ref>{{sfn|University of California|1951|p=407}} Orang-orang Persia mencari tanaman kayu keras yang tumbuh di Provinsi Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yaeESYegRXMC&pg=PA180&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=The Vermilion Bird|last=Schafer|first=Edward Hetzel|date=1967|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=|location=|page=180|author-link=}}</ref> Pada tahun 758 bangsa Persia dan Arab melakukan [[Pembantaian Guangzhou|penyerangan ke Kanton]] dan dua tahun setelah itu, [[Pembantaian Yangzhou (760)|di Yangzhou]] orang-orang Persia dan Arab diserang oleh pemberontak Tiongkok.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=a61wAAAAMAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Monumenta Serica, Volumes 35-36|last=Fu ren da xue (Beijing, China), S.V.D. Research Institute, Society of the Divine Word, Monumenta Serica Institute|date=1984|publisher=H. Vetch|isbn=|location=|page=289|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://duguoxue.cn/baike/5781.html|title=第四节 唐代中西文化交流的盛况|last=|first=|date=2014-08-18|website=读国学网|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref> Di Hainan 100 kati dupa dibakar oleh Feng dalam satu waktu.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LhJiAAAAMAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Monographs on Malay Subjects, Volume 32, Part 2|last=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch, Singapore, Project Muse|date=1961|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=32|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_o66AAAAIAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Southeast Asia-China interactions: reprint of articles from the Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society|last=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch|date=2007|publisher=Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|isbn=978-9679948387|editor-last=Wade|editor-first=Geoff|location=|page=201|author-link=|issue=Issue 25 of M.B.R.A.S. reprint}}</ref>
Bajak laut Tiongkok bernama Feng Ruofang menyimpan beberapa budak Persia di Hainan yang ditangkap dalam perompakan kapal pada abad ke-8.{{sfn|University of California|1951|p=407}} Feng menurunkan budak-budak Persia itu di Hainan dalam pelayaran mereka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=f0zZPMlu0L0C&pg=PA230&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=Archäologie und Frühe Texte|last=|first=|date=2004|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3447050609|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of South China and maritime Asia|location=|page=230|issn=0945-9286|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=glZODQAAQBAJ&pg=PT649&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics|last=Schafer|first=Edward H.|date=2016|publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing|isbn=978-1787201125|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=CjibFs9JlgoC&pg=PA403&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order|last=|first=|date=2012|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-1934536568|volume=Volume 4 of Penn Museum international research conferences|location=|page=403|author-link=}}</ref>{{sfn|University of California|1951|p=407}} Orang-orang Persia mencari tanaman kayu keras yang tumbuh di Provinsi Guangdong.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=yaeESYegRXMC&pg=PA180&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan#v=onepage&q=feng%20pirate%20persians%20hainan&f=false|title=The Vermilion Bird|last=Schafer|first=Edward Hetzel|date=1967|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=|location=|page=180|author-link=}}</ref> Pada tahun 758 bangsa Persia dan Arab melakukan [[Pembantaian Guangzhou|penyerangan ke Kanton]] dan dua tahun setelah itu, [[Pembantaian Yangzhou (760)|di Yangzhou]] orang-orang Persia dan Arab diserang oleh pemberontak Tiongkok.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=a61wAAAAMAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Monumenta Serica, Volumes 35-36|last=Fu ren da xue (Beijing, China), S.V.D. Research Institute, Society of the Divine Word, Monumenta Serica Institute|date=1984|publisher=H. Vetch|isbn=|location=|page=289|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://duguoxue.cn/baike/5781.html|title=第四节 唐代中西文化交流的盛况|last=|first=|date=2014-08-18|website=读国学网|publisher=|access-date=|quote=|archive-date=2018-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422202044/http://duguoxue.cn/baike/5781.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref> Di Hainan 100 kati dupa dibakar oleh Feng dalam satu waktu.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LhJiAAAAMAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Monographs on Malay Subjects, Volume 32, Part 2|last=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch, Singapore, Project Muse|date=1961|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=32|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=_o66AAAAIAAJ&q=feng+pirate+persians+hainan&dq=feng+pirate+persians+hainan|title=Southeast Asia-China interactions: reprint of articles from the Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society|last=Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch|date=2007|publisher=Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society|isbn=978-9679948387|editor-last=Wade|editor-first=Geoff|location=|page=201|author-link=|issue=Issue 25 of M.B.R.A.S. reprint}}</ref>


==== Periode Lima Dinasti dan Sepuluh Negara ====
==== Periode Lima Dinasti dan Sepuluh Negara ====
Baris 41: Baris 41:
Guangzhou (Kanton) memiliki satu komunitas termasuk perempuan-perempuan Persia pada abad ke-10 hingga ke-12. Perempuan Persia ada di harem Liu Chang pada abad ke-10 dan pada abad ke-12, perempuan-perempuan Persia (波斯 婦) di sana terlihat mengenakan banyak anting.{{sfn|University of California|1951}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AC%E9%83%9B_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7027%E4%B8%8A|title=説郛 (四庫全書本)|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷027上|location=|page=|quote=泉福二州婦人轎子則用金漆雇婦人以荷福州以為肩擎至他男子則不肻肩也廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴帶環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食㯽榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆唾血家家盡篾門又婦人㐫悍喜鬬訟雖遭刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣中於緑珠而已邪|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=雞肋編 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|chapter=全覽|quote=廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴𢃄環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食梹榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆吐血家家盡篾門又婦女凶悍喜闘訟雖SKchar刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣鍾於緑珠而已耶|author-link=|chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9E%E8%82%8B%E7%B7%A8_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%85%A8%E8%A6%BD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=説郛 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|chapter=全覽2|quote=泉福二州婦人轎子則用金漆雇婦人以荷福州以為肩擎至他男子則不肻肩也廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴帶環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食㯽榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆唾血家家盡篾門又婦人㐫悍喜鬬訟雖遭刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣中於緑珠而已邪|author-link=|chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AC%E9%83%9B_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%85%A8%E8%A6%BD2}}</ref>
Guangzhou (Kanton) memiliki satu komunitas termasuk perempuan-perempuan Persia pada abad ke-10 hingga ke-12. Perempuan Persia ada di harem Liu Chang pada abad ke-10 dan pada abad ke-12, perempuan-perempuan Persia (波斯 婦) di sana terlihat mengenakan banyak anting.{{sfn|University of California|1951}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AC%E9%83%9B_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B7027%E4%B8%8A|title=説郛 (四庫全書本)|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷027上|location=|page=|quote=泉福二州婦人轎子則用金漆雇婦人以荷福州以為肩擎至他男子則不肻肩也廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴帶環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食㯽榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆唾血家家盡篾門又婦人㐫悍喜鬬訟雖遭刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣中於緑珠而已邪|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=雞肋編 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|chapter=全覽|quote=廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴𢃄環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食梹榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆吐血家家盡篾門又婦女凶悍喜闘訟雖SKchar刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣鍾於緑珠而已耶|author-link=|chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E9%9B%9E%E8%82%8B%E7%B7%A8_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%85%A8%E8%A6%BD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=説郛 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|chapter=全覽2|quote=泉福二州婦人轎子則用金漆雇婦人以荷福州以為肩擎至他男子則不肻肩也廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴帶環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食㯽榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆唾血家家盡篾門又婦人㐫悍喜鬬訟雖遭刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣中於緑珠而已邪|author-link=|chapter-url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%AA%AC%E9%83%9B_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%85%A8%E8%A6%BD2}}</ref>


Berdasarkan buku [[Zhu Yu (pengarang)|Zhu Yu]] "Pingzhou ke tan" 萍 洲 可 談, para perempuan muslim di Guangzhou dipanggil perempuan Persia 波斯 婦 atau Pusaman [[:zh:菩薩蠻|菩薩蠻]]菩萨蛮 yang mungkin berasal dari "Mussulman" atau "Bussulman" yang berarti Muslim dalam bahasa Persia.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=2010-04-01|title=蕃坊里的回族先民|url=http://minzu.people.com.cn/GB/165244/11280580.html|work=人民网-中国民族新闻|location=|access-date=22 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=Liu+Ch%27ang+Persian+woman&q=somewhat+corrupt|title=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library)., Issue 2|last=Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu|date=1928|publisher=Toyo Bunko|isbn=|series=Publications - Tōyō Bunko. Ser. B|volume=Volume 10171 of Harvard anthropology preservation microfilm project|location=|page=34|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IZ_WAAAAMAAJ&dq=Liu+Ch%27ang+Persian+woman&q=somewhat+corrupt|title=Memoirs of the Research Department|last=Tōyō Bunko (Japan)|date=|publisher=|isbn=|series=Tokyo Bunko publications|location=|page=34|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV9_YvgUmpsC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The History of Women's Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own|last=Jaschok|first=Maria|last2=Shui|first2=Jingjun|date=2000|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0700713028|edition=illustrated|location=|page=73|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=499ZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP536&lpg=PP536&dq=%E6%99%AE%E8%96%A9+%E6%A8%82%E5%BA%9C#v=onepage&q=%E6%99%AE%E8%96%A9%20%E6%A8%82%E5%BA%9C&f=false|title=Hai shan xian guan cong shu, Volume 13|last=|first=|date=1849|publisher=Hai shan xian guan|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87/%E5%8D%B7%E4%BA%8C|title=萍洲可談|last=朱|first=彧|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷二|location=|page=|id=([https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=57805 page link])|quote=廣州雜俗，婦人強，男子弱。婦人十八九，戴烏絲髻，衣皂半臂，謂之「遊街背子」。樂府有「菩薩蠻」，不知何物，在廣中見呼蕃婦為「菩薩蠻」，因識之。|author-link=}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B72|title=萍洲可談 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷2|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref> Pusaman juga merupakan nama langgam 樂府 tentang penari-penari perempuan yang dikirim sebagai upeti ke Tiongkok.<ref>唐唐蘇鄂《杜陽雜編》：大中初，女蠻國入貢，危髻金冠，纓絡被體，號菩薩蠻隊，當時倡優遂制《菩薩蠻》曲，文士亦往往聲其詞。</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB_(%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%AD%E7%AD%A0)|title=菩薩蠻 (溫庭筠)|last=溫|first=庭筠|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB_(%E9%9F%8B%E8%8E%8A)|title=菩薩蠻 (韋莊)|last=韋|first=莊|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.xuite.net/chiahuahsieh0823/wretch/152510524-%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%AD%E7%AD%A0%E3%80%88%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB%E3%80%89%E8%B3%9E%E6%9E%90|title=溫庭筠〈菩薩蠻〉|last=|first=|date=2007-01-01|website=|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref>
Berdasarkan buku [[Zhu Yu (pengarang)|Zhu Yu]] "Pingzhou ke tan" 萍 洲 可 談, para perempuan muslim di Guangzhou dipanggil perempuan Persia 波斯 婦 atau Pusaman [[:zh:菩薩蠻|菩薩蠻]]菩萨蛮 yang mungkin berasal dari "Mussulman" atau "Bussulman" yang berarti Muslim dalam bahasa Persia.<ref>{{Cite news|last=|first=|date=2010-04-01|title=蕃坊里的回族先民|url=http://minzu.people.com.cn/GB/165244/11280580.html|work=人民网-中国民族新闻|location=|access-date=22 April 2018|archive-date=2018-04-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180420075425/http://minzu.people.com.cn/GB/165244/11280580.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rBIUAQAAMAAJ&dq=Liu+Ch%27ang+Persian+woman&q=somewhat+corrupt|title=Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library)., Issue 2|last=Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu|date=1928|publisher=Toyo Bunko|isbn=|series=Publications - Tōyō Bunko. Ser. B|volume=Volume 10171 of Harvard anthropology preservation microfilm project|location=|page=34|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IZ_WAAAAMAAJ&dq=Liu+Ch%27ang+Persian+woman&q=somewhat+corrupt|title=Memoirs of the Research Department|last=Tōyō Bunko (Japan)|date=|publisher=|isbn=|series=Tokyo Bunko publications|location=|page=34|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jV9_YvgUmpsC&pg=PA73#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=The History of Women's Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own|last=Jaschok|first=Maria|last2=Shui|first2=Jingjun|date=2000|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0700713028|edition=illustrated|location=|page=73|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=499ZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PP536&lpg=PP536&dq=%E6%99%AE%E8%96%A9+%E6%A8%82%E5%BA%9C#v=onepage&q=%E6%99%AE%E8%96%A9%20%E6%A8%82%E5%BA%9C&f=false|title=Hai shan xian guan cong shu, Volume 13|last=|first=|date=1849|publisher=Hai shan xian guan|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87/%E5%8D%B7%E4%BA%8C|title=萍洲可談|last=朱|first=彧|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷二|location=|page=|id=([https://ctext.org/wiki.pl?if=gb&chapter=57805 page link])|quote=廣州雜俗，婦人強，男子弱。婦人十八九，戴烏絲髻，衣皂半臂，謂之「遊街背子」。樂府有「菩薩蠻」，不知何物，在廣中見呼蕃婦為「菩薩蠻」，因識之。|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E8%90%8D%E6%B4%B2%E5%8F%AF%E8%AB%87_(%E5%9B%9B%E5%BA%AB%E5%85%A8%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC)/%E5%8D%B72|title=萍洲可談 (四庫全書本)|last=|first=|date=|publisher=|isbn=|volume=卷2|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref> Pusaman juga merupakan nama langgam 樂府 tentang penari-penari perempuan yang dikirim sebagai upeti ke Tiongkok.<ref>唐唐蘇鄂《杜陽雜編》：大中初，女蠻國入貢，危髻金冠，纓絡被體，號菩薩蠻隊，當時倡優遂制《菩薩蠻》曲，文士亦往往聲其詞。</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB_(%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%AD%E7%AD%A0)|title=菩薩蠻 (溫庭筠)|last=溫|first=庭筠|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hant/%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB_(%E9%9F%8B%E8%8E%8A)|title=菩薩蠻 (韋莊)|last=韋|first=莊|date=|publisher=|isbn=|location=|page=|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://blog.xuite.net/chiahuahsieh0823/wretch/152510524-%E6%BA%AB%E5%BA%AD%E7%AD%A0%E3%80%88%E8%8F%A9%E8%96%A9%E8%A0%BB%E3%80%89%E8%B3%9E%E6%9E%90|title=溫庭筠〈菩薩蠻〉|last=|first=|date=2007-01-01|website=|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref>


==== Dinasti Ming ====
==== Dinasti Ming ====
Baris 52: Baris 52:
[[Sogdiana|Orang-orang Sogdiana]] di Tiongkok menggunakan 9 nama keluarga Tionghoa sesuai dengan nama-nama Tionghoa negara bagian asal mereka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fCdCDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA828&lpg=PA828&dq=kang+shi+an+cao+shi+mi+he+huoxun+wudi#v=onepage&q=kang%20shi%20an%20cao%20shi%20mi%20he%20huoxun%20wudi&f=false|title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval China|last=Xiong|first=Victor Cunrui|date=2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442276161|edition=2|volume=Volume 2 of Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras|location=|page=838|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1611&lpg=PT1611&dq=kang+shi+an+cao+shi+mi+he+huoxun+wudi#v=onepage&q=kang%20shi%20an%20cao%20shi%20mi%20he%20huoxun%20wudi&f=false|title=The Silk Road Encyclopedia|last=Jeong|first=Su-Il|date=2016|publisher=Seoul Selection|isbn=978-1624120763}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=07-12-2017 |title=Pei Ju, an Unsung Hero |url=https://www.pressreader.com/china/beijing-english/20171207/281552291198160 |location=Beijing}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Aierken|first=Yipaer|date=|title=Redefining the Art and Culture of Sogdians: From Ethnic Identity Construction to Zoroastrianism, Who Were the Sogdians?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322603609_Redefining_the_Art_and_Culture_of_Sogdians_From_Ethnic_Identity_Construction_to_Zoroastrianism_Who_Were_the_Sogdians|publisher=Arizona State University|}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=|title=Some Chinese Sources on the Khazars and Khwarazm|last=Ying|first=Lin |date=2000–2001|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=|series=ARCHIVUM EURASIAE MEDII AEVI|location=Wiesbaden|pages=339–364|author-link=|issue=11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imperialchina.org/Turks_Uygurs.html|title=Turk & Uygur (UIGUR, UIGHUIR, UIGUIR, and WEIWUER) -- Political, Social, Cultural, Historical Analysis of China -- Research into Origins of Huns, Uygurs, Mongols and Tibetans}}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=157}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA151&dq=yena+sogdian+name |title=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia|last=Nicolini-Zani|first=Mattco |date=2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3643903297|editor-last=Tang|editor-first=Li|edition=illustrasi |location=|page=|editor-last2=Winkler|editor-first2=Dietmar W.}}</ref>
[[Sogdiana|Orang-orang Sogdiana]] di Tiongkok menggunakan 9 nama keluarga Tionghoa sesuai dengan nama-nama Tionghoa negara bagian asal mereka.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=fCdCDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA828&lpg=PA828&dq=kang+shi+an+cao+shi+mi+he+huoxun+wudi#v=onepage&q=kang%20shi%20an%20cao%20shi%20mi%20he%20huoxun%20wudi&f=false|title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval China|last=Xiong|first=Victor Cunrui|date=2017|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-1442276161|edition=2|volume=Volume 2 of Historical Dictionaries of Ancient Civilizations and Historical Eras|location=|page=838|author-link=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT1611&lpg=PT1611&dq=kang+shi+an+cao+shi+mi+he+huoxun+wudi#v=onepage&q=kang%20shi%20an%20cao%20shi%20mi%20he%20huoxun%20wudi&f=false|title=The Silk Road Encyclopedia|last=Jeong|first=Su-Il|date=2016|publisher=Seoul Selection|isbn=978-1624120763}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=07-12-2017 |title=Pei Ju, an Unsung Hero |url=https://www.pressreader.com/china/beijing-english/20171207/281552291198160 |location=Beijing}}</ref><ref>{{Cite thesis|last=Aierken|first=Yipaer|date=|title=Redefining the Art and Culture of Sogdians: From Ethnic Identity Construction to Zoroastrianism, Who Were the Sogdians?|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/322603609_Redefining_the_Art_and_Culture_of_Sogdians_From_Ethnic_Identity_Construction_to_Zoroastrianism_Who_Were_the_Sogdians|publisher=Arizona State University|}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=|title=Some Chinese Sources on the Khazars and Khwarazm|last=Ying|first=Lin |date=2000–2001|publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=|series=ARCHIVUM EURASIAE MEDII AEVI|location=Wiesbaden|pages=339–364|author-link=|issue=11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.imperialchina.org/Turks_Uygurs.html|title=Turk & Uygur (UIGUR, UIGHUIR, UIGUIR, and WEIWUER) -- Political, Social, Cultural, Historical Analysis of China -- Research into Origins of Huns, Uygurs, Mongols and Tibetans}}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=157}}<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/?id=VYaMuV3N5vUC&pg=PA151&dq=yena+sogdian+name |title=From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia|last=Nicolini-Zani|first=Mattco |date=2013|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3643903297|editor-last=Tang|editor-first=Li|edition=illustrasi |location=|page=|editor-last2=Winkler|editor-first2=Dietmar W.}}</ref>


Populasi Han dan Sogdiana ada di Xizhou.{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=68}} Sebuah catatan dari Pemakaman Astana yang berasal dari tahun 639 menunjukkan transaksi penjualan seorang budak gadis Sogdiana. Catatan itu diterjemahkan oleh He Deli, seorang Sogdiana yang tahu bahasa Turki dan Tionghoa.{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=70}}{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=383}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=159}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=149–161}}{{sfn|Hansen|2005|p=37-46}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://m.aisixiang.com/data/77843-4.html|title=荣新江：丝绸之路上的粟特商人与贸易网络|last=荣 |first=新江|date=14-09-2014|website=爱思想|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grenet|first=Frantz|date=December 2003|editor-last=Waugh|editor-first=Daniel C.|editor2-last=Salfrank|editor2-first=Heather|title=The Pre-Islamic Civilization of the Sogdians (seventh century BCE to eighth century CE): A Bibliographic Essay (studies since 1986)|url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/srjournal_v1n2.pdf|journal=The Silk Road|volume=1|issue=2|pages=31|doi=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%20Studies/Sogdian_Traders__A_History__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies___Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf|title=Sogdian Traders: A History|last=De La Vaissière|first=Étienne|date=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=90 04 14252 5|series=Étienne De La Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik|volume=10|location=|pages=132, 169, 170, 173, 355|issn=0169-8524|issue=SECTION EIGHT CENTRAL ASIA}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=Negotiating Daily Life in Traditional China. How Ordinary People Used Contracts 600–1400 |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |page=285 |language=en}}</ref><ref>——, “New Works on the Sogdians, the Most Important Traders on the Silk Road, A.D. 500–1000” with an Appendix by Y. Yoshida “Translation of the Contract for the Purchase of a Slave-Girl found at Turfan and Dated 639”, T’oung Pao, LXXXIX, 2003, pp. 149–161.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500–800” |editors=É. de la Vaissière, É. Trombert (eds.) |journal=Les Sogdiens en Chine, (Études thématiques, 14) |location=Paris |publisher=EFEO |year=2005 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J. P.|date=Winter 2010|title=Bronze Age Languages of the Tarim Basin|url=https://issuu.com/pennmuseum/docs/ssr_expedition|journal=Expedition Magazine (Silk Road Issue)|volume=52|page=45|issn=0014-4738|language=en}}</ref> Gadis budak itu dibayar sebesar 120 koin perak.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Valerie|last2=Rong|first2=Xinjiang|date=2013|title=How the Residents of Turfan used Textiles as Money, 273–796 ce|url=https://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VALERIE%20HANSEN%20and%20XINJIANG%20RONG.pdf |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|series=3|volume=23 |issue=2|pages=290 |doi=10.1017/S1356186313000205|access-date=}}</ref> <ref name="从出土文物看唐代的胡人女性形象1">{{Cite journal|last=杨|first=瑾|author-link=|date=September 2010|title=从出土文物看唐代的胡人女性形象[1]|url=http://www.sxlib.org.cn/dfzy/sxdwljgb/tddl/yjwx_5659/yjlz_5660/qlwhyjw/201704/t20170426_698266.html|journal=乾陵文化研究|issue=五|language=Mandarin }}</ref> Kontrak penjualan ditulis dalam bahasa Sogdiana.{{sfn|Skaff|2003|p=507}} Kontrak itu diterjemahkan oleh Yoshida Yutaka.{{sfn|Skaff|2003|p=523-524}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=159}} Gadis budak itu bernama Upach, berasal dari keluarga Chuyakk, dan lahir di Asia Tengah. Nama pembeli tertulis Yansyan dalam bahasa Sogdiana dari keluarga Chan. Penjual budak itu berasal dari Samarqand bernama Wakhushuvirt. Kontrak itu menyebutkan bahwa mereka dapat melakukan semua yang mereka inginkan, seperti membiarkannya pergi, menjualnya, melecehkannya, atau memukulinya. Gadis itu milik keluarga Yansyan selamanya.{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=160}} Zhang Yanxiang 張延 相, yang namanya ditemukan dalam dokumen berbahasa Mandarin di Turfan, diyakini adalah Chan Yansyan.{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=161}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=段|first=知壮 |date=05-02-2015 |title=佛教中国化的一个制度层面的分析 |url=http://www.pacilution.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=5528|journal=亚洲研究 |series=20|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://xuewen.cnki.net/CJFD-SXZX198706010.html|title="元"乎?"充"乎?"讫"乎?——吐鲁番出土的唐朝高昌县给田文书中■字作何解释的问题 |website=CNKI学问——有学问，才够权威！|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=孟|first=宪实|date=Mei 2009|title=论唐朝的佛教管理 |url=https://wenku.baidu.com/view/2ae28513866fb84ae45c8d9e.html |journal=北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Peking University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)|volume=46|issue=3|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.china2551.org/12572.html|title=敦煌出度文书所见唐代度牒的申领与发放||date=Agustus 2013 |website=china2551.org |publisher=（北京师范大学) 度牒是僧尼取…|orig-year=5年前 (17-08-2013)|id=西部佛学网-佛学{{!}}佛学研究{{!}}佛学动态{{!}}佛教历史{{!}}佛学理论{{!}}佛教学者{{!}}佛教 ...|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ntcuir.ntcu.edu.tw/bitstream/987654321/7623/1/094NTCTC461022-001.pdf|title=虞世南書學之研究|last=摘|first=要|date=|website=National Taichung University of Education Institutional Repository|page=76|trans-title=The Study on the Calligraphy of Yu Shi-Nan|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.myeducs.cn/mianfeilunwen/lishixue/120074059/index2.htm|title=唐代国家对僧尼的管理——以僧尼籍帐与人口控制为中心|last=|first=|date=19-05-2014|website=原创论文|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=Maret 2008|editor-last=乾|editor-first=乾|title=【周奇】唐代国家对僧尼的管理——以僧尼籍帐与人口控制为中心 |url=http://www.philosophy.org.cn/fzxk/zjx/201507/t20150713_2728848.shtml|journal=（原载《中国社会经济史研究》）|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=Zhen|date=Juli 2002|title="Hu" Non-Chinese as They Appear in the Materials from the Astana Graveyard at Turfan|url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp119_hu_people_turfan.pdf|journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=119 |pages=16 |issn=2157-9679 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Skaff|first=Jonathan Karam|date=2003|title=The Sogdian Trade Diaspora in East Turkestan during the Seventh and Eighth Centuries|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=46|issue=4 |pages=523 |jstor=3632829 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Wu Zhen ~ 吳震 "Tangdai Sichou zhilu yu hu nubi maimai" 唐代絲綢之路與胡奴婢買賣吐魯番. (The Silk Road of the Tang dynasty and the sale and purchase of non-Chinese slaves). In 1994 nian Dunhuangxue guoji yantaohui wenji 1994 年敦煌學國際研討會文集 ed. Dunhuang yanjiuyuan 敦煌研究院 (Lanzhou: Gansu minzu chubanshe, 2000) pp. 128-154.</ref>
Populasi Han dan Sogdiana ada di Xizhou.{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=68}} Sebuah catatan dari Pemakaman Astana yang berasal dari tahun 639 menunjukkan transaksi penjualan seorang budak gadis Sogdiana. Catatan itu diterjemahkan oleh He Deli, seorang Sogdiana yang tahu bahasa Turki dan Tionghoa.{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=70}}{{sfn|Skaff|2012|p=383}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=159}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=149–161}}{{sfn|Hansen|2005|p=37-46}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://m.aisixiang.com/data/77843-4.html|title=荣新江：丝绸之路上的粟特商人与贸易网络|last=荣 |first=新江|date=14-09-2014|website=爱思想|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Grenet|first=Frantz|date=December 2003|editor-last=Waugh|editor-first=Daniel C.|editor2-last=Salfrank|editor2-first=Heather|title=The Pre-Islamic Civilization of the Sogdians (seventh century BCE to eighth century CE): A Bibliographic Essay (studies since 1986)|url=http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/newsletter/srjournal_v1n2.pdf|journal=The Silk Road|volume=1|issue=2|pages=31|doi=|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%20Studies/Sogdian_Traders__A_History__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies___Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf|title=Sogdian Traders: A History|last=De La Vaissière|first=Étienne|date=2005|publisher=Brill|isbn=90 04 14252 5|series=Étienne De La Handbook of Oriental Studies Handbuch der Orientalistik|volume=10|location=|pages=132, 169, 170, 173, 355|issn=0169-8524|issue=SECTION EIGHT CENTRAL ASIA|access-date=2019-11-12|archive-date=2018-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807064027/http://cnqzu.com/library/To%20Organize/Books/Brill%20Ebooks/Brill._Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies/Brill.%20Handbook%20of%20Oriental%20Studies/Sogdian_Traders__A_History__Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies___Handbook_of_Oriental_Studies_.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=Negotiating Daily Life in Traditional China. How Ordinary People Used Contracts 600–1400 |url=https://archive.org/details/negotiatingdaily0000hans |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1995 |page=[https://archive.org/details/negotiatingdaily0000hans/page/285 285] |language=en}}</ref><ref>——, “New Works on the Sogdians, the Most Important Traders on the Silk Road, A.D. 500–1000” with an Appendix by Y. Yoshida “Translation of the Contract for the Purchase of a Slave-Girl found at Turfan and Dated 639”, T’oung Pao, LXXXIX, 2003, pp. 149–161.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Hansen |first=Valerie |title=The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500–800” |editors=É. de la Vaissière, É. Trombert (eds.) |journal=Les Sogdiens en Chine, (Études thématiques, 14) |location=Paris |publisher=EFEO |year=2005 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mallory|first=J. P.|date=Winter 2010|title=Bronze Age Languages of the Tarim Basin|url=https://issuu.com/pennmuseum/docs/ssr_expedition|journal=Expedition Magazine (Silk Road Issue)|volume=52|page=45|issn=0014-4738|language=en}}</ref> Gadis budak itu dibayar sebesar 120 koin perak.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Valerie|last2=Rong|first2=Xinjiang|date=2013|title=How the Residents of Turfan used Textiles as Money, 273–796 ce|url=https://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VALERIE%20HANSEN%20and%20XINJIANG%20RONG.pdf |journal=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society|series=3|volume=23 |issue=2|pages=290 |doi=10.1017/S1356186313000205|access-date=}}</ref><ref name="从出土文物看唐代的胡人女性形象1">{{Cite journal|last=杨|first=瑾|author-link=|date=September 2010|title=从出土文物看唐代的胡人女性形象[1]|url=http://www.sxlib.org.cn/dfzy/sxdwljgb/tddl/yjwx_5659/yjlz_5660/qlwhyjw/201704/t20170426_698266.html|journal=乾陵文化研究|issue=五|language=Mandarin }}</ref> Kontrak penjualan ditulis dalam bahasa Sogdiana.{{sfn|Skaff|2003|p=507}} Kontrak itu diterjemahkan oleh Yoshida Yutaka.{{sfn|Skaff|2003|p=523-524}}{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=159}} Gadis budak itu bernama Upach, berasal dari keluarga Chuyakk, dan lahir di Asia Tengah. Nama pembeli tertulis Yansyan dalam bahasa Sogdiana dari keluarga Chan. Penjual budak itu berasal dari Samarqand bernama Wakhushuvirt. Kontrak itu menyebutkan bahwa mereka dapat melakukan semua yang mereka inginkan, seperti membiarkannya pergi, menjualnya, melecehkannya, atau memukulinya. Gadis itu milik keluarga Yansyan selamanya.{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=160}} Zhang Yanxiang 張延 相, yang namanya ditemukan dalam dokumen berbahasa Mandarin di Turfan, diyakini adalah Chan Yansyan.{{sfn|Hansen|2003|p=161}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last=段|first=知壮 |date=05-02-2015 |title=佛教中国化的一个制度层面的分析 |url=http://www.pacilution.com/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=5528|journal=亚洲研究 |series=20|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://xuewen.cnki.net/CJFD-SXZX198706010.html|title="元"乎?"充"乎?"讫"乎?——吐鲁番出土的唐朝高昌县给田文书中■字作何解释的问题 |website=CNKI学问——有学问，才够权威！|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=孟|first=宪实|date=Mei 2009|title=论唐朝的佛教管理 |url=https://wenku.baidu.com/view/2ae28513866fb84ae45c8d9e.html |journal=北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Peking University(Philosophy and Social Sciences)|volume=46|issue=3|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china2551.org/12572.html|title=敦煌出度文书所见唐代度牒的申领与发放|3=|date=Agustus 2013|website=china2551.org|publisher=（北京师范大学) 度牒是僧尼取…|orig-year=5年前 (17-08-2013)|id=西部佛学网-佛学{{!}}佛学研究{{!}}佛学动态{{!}}佛教历史{{!}}佛学理论{{!}}佛教学者{{!}}佛教 ...|access-date=|archive-date=2018-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621093157/http://www.china2551.org/12572.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ntcuir.ntcu.edu.tw/bitstream/987654321/7623/1/094NTCTC461022-001.pdf|title=虞世南書學之研究|last=摘|first=要|date=|website=National Taichung University of Education Institutional Repository|page=76|trans-title=The Study on the Calligraphy of Yu Shi-Nan|access-date=|quote=|archive-date=2021-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109084549/http://ntcuir.ntcu.edu.tw/bitstream/987654321/7623/1/094NTCTC461022-001.pdf|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.myeducs.cn/mianfeilunwen/lishixue/120074059/index2.htm|title=唐代国家对僧尼的管理——以僧尼籍帐与人口控制为中心|last=|first=|date=19-05-2014|website=原创论文|language=Mandarin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=Maret 2008|editor-last=乾|editor-first=乾|title=【周奇】唐代国家对僧尼的管理——以僧尼籍帐与人口控制为中心 |url=http://www.philosophy.org.cn/fzxk/zjx/201507/t20150713_2728848.shtml|journal=（原载《中国社会经济史研究》）|access-date=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wu|first=Zhen|date=Juli 2002|title="Hu" Non-Chinese as They Appear in the Materials from the Astana Graveyard at Turfan|url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp119_hu_people_turfan.pdf|journal=Sino-Platonic Papers |volume=119 |pages=16 |issn=2157-9679 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Skaff|first=Jonathan Karam|date=2003|title=The Sogdian Trade Diaspora in East Turkestan during the Seventh and Eighth Centuries|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=46|issue=4 |pages=523 |jstor=3632829 |language=en}}</ref><ref>Wu Zhen ~ 吳震 "Tangdai Sichou zhilu yu hu nubi maimai" 唐代絲綢之路與胡奴婢買賣吐魯番. (The Silk Road of the Tang dynasty and the sale and purchase of non-Chinese slaves). In 1994 nian Dunhuangxue guoji yantaohui wenji 1994 年敦煌學國際研討會文集 ed. Dunhuang yanjiuyuan 敦煌研究院 (Lanzhou: Gansu minzu chubanshe, 2000) pp. 128-154.</ref>


Di jalur sutra, gadis budak adalah komoditas utama dan jauh lebih mahal daripada sutra. Nilai seorang gadis budak lima kali lipat nilai sutra. Gadis budak Asia Tengah diekspor dari wilayah Iran ke Tiongkok. Dipercaya bahwa para pedagang kaya dan bangsawan-bangsawan di ibu kota Tiongkok, Chang'an, adalah konsumen bagi sejumlah besar budak perempuan Asia Tengah yang dibawa oleh orang-orang Sogdiana. Orang-orang Sogdiana memperoleh untung besar dari penjualan gadis budak dan keuntungan juga diperoleh pemerintah Tiongkok dari pajak penjualan budak. Penyair Persia sering menulis tentang minuman anggur dan para budak perempuan. Toko-toko minuman anggur dilengkapi dengan pelayan gadis-gadis muda. Selain menyajikan minuman, para gadis muda itu menari, menyanyi, dan memberikan layanan seks untuk tamu. Sebagian besar dari mereka berusia 14 atau 15 tahun. Seorang pedagang Sogdiana, Kang Weiyi, memiliki 15 gadis budak, termasuk gadis India, Asia Tengah, dan Baktria yang ia bawa untuk dijual di Chang'an.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kknews.cc/history/epg26yy.html|title=唐代長安城中販賣給漢人的胡姬與絲綢之路上的女奴貿易|date=31-08-2018|website=每日頭條|publisher=|access-date=}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=郭|first=雪妮|date=2012|orig-year=2012（北京师范大学文学院北京100875）|title=酒肆论文摘要,唐代"胡姬"诗与现代日本的西域想象|url=http://www.lunwendaquan.com/hanyuyanwenxue/152569.html|journal=长安学刊|volume=|issue=3|pages=|access-date=2019-11-12|archive-date=2018-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422133320/http://www.lunwendaquan.com/hanyuyanwenxue/152569.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=唐朝定居指南|last=森|first=林鹿|date=2015-11-25|volume=|pages=|chapter=第6章 一年之计在于吃(5)|doi=|chapter-url=http://dushu.qq.com/read.html?bid=650540&cid=6|issue=}}</ref><ref>林梅村《粟特文买婢契与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》，《文物》1992 年9 期，49—54 页；收入</ref><ref>温翠芳，唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易，西域研究，2006（2）</ref><ref>《唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》，《西域研究》，2006年第2期。</ref><ref>粟特文买婢契与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易林梅村文物</ref><ref>[https://rsipe.wordpress.com/2017/06/12/%E7%B2%9F%E7%89%B9%E4%BA%BA%E4%B8%8E%E4%B8%9D%E7%BB%B8%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95/ 粟特人与丝绸之路中文期刊论文目录] 根据中国知网整理：方建勇(Fang Jianyong)/2006-2008年就读于浙江大学中国古代史研究生班</ref><ref>温翠芳.唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易.西域研究，2006（2）</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=荣|first=新江|date=2014-09-09|title=从撒马尔干到长安——中古时期粟特人的迁徙与入居（《中古中国与粟特文明》代序言）|url=http://www.kaogu.cn/html/cn/xueshuyanjiu/yanjiuxinlun/qita/2014/0909/47471.html|journal=Kaogu|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.douban.com/book/review/6942122/|title=《唐朝定居指南》中的参考资料|last=|first=|date=|website=豆瓣|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ylyjzx.swu.edu.cn/s/ylyjzx/yjdw/20171227/2183647.html|title=温翠芳特聘研究员|last=|first=|date=2017-12-27|website=西南大学伊朗研究中心|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>温翠芳《唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》（《西域研究}2006年第2期）</ref>
Di jalur sutra, gadis budak adalah komoditas utama dan jauh lebih mahal daripada sutra. Nilai seorang gadis budak lima kali lipat nilai sutra. Gadis budak Asia Tengah diekspor dari wilayah Iran ke Tiongkok. Dipercaya bahwa para pedagang kaya dan bangsawan-bangsawan di ibu kota Tiongkok, Chang'an, adalah konsumen bagi sejumlah besar budak perempuan Asia Tengah yang dibawa oleh orang-orang Sogdiana. Orang-orang Sogdiana memperoleh untung besar dari penjualan gadis budak dan keuntungan juga diperoleh pemerintah Tiongkok dari pajak penjualan budak. Penyair Persia sering menulis tentang minuman anggur dan para budak perempuan. Toko-toko minuman anggur dilengkapi dengan pelayan gadis-gadis muda. Selain menyajikan minuman, para gadis muda itu menari, menyanyi, dan memberikan layanan seks untuk tamu. Sebagian besar dari mereka berusia 14 atau 15 tahun. Seorang pedagang Sogdiana, Kang Weiyi, memiliki 15 gadis budak, termasuk gadis India, Asia Tengah, dan Baktria yang ia bawa untuk dijual di Chang'an.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kknews.cc/history/epg26yy.html|title=唐代長安城中販賣給漢人的胡姬與絲綢之路上的女奴貿易|date=31-08-2018|website=每日頭條|publisher=|access-date=}}{{Pranala mati|date=September 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=郭|first=雪妮|date=2012|orig-year=2012（北京师范大学文学院北京100875）|title=酒肆论文摘要,唐代"胡姬"诗与现代日本的西域想象|url=http://www.lunwendaquan.com/hanyuyanwenxue/152569.html|journal=长安学刊|volume=|issue=3|pages=|access-date=2019-11-12|archive-date=2018-04-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422133320/http://www.lunwendaquan.com/hanyuyanwenxue/152569.html|dead-url=yes}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=唐朝定居指南|last=森|first=林鹿|date=2015-11-25|volume=|pages=|chapter=第6章 一年之计在于吃(5)|doi=|chapter-url=http://dushu.qq.com/read.html?bid=650540&cid=6|issue=}}</ref><ref>林梅村《粟特文买婢契与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》，《文物》1992 年9 期，49—54 页；收入</ref><ref>温翠芳，唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易，西域研究，2006（2）</ref><ref>《唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》，《西域研究》，2006年第2期。</ref><ref>粟特文买婢契与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易林梅村文物</ref><ref>[https://rsipe.wordpress.com/2017/06/12/%E7%B2%9F%E7%89%B9%E4%BA%BA%E4%B8%8E%E4%B8%9D%E7%BB%B8%E4%B9%8B%E8%B7%AF%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%AE%BA%E6%96%87%E7%9B%AE%E5%BD%95/ 粟特人与丝绸之路中文期刊论文目录] 根据中国知网整理：方建勇(Fang Jianyong)/2006-2008年就读于浙江大学中国古代史研究生班</ref><ref>温翠芳.唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易.西域研究，2006（2）</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=荣|first=新江|date=2014-09-09|title=从撒马尔干到长安——中古时期粟特人的迁徙与入居（《中古中国与粟特文明》代序言）|url=http://www.kaogu.cn/html/cn/xueshuyanjiu/yanjiuxinlun/qita/2014/0909/47471.html|journal=Kaogu|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://m.douban.com/book/review/6942122/|title=《唐朝定居指南》中的参考资料|last=|first=|date=|website=豆瓣|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ylyjzx.swu.edu.cn/s/ylyjzx/yjdw/20171227/2183647.html|title=温翠芳特聘研究员|last=|first=|date=2017-12-27|website=西南大学伊朗研究中心|publisher=|access-date=|quote=}}</ref><ref>温翠芳《唐代长安西市中的胡姬与丝绸之路上的女奴贸易》（《西域研究}2006年第2期）</ref>
Baris 67: Baris 67:
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zucsAQAAIAAJ&q=Emperor+of+Southern+Han,82+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.83+Moreover,+the+island+of+Hainan,+just+off+the+coast+of+Kuangtung,+maintained+a+large+colony+of+Persians+in+the+eighth+century.+These+were,+it+would+appear,+chiefly+the+crews+and+passengers+of+Persian+vessels+which+fell+into+the+hands+of+Feng+Jo-fang,+a+local+chieftain+with+a+taste+for+piracy.84+This+island+was+probably+the+source+of+the+Persian+raid+which+devastated+Canton+in+758.&dq=Emperor+of+Southern+Han,82+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.83+Moreover,+the+island+of+Hainan,+just+off+the+coast+of+Kuangtung,+maintained+a+large+colony+of+Persians+in+the+eighth+century.+These+were,+it+would+appear,+chiefly+the+crews+and+passengers+of+Persian+vessels+which+fell+into+the+hands+of+Feng+Jo-fang,+a+local+chieftain+with+a+taste+for+piracy.84+This+island+was+probably+the+source+of+the+Persian+raid+which+devastated+Canton+in+758.|title=University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Volumes 11-12: University of California (1868-1952) |last=University of California |others=Contributor University of California |location=Berkeley|year=1951|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zucsAQAAIAAJ&q=Emperor+of+Southern+Han,82+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.83+Moreover,+the+island+of+Hainan,+just+off+the+coast+of+Kuangtung,+maintained+a+large+colony+of+Persians+in+the+eighth+century.+These+were,+it+would+appear,+chiefly+the+crews+and+passengers+of+Persian+vessels+which+fell+into+the+hands+of+Feng+Jo-fang,+a+local+chieftain+with+a+taste+for+piracy.84+This+island+was+probably+the+source+of+the+Persian+raid+which+devastated+Canton+in+758.&dq=Emperor+of+Southern+Han,82+and+in+the+latter+seen+as+typically+wearing+great+numbers+of+earrings+and+cursed+with+quarrelsome+dispositions.83+Moreover,+the+island+of+Hainan,+just+off+the+coast+of+Kuangtung,+maintained+a+large+colony+of+Persians+in+the+eighth+century.+These+were,+it+would+appear,+chiefly+the+crews+and+passengers+of+Persian+vessels+which+fell+into+the+hands+of+Feng+Jo-fang,+a+local+chieftain+with+a+taste+for+piracy.84+This+island+was+probably+the+source+of+the+Persian+raid+which+devastated+Canton+in+758.|title=University of California Publications in Semitic Philology, Volumes 11-12: University of California (1868-1952) |last=University of California |others=Contributor University of California |location=Berkeley|year=1951|publisher=University of California Press|isbn= |ref=harv}}


[[Kategori:Suku bangsa di Tiongkok]]
[[Kategori:Kelompok etnik di Tiongkok]]

Revisi terkini sejak 12 Juli 2024 11.12

Orang-orang Iran, seperti bangsa Persia dan Sogdiana telah tinggal di Tiongkok melalui berbagai periode dalam sejarah Tiongkok.

Sejarah

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Agama Buddha dibawa ke Tiongkok oleh orang Iran Parthia, yaitu An Shigao dan An Xuan.

Sebuah desa berusia 600 tahun di Yangzhou, Provinsi Jiangsu, Tiongkok, memiliki penduduk keturunan bangsa Iran. Di desa itu, terdapat 27.000 orang (data tahun 2000) dan tempat-tempat dengan nama menyerupai Fars dan Persia.[1]

Orang Persia

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Dinasti Tang

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Pedagang karavan asing pada Dinasti Tang.

Bangsawan Sasaniyah, seperti Peroz III dan putranya, Narsieh, lari dari invasi Islam Arab atas Sasaniyah Persia demi menyelamatkan diri ke Tiongkok pada zaman Dinasti Tang. Di sana mereka memperoleh suaka.

Bajak laut Tiongkok bernama Feng Ruofang menyimpan beberapa budak Persia di Hainan yang ditangkap dalam perompakan kapal pada abad ke-8.[2] Feng menurunkan budak-budak Persia itu di Hainan dalam pelayaran mereka.[3][4][5][2] Orang-orang Persia mencari tanaman kayu keras yang tumbuh di Provinsi Guangdong.[6] Pada tahun 758 bangsa Persia dan Arab melakukan penyerangan ke Kanton dan dua tahun setelah itu, di Yangzhou orang-orang Persia dan Arab diserang oleh pemberontak Tiongkok.[7][8] Di Hainan 100 kati dupa dibakar oleh Feng dalam satu waktu.[9][10]

Periode Lima Dinasti dan Sepuluh Negara

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Dalam periode Lima Dinasti dan Sepuluh Negara (Wudai, tahun 907–960), terdapat bukti-bukti kaisar-kaisar Tiongkok menikahi perempuan-perempuan Persia. Chen Yuan menulis, "Dalam masa Wudai (907–960) para kaisar lebih suka menikahi perempuan-perempuan Persia dan keluarga kerajaan Dinasti Song suka menikahi perempuan-perempuan dari Dashi [Arab]."[11]

Bekas Shu
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Banyak orang Iran menggunakan nama Tionghoa "Li" sebagai nama belakang ketika mereka pindah ke Tiongkok. Salah satu keluarga terkemuka adalah Li Xian, Li Shunxian, dan Li Xun. Sumber-sumber menyebutkan bahwa yang tertua di antara mereka, Li Xun, menulis buku "Hai Yao Ben Cao" (Hai yao pen ts'ao), terjemahan dari "Farmakope obat-obatan asing".[12] Li Xun tertarik pada obat-obatan asing. Keluarganya menjual obat sebagai sumber penghasilan.[13][14]

Li Shunxian adalah seorang perempuan yang terkenal karena kecantikannya dan menjadi selir Kaisar Tiongkok Bekas Shu, Wang Zongyan. Keluarga Li tinggal di istana keluarga kerajaan di Chengdu (sekarang Sichuan). Li Shunxian juga seorang penyair. Keluarga mereka merupakan pedagang kaya yang datang ke Tiongkok pada tahun 880. Li Xian memiliki usaha dagang alkimia, parfum, dan obat-obatan Tao.[15]

Keluarga Li melarikan dari dari pemberontakan Huang Chao sekitar tahun 878. Kakek Li bersaudara diduga bernama Li Su-sha, seorang pedagang dupa Persia.[16]

Biografi terbaik mengenai ketiga bersaudara itu adalah karya Lo Hsiang-Lin. Dalam buku itu, tertulis bahwa Li bersaudara adalah pengikut Kristen Nestorian. Li Xun dan Li Xian kemudian menjadi pengikut Tao. Li Xun banyak menulis puisi bergaya Song Utara. Saudaranya, Li Xian, bahkan lebih Taois yang terkait dengan penciptaan chiu shih, "hormon seks steroid dari urine".[17]

Pedagang-pedagang Persia mendominasi perdagangan obat-obatan di Tiongkok. Salah satu di antara mereka adalah pedagang Tionghoa naturalisasi asal Persia, Li Susha, yang terkenal karena kekayaan dan pada tahun 824 mempersembahkan chen xiang ting zi, suatu obat aromatik berharga, kepada Kaisar Jingzong.[18]

Han Selatan
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Penari Huteng Sogdiana di pagoda Xiuding, Anyang, Hunan, Tiongkok dari Dinasti Tang, abad ke-7.

Dari abad ke-10 hingga ke-12, telah disebutkan keberadaan kaum perempuan Persia di Guangzhou (Kanton). Pada abad ke-10, misalnya, di antara harem Kaisar Liu Chang ada perempuan Persia dan pada abad ke-12 sejumlah besar perempuan Persia di Tiongkok terkenal karena memakai banyak anting dan "suka bertengkar".[19][20] Tercatat bahwa "Posu-fu di Kuang-chou membuat lubang-lubang di sekeliling telinga mereka. Beberapa memakai lebih dari dua puluh anting."[21] Deskripsi aktivitas seksual antara Liu Chang dan perempuan Persia dalam buku Dinasti Song "Ch'ing-i-lu" tulisan T'ao Ku begitu jelas, tetapi etika kesusilaan menghalangi mengambil kutipan dari buku itu.[22] Liu bebas menghabiskan waktunya bersama dengan perempuan Persia.[23] Beberapa perempuan yang berasal dari Teluk Persia tinggal di kawasan asing Guangzhou, mereka semua dipanggil "perempuan Persia" (波斯 婦 Po-ssu-fu atau Bosifu).[24]

Beberapa sejarawan tidak membedakan antara Persia dan Arab. Beberapa menyatakan bahwa orang-orang Tiongkok menyebut semua perempuan dari Teluk Persia "Perempuan Persia".[25]

Kaisar muda Tiongkok Liu Chang dari Dinasti Han Selatan memiliki harem, termasuk seorang gadis Persia yang ia juluki Mei Zhu, berarti "Mutiara Cantik". Liu menyukai Mei Zhu karena kulitnya yang kecokelatan, digambarkan dalam bahasa Prancis "peau mate" (berkulit zaitun atau cokelat muda). Ia dan gadis Persia itu suka memaksa pasangan-pasangan muda untuk telanjang dan bermain bersama mereka di istana.[26][27] Dalam tahun pertama kekuasaannya, ia berusia tidak lebih dari enam belas tahun ketika ia telah merasakan berhubungan intim dengan gadis Persia itu. Gadis Persia itu disebut "putri".

Wu Tai Shï mengatakan bahwa Liu Ch'ang [劉鋹], Kaisar Dinasti Han Selatan yang berkuasa di Kanton, sekitar tahun 970 M "menghabiskan waktu bersama gadis-gadis istana dan perempuan Persia [波斯] di apartemen, dan menyerahkan pemerintahan negaranya pada para menteri."[28] Sejarah Lima Dinasti (Wu Tai Shih) menyatakan bahwa "Liu Chang kemudian bersama gadis-gadis istana dan perempuan Po-ssu-nya, terlibat dalam hubungan asmara di harem".[29]

Dinasti Song

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Guangzhou (Kanton) memiliki satu komunitas termasuk perempuan-perempuan Persia pada abad ke-10 hingga ke-12. Perempuan Persia ada di harem Liu Chang pada abad ke-10 dan pada abad ke-12, perempuan-perempuan Persia (波斯 婦) di sana terlihat mengenakan banyak anting.[30][31][32][33]

Berdasarkan buku Zhu Yu "Pingzhou ke tan" 萍 洲 可 談, para perempuan muslim di Guangzhou dipanggil perempuan Persia 波斯 婦 atau Pusaman 菩薩蠻菩萨蛮 yang mungkin berasal dari "Mussulman" atau "Bussulman" yang berarti Muslim dalam bahasa Persia.[34][35][36][37][38][39][40] Pusaman juga merupakan nama langgam 樂府 tentang penari-penari perempuan yang dikirim sebagai upeti ke Tiongkok.[41][42][43][44]

Dinasti Ming

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Berasal dari keluarga Li masa Dinasti Han di Quanzhou, Lin Nu, putra Li Lu, mengunjungi Hormuz di Persia pada tahun 1376. Ia menikahi seorang gadis Persia atau Arab dan membawa gadis itu kembali ke Quanzhou. Li Nu adalah leluhur reformator Dinasti Ming Li Chih.[45][46] Oleh kerabatnya, Lin Nu dan keturunannya dihapus dari silsilah keluarga karena mereka marah Lin Nu memeluk Islam dan menikahi gadis Persia. Pada saat itu, perasaan xenofobik kuat terhadap orang asing mengingat kekejaman Semu Persia dalam Pemberontakan Ispa. Kerabat yang memegang teguh adat istiadat Tionghoa merasa malu, sehingga mereka mengubah nama keluarga mereka dari Lin menjadi Li untuk menghindari bergaul dengan keturunan Lin Nu dari istri Persia-nya yang beragama Islam.[47]

Orang Sogdiana

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Orang Sogdiana digambarkan pada tugu Qi Utara, sekitar tahun 567/573

Dinasti Tang

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Orang-orang Sogdiana di Tiongkok menggunakan 9 nama keluarga Tionghoa sesuai dengan nama-nama Tionghoa negara bagian asal mereka.[48][49][50][51][52][53][54][55]

Populasi Han dan Sogdiana ada di Xizhou.[56] Sebuah catatan dari Pemakaman Astana yang berasal dari tahun 639 menunjukkan transaksi penjualan seorang budak gadis Sogdiana. Catatan itu diterjemahkan oleh He Deli, seorang Sogdiana yang tahu bahasa Turki dan Tionghoa.[57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67][68] Gadis budak itu dibayar sebesar 120 koin perak.[69][70] Kontrak penjualan ditulis dalam bahasa Sogdiana.[71] Kontrak itu diterjemahkan oleh Yoshida Yutaka.[72][59] Gadis budak itu bernama Upach, berasal dari keluarga Chuyakk, dan lahir di Asia Tengah. Nama pembeli tertulis Yansyan dalam bahasa Sogdiana dari keluarga Chan. Penjual budak itu berasal dari Samarqand bernama Wakhushuvirt. Kontrak itu menyebutkan bahwa mereka dapat melakukan semua yang mereka inginkan, seperti membiarkannya pergi, menjualnya, melecehkannya, atau memukulinya. Gadis itu milik keluarga Yansyan selamanya.[73] Zhang Yanxiang 張延 相, yang namanya ditemukan dalam dokumen berbahasa Mandarin di Turfan, diyakini adalah Chan Yansyan.[74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84]

Di jalur sutra, gadis budak adalah komoditas utama dan jauh lebih mahal daripada sutra. Nilai seorang gadis budak lima kali lipat nilai sutra. Gadis budak Asia Tengah diekspor dari wilayah Iran ke Tiongkok. Dipercaya bahwa para pedagang kaya dan bangsawan-bangsawan di ibu kota Tiongkok, Chang'an, adalah konsumen bagi sejumlah besar budak perempuan Asia Tengah yang dibawa oleh orang-orang Sogdiana. Orang-orang Sogdiana memperoleh untung besar dari penjualan gadis budak dan keuntungan juga diperoleh pemerintah Tiongkok dari pajak penjualan budak. Penyair Persia sering menulis tentang minuman anggur dan para budak perempuan. Toko-toko minuman anggur dilengkapi dengan pelayan gadis-gadis muda. Selain menyajikan minuman, para gadis muda itu menari, menyanyi, dan memberikan layanan seks untuk tamu. Sebagian besar dari mereka berusia 14 atau 15 tahun. Seorang pedagang Sogdiana, Kang Weiyi, memiliki 15 gadis budak, termasuk gadis India, Asia Tengah, dan Baktria yang ia bawa untuk dijual di Chang'an.[85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97]

Referensi

[sunting | sunting sumber]
  1. ^ "In China, a 600-year-old Village Continues Iranian Tradition". The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS) (dalam bahasa Inggris). 23-07-2003. 
  2. ^ a b University of California 1951, hlm. 407.
  3. ^ Archäologie und Frühe Texte. Volume 13 of South China and maritime Asia (edisi ke-illustrated). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 2004. hlm. 230. ISBN 978-3447050609. ISSN 0945-9286. 
  4. ^ Schafer, Edward H. (2016). The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics. Pickle Partners Publishing. ISBN 978-1787201125. 
  5. ^ Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order. Volume 4 of Penn Museum international research conferences. University of Pennsylvania Press. 2012. hlm. 403. ISBN 978-1934536568. 
  6. ^ Schafer, Edward Hetzel (1967). The Vermilion Bird. University of California Press. hlm. 180. 
  7. ^ Fu ren da xue (Beijing, China), S.V.D. Research Institute, Society of the Divine Word, Monumenta Serica Institute (1984). Monumenta Serica, Volumes 35-36. H. Vetch. hlm. 289. 
  8. ^ "第四节 唐代中西文化交流的盛况". 读国学网. 2014-08-18. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-04-22. 
  9. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch, Singapore, Project Muse (1961). Monographs on Malay Subjects, Volume 32, Part 2. hlm. 32. 
  10. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Malaysian Branch (2007). Wade, Geoff, ed. Southeast Asia-China interactions: reprint of articles from the Journal of the Malaysian Branch, Royal Asiatic Society. Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. hlm. 201. ISBN 978-9679948387. 
  11. ^ Jaschok, Maria; Shui, Jingjun (2000). The History of Women's Mosques in Chinese Islam: A Mosque of Their Own (edisi ke-illustrated). Psychology Press. hlm. 74. ISBN 978-0700713028. 
  12. ^ Yarshater (1993). William Bayne Fisher; Yarshater, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (edisi ke-reprint). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 553. ISBN 978-0-521-20092-9. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. Probably by the 7th century Persians had joined with Arabs to create the foreign emporium on the Grand Canal at Yangchou mentioned by the New T'ang History. The same source records a disturbance there in 760 in which a thousand of the merchants were killed.. . .Some Persian families residing at the Chinese capital had adopted the surname Li. Their riches were proverbial, so that the idea of a "poor Persian" could be listed as a paradox.. .As late as the 10th century Li Hsien, the descendant of a Persian family which had settled in China under the Sui, composed a "Pharmacopoeia of foreign drugs" (Hai yao pen ts'ao) and was known as a Taoist adept with special skill in arsenical medicines. 
  13. ^ Carla Suzan Nappi (2009). The monkey and the inkpot: natural history and its transformations in early modern China (edisi ke-illustrated). Harvard University Press. hlm. 30. ISBN 978-0-674-03529-4. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. The Haiyao bencao [Bencao of overseas drugs], compiled by Li Xun (fl. 923), survives only in reconstructions from later texts in which it was cited. Li Xun's compendium was apparently devoted entirely to drugs imported from India and Persia, a focus that is reflected in the few surviving drug descriptions from the texts. Li Xun's Persian ancestry and the fact that his family ran a business selling aromatic drugs probably stirred his interest in foreign materia medica. The text itself is notable not simply for its treatments of the medicinal uses of exotica. 
  14. ^ Carla Suzan Nappi (2009). The monkey and the inkpot: natural history and its transformations in early modern China (edisi ke-illustrated). Harvard University Press. hlm. 114. ISBN 978-0-674-03529-4. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. One of the sources of such names, widely cited in the discussion of animals because many of the shellfish in the Bencao hailed from the "South Seas" and other foreign contexts, was Li Xun, the Chinese-born Persian discussed earlier whose family made a living by selling fragrant herbs. His Haiyao bencao recorded many drugs of foreign origin. These objects were of particular import to Li Shizhen, as drugs from remote regions were considered especially valuable in the Ming medical marketplace. 
  15. ^ Joseph Needham (1986). Joseph Needham, ed. Science and civilisation in China: Biology and biological technology. Botany. Volume 6, Part 1 of Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 276. ISBN 978-0-521-08731-5. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. In the Former Shu State, in the capital of Chhengtu, between the years +919 and +925, one could have met at the court of the reigning house of Wang a remarkable girl named Li Shun-Hsien3, ornamenting the age by her poetic talent no less than her beauty. Together with her two brothers, the younger Li Hsien4 and the elder Li Hsiin5, she came of a family of Persian origin which had settled in West China about + 88o,b acquiring wealth and renown as ship-owners and merchants in the spice trade. c Li Hsien was a student of perfumes and their distilled attars as well as a merchant,d but he also worked on Taoist alchemy and investigated the actions of inorganic medicaments. e The one who took up the brush was Li Hsiin, for about +923 he produced his Hai Tao Pen Tshao6 (Materia Medico of the Countries beyond the Seas )/ study of 12 1 plants and animals and their products, nearly all foreign, with at least 15 completely new introductions.8 His work as a naturalist was highly regarded by subsequent scholars, and often quoted in the later pandects.11 Li Hsiin was interested in all 'overseas' drugs, whether of the Arabic and Persian culture-areas or of East Indian and Malayo-Indonesian origin. 
  16. ^ Joseph Needham (1986). Joseph Needham, ed. Science and civilisation in China: Biology and biological technology. Botany. Volume 6, Part 1 of Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 276. ISBN 978-0-521-08731-5. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. The family was fleeing from the rebellion of Huang Chhao in +878, cf. Vol. i, p. 216. Their grandfather may well have been the Persian incense merchant Li Su-Sha', whose dates would be between +820 and +840. 
  17. ^ Joseph Needham (1986). Joseph Needham, ed. Science and civilisation in China: Biology and biological technology. Botany. Volume 6, Part 1 of Science and Civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 276. ISBN 978-0-521-08731-5. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. The best biography of Li Hsiin and his brother and sister is that by Lo Hsiang- Lin (4, 5). From some of the entries in his book, one can see that Li Hsiin, although by origin a Nestorian Christian, acquired a very Taoist belief in medicines which would promote longevity and material immortality. He wrote much poetry in the Northern Sung style. His brother, Li Hsien, was even more Taoist, and had much regard as an adept, engaging in the preparation of chhiu shih (秋石) (steroid sex hormones from urine, cf. Vol. 5, pt 5, pp. 311 ff.). 
  18. ^ Fuwei Shen; Jingshu Wu (1996). Cultural flow between China and outside world throughout history (edisi ke-illustrated). Foreign Languages Press. hlm. 120. ISBN 978-7-119-00431-0. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. The drug and herb traders consisted mainly of Persian merchants. One of them was a naturalized Chinese merchant of Persian origin called Li Susha, who was known for his wealth and his offering of the valuable aromatic drug chen xiang ting zi to Emperor Jingzong of the Tang Dynasty in 824. Later, in the turbulent era of the Five Dynasties, more people became known for their dealings in drugs or 
  19. ^ Walter Joseph Fischel (1951). Walter Joseph Fischel, ed. Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. Volume 11 of University of California publications in Semitic philology. University of California Press. hlm. 407. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. At least from the tenth to the twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Canton, in the former period observed among the inmates of the harem of Liu Ch'ang, Emperor of Southern Han,'2 and in the latter seen as typically wearing great numbers of earrings and cursed with quarrelsome dispositions. 
  20. ^ Walter Joseph Fischel, ed. (1951). Semitic and Oriental studies: a volume presented to William Popper, professor of Semitic languages, emeritus, on the occasion of his seventy-fifth birthday, October 29, 1949. Volume 11 of University of California publications in Semitic philology. University of California Press. hlm. 407. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. At least from the tenth to the twelfth century, Persian women were to be found in Canton, in the former period observed among the inmates of the harem of Liu Ch'ang, Emperor of Southern Han,'2 and in the latter seen as typically wearing great numbers of earrings and cursed with quarrelsome dispositions. 
  21. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. hlm. 52. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. 17) Concerning the Po-sm-fu $L $f M, ie. the Persian women, Chttang Ch'o 3£$# towards the beginning of the South Sung, in his Chi-lei-pien WM, says: "The Po- ssu-fu at Kuang-chou make holes all round their ears. There are some who wear more than twenty ear-rings." M jW Hfc Sf £w. ... The ear-rings were much in fashion among the Persians in the reign of Sasan ( Spiegee, Erani^e/ie Alterthumskunde, Bd. Ill, s. 659), and after the conquest of the Saracens, the Moslem ladies had a still stronger passion for them (Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, p. 102).  Original from the University of Michigan.
  22. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan) Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. hlm. 55. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. and did not came out to see governmental business." [IF1] §§71#il5i$S£$l?;£c 3£ (2L« jfe3B,«/S+ a, SiaitB:*). In the Ch'ing-i-lu m »»(ed. of ttl&fFSSO attributed to T'AO Ku ft ft towards the beginning of the North Sung era, we have a minute description of Liu Chang's licentious conduct with the Po-ssu woman, but decency would forbid as to give quotations from the book.  Original from the University of Michigan.
  23. ^ Herbert Franke, ed. (1976). Sung biographies, Volume 2. Steiner. hlm. 620. ISBN 978-3-515-02412-9. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. During his reign the number of castrati at the palace increased to about 5 000. Great power was also given to a palace beauty named Liu Ch'iung- hsien JäP) 3^ iA*, and especially to a female shaman Fan Hu-tzu ^ fcfi 3~, who claimed to. . .But Liu was free to spend his days with the Persian girls in his harem, and to oversee the decoration of his splendid new palaces with costly substances. It is said that he used 3 000 taels of silver in making a single column of the ceremonial hall named Wan-cheng tien 
  24. ^ Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. Japan: The Toyo Bunko. 1928. hlm. 34. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. 63 At the foreign quarter, there lived of course many foreign women, and they were called by the Chinese Po-ssu-fu 波斯婦 (lit. Persian women),1'3 perhaps because most of them came from near the Persian Gulf.18) During the Five Dynasties 五代 (907-959), Liu Chang 劉鋹, king of the Nan-han 南漢, had in his harem a young Persian woman, whom he doted upon so much  Original from the University of Michigan
  25. ^ History of Science Society, Académie internationale d'histoire des sciences (1939). Isis, Volume 30. Publication and Editorial Office, Dept. of History and Sociology of Science, University of Pennsylvania. hlm. 120. Diakses tanggal February 9, 2011. 
  26. ^ Roger Darrobers (1998). Opéra de Pékin: théâtre et société à la fin de l'empire sino-mandchou. Bleu de Chine. hlm. 31. ISBN 978-2-910884-19-2. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. L'expression trouvait son origine sous le règne de Liu Chang (958-971), ultime souverain des Han du sud (917-971), un des États apparus dans la Chine du nord après la chute des Tang, avant que les Song ne réalisent pour leur propre... Liu Chang se rallia au nouveau pouvoir qui lui conféra le titre de Marquis de la Bienveillante Amnistie 17. Son règne a laissé le souvenir de ses nombreuses dépravations. S'en remettant aux eunuques pour gouverner, il prenait plaisir à assister aux ébats de jeunes personnes entièrement dévêtues. Il avait pour favorite une Persane de seize ans, à la peau mate et aux formes opulentes, d'une extrême sensualité qu'il avait lui-même surnommée « Meizhu » (« Jolie Truie »). Il déambulait en sa compagnie parmi les couples s'ébattant dans les jardins du palais, spectacle baptisé « corps en duo », on rapporte qu'il aimait voir la Persanne livrée à d'autres partenaires 18.  Original from the University of Michigan
  27. ^ Xiu Ouyang; Richard L. Davis (2004). Historical records of the five dynasties (edisi ke-illustrated, annotated). Columbia University Press. hlm. 544. ISBN 978-0-231-12826-1. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. Liu Chang, originally named Jixing, had been invested Prince of Wei. . .Because court affairs were monopolized by Gong Chengshu and cohort, Liu Chang in the inner palace could play his debauched games with female attendants, including a Persian. He never again emerged to inquire of state affairs 
  28. ^ Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai (1890). Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 24. Contributor China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Kelly & Walsh. hlm. 299. Diakses tanggal 04-01-2012. 
  29. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Kenkyūbu (1928). Memoirs of the Research Department of the Toyo Bunko (the Oriental Library), Issue 2. The Toyo Bunko. hlm. 54. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2012. 22) In the Wu-tai-shih-cM 2.^ jfc,12, we read, "Liu Chang then with his court- ladies and Po-ssu woman, indulged in amorous affiurs in the harem The names of Po-li i£ >f Il ( = P'o-li JSiflJ) and  Original from the University of Michigan
  30. ^ University of California 1951.
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  33. ^ "全覽2". 説郛 (四庫全書本). 泉福二州婦人轎子則用金漆雇婦人以荷福州以為肩擎至他男子則不肻肩也廣州波斯婦繞耳皆穿穴帶環有二十餘枚者家家以篾為門人食㯽榔唾地如血北人嘲之曰人人皆唾血家家盡篾門又婦人㐫悍喜鬬訟雖遭刑責而不畏恥寢陋尤甚豈秀美之氣中於緑珠而已邪 
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  36. ^ Tōyō Bunko (Japan). Memoirs of the Research Department. Tokyo Bunko publications. hlm. 34. 
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  41. ^ 唐唐蘇鄂《杜陽雜編》：大中初，女蠻國入貢，危髻金冠，纓絡被體，號菩薩蠻隊，當時倡優遂制《菩薩蠻》曲，文士亦往往聲其詞。
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Bibliografi

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