Pembantaian ras Tulsa: Perbedaan antara revisi
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[[Berkas:Tulsa Aftermath.jpg|jmpl|Rumah-rumah dan usaha-usaha yang dibakar di Greenwood]] |
[[Berkas:Tulsa Aftermath.jpg|jmpl|Rumah-rumah dan usaha-usaha yang dibakar di Greenwood]] |
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'''Pembantaian ras Tulsa''' terjadi pada 31 Mei dan 1 Juni 1921, saat segerombolan penduduk kulit putih, beberapa diantaranya dikerahkan dan diberi senjata oleh para pejabat kota, menyerang penduduk kulit hitam dan menghancurkan rumah-rumah dan usaha-usaha di [[Greenwood District, Tulsa|Greenwood District]], [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], Amerika Serikat. Juga disebut sebagai '''kerusuhan ras Tulsa'''<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/tulsa-1921/ |title=Tulsa, 1921 |journal=The Nation |first1=Walter F. |last1=White |date=August 23, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612164337/https://www.thenation.com/article/tulsa-1921/ |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> atau '''pembantaian Black Wall Street''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theroot.com/nearly-100-years-later-tulsa-begins-search-for-mass-gr-1838883790 |title=Nearly 100 Years Later, Tulsa Begins Search for Mass Graves From 1921 Black Wall Street Massacre |website=The Root |access-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009210525/https://www.theroot.com/nearly-100-years-later-tulsa-begins-search-for-mass-gr-1838883790 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> peristiwa tersebut adalah salah satu "insiden terburuk tunggal dari kekerasal rasial dalam sejarah Amerika".<ref name="okhist">{{cite web |first=Scott |last=Ellsworth |author-link=Scott Ellsworth |date=2009 |url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=TU013 |title=Tulsa Race Riot |website=[[The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture]] |access-date=December 31, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613103640/https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=TU013|archive-date=June 13, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Serangan tersebut membakar dan menghancurkan lebih dari 35 blok persegi kawasan tersebut – di komunitas kulit hitam terkaya di Amerika Serikat pada masa itu, yang dikenal sebagai "Black Wall Street".<ref>{{cite web |last=Huddleston Jr |first=Tom |date=2020-07-04 |title='Black Wall Street': The history of the wealthy black community and the massacre perpetrated there|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/07/04/what-is-black-wall-street-history-of-the-community-and-its-massacre.html|access-date=2020-08-30 |website=CNBC}}</ref> |
'''Pembantaian ras Tulsa''' terjadi pada 31 Mei dan 1 Juni 1921, saat segerombolan penduduk kulit putih, beberapa diantaranya dikerahkan dan diberi senjata oleh para pejabat kota, menyerang penduduk kulit hitam dan menghancurkan rumah-rumah dan usaha-usaha di [[Greenwood District, Tulsa|Greenwood District]], [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], Amerika Serikat. Juga disebut sebagai '''kerusuhan ras Tulsa'''<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/tulsa-1921/ |title=Tulsa, 1921 |journal=The Nation |first1=Walter F. |last1=White |date=August 23, 2001 |access-date=September 16, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612164337/https://www.thenation.com/article/tulsa-1921/ |archive-date=June 12, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> atau '''pembantaian Black Wall Street''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theroot.com/nearly-100-years-later-tulsa-begins-search-for-mass-gr-1838883790 |title=Nearly 100 Years Later, Tulsa Begins Search for Mass Graves From 1921 Black Wall Street Massacre |website=The Root |access-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009210525/https://www.theroot.com/nearly-100-years-later-tulsa-begins-search-for-mass-gr-1838883790 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> peristiwa tersebut adalah salah satu "insiden terburuk tunggal dari kekerasal rasial dalam sejarah Amerika".<ref name="okhist">{{cite web |first=Scott |last=Ellsworth |author-link=Scott Ellsworth |date=2009 |url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=TU013 |title=Tulsa Race Riot |website=[[The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture]] |access-date=December 31, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613103640/https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry.php?entry=TU013|archive-date=June 13, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Serangan tersebut membakar dan menghancurkan lebih dari 35 blok persegi kawasan tersebut – di komunitas kulit hitam terkaya di Amerika Serikat pada masa itu, yang dikenal sebagai "Black Wall Street".<ref>{{cite web |last=Huddleston Jr |first=Tom |date=2020-07-04 |title='Black Wall Street': The history of the wealthy black community and the massacre perpetrated there|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/07/04/what-is-black-wall-street-history-of-the-community-and-its-massacre.html|access-date=2020-08-30 |website=CNBC}}</ref> |
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Lebih dari 800 orang dibawa ke rumah sakit, dan sekitar 6.000 warga kulit hitam Tulsa ditahan di berbagai fasilitas, banyak di antaranya selama beberapa hari.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Messer |first1=Chris M. |first2=Krystal |last2=Beamon |first3=Patricia A. |last3=Bell |year=2013 |title=The Tulsa Riot of 1921: Collective Violence and Racial Frames |journal=The Western Journal of Black Studies |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=50–59 |url=https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-332655215/the-tulsa-riot-of-1921-collective-violence-and-racial |access-date=June 11, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611143205/https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-332655215/the-tulsa-riot-of-1921-collective-violence-and-racial |archive-date=June 11, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Biro Vital Statistics Oklahoma secara resmi mencatat 36 orang tewas.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Various |url=https://archive.org/details/ReportOnTulsaRaceRiotOf1921 |title=Report on Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |publisher=Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |date=February 21, 2001 |page=123 |language=en |quote=(...) the official count of 36 (...)|access-date=June 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621082114/https://archive.org/details/ReportOnTulsaRaceRiotOf1921|archive-date=June 21, 2020|url-status=live |ref={{sfnref|Oklahoma Commission|2001}} }}</ref> Koalisi Reparasi Tulsa 2001 yang meneliti kejadian ini menemukan 39 orang tewas, 26 kulit hitam dan 13 kulit putih, berdasarkan laporan otopsi, akta kematian, dan catatan lainnya. Komisi tersebut memberikan estimasi mulai dari 75 hingga 300 orang tewas.{{sfn|Oklahoma Commission|2001|pp=13, 23}} |
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Pembantaian ini dimulai selama akhir pekan [[hari memorial]] setelah Dick Rowland, seorang [[tukang semir sepatu|pemoles sepatu]] berkulit hitam berusia 19 tahun, dituduh menyerang Sarah Page, seorang [[penjaga lift|operator lift]] kulit putih berusia 21 tahun di Gedung Drexel.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hopkins |first=Randy |date=2023-07-06 |title=The Notorious Sarah Page |url=https://www.centerforpublicsecrets.org/post/the-notorious-sarah-page |access-date=2024-04-09 |website=CfPS |language=en}}</ref> Rowland ditangkap, dan desas-desus bahwa dia akan [[penghakiman massa|digantung]] menyebar di seluruh kota. Tahun sebelumnya, seorang pria kulit putih bernama Roy Belton sudah digantung di kota tersebut. Ketika laporan tentang sekelompok ratusan pria kulit putih yang berkumpul di sekitar penjara tempat Rowland ditahan tersebar, sekelompok 75 pria kulit hitam, beberapa di antaranya bersenjata, datang ke penjara untuk melindungi Rowland. Sheriff meyakinkan mereka untuk pergi, mengatakan bahwa dia sudah mengendalikan situasi. |
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Insiden yang paling banyak dilaporkan terjadi ketika kelompok pria kulit hitam meninggalkan lokasi. Seorang pria kulit putih tua mendekati O. B. Mann, pria kulit hitam, dan menuntut agar Mann menyerahkan pistolnya. Mann menolak, dan pria tua itu mencoba merampas senjatanya. Tiba-tiba tembakan terdengar, dan menurut laporan sheriff, "semua neraka sudah meledak." Kedua kelompok saling menembaki sampai tengah malam, ketika kelompok pria kulit hitam kalah jumlah dan terpaksa mundur ke Greenwood. Di akhir baku tembak, 12 orang tewas, 10 kulit putih dan 2 kulit hitam. Ada juga versi lain yang mengatakan tembakan dimulai "di jalanan dekat kantor Pengadilan" ketika pebisnis berkulit hitam datang membela seorang pria kulit hitam yang diserang oleh sekelompok sekitar enam pria kulit putih.<ref name="Taylor Account">{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Nia |title=A black Wall Street Legend - The Story of Peg Leg Taylor and the Legacy of Trauma |url=https://www.dreamsofblackwallstreet.com/post/bonus-episode-a-black-wall-street-legend-the-story-of-peg-leg-taylor-and-the-legacy-of-trauma |website=Dreams of Black Wall Street |date=January 21, 2020 |access-date=24 March 2022}}</ref> Bisa jadi saksi mata tidak menyadari bahwa kejadian ini bagian dari baku tembak yang sudah berlangsung. Begitu berita kekerasan menyebar, kekacauan semakin parah.<ref name="broadax">{{Cite news |url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84024055/1921-06-18/ed-1/seq-1/ |title=The broad ax. [volume] (Salt Lake City, Utah) 1895–19??, June 18, 1921, Image 1 |author=National Endowment for the Humanities |newspaper=The Broad Ax |date=June 18, 1921|access-date=October 23, 2019 |issn=2163-7202|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191023180407/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84024055/1921-06-18/ed-1/seq-1/|archive-date=October 23, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Para perusuh kulit putih menyerbu Greenwood malam itu dan pagi berikutnya, membunuh para pria lalu membakar serta menjarah toko dan rumah. Sekitar tengah hari pada 1 Juni, Garda Nasional Oklahoma memberlakukan hukum militer dan menghentikan pembantaian.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tulsa Race Massacre {{!}} The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture |url=https://www.okhistory.org/publications/enc/entry?entry=TU013 |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=Oklahoma Historical Society {{!}} OHS |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title="Martial Law Declared", 1921-06-01 {{!}} The University of Tulsa Archival Catalog |url=https://utulsa.as.atlas-sys.com/repositories/2/archival_objects/35 |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=utulsa.as.atlas-sys.com}}</ref> |
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Sekitar 10.000 orang kulit hitam kehilangan tempat tinggal, dan kerusakan properti mencapai lebih dari $1,5 juta untuk properti real estat dan $750.000 untuk barang pribadi (setara dengan $38,43 juta di tahun 2023). Pada akhir tahun 1922, sebagian besar rumah warga sudah dibangun kembali, tapi kota dan perusahaan real estat menolak memberikan kompensasi.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Luckerson |first=Victor |date=2018-06-28 |title=Black Wall Street: The African American Haven That Burned and Then Rose From the Ashes |url=https://www.theringer.com/2018/6/28/17511818/black-wall-street-oklahoma-greenwood-destruction-tulsa |access-date=2022-10-05 |website=The Ringer |language=en}}</ref> Banyak penyintas meninggalkan Tulsa, sementara yang tetap tinggal, terlepas dari ras, umumnya memilih untuk bungkam tentang teror, kekerasan, dan kerugian yang terjadi selama puluhan tahun. Pembantaian ini hampir tidak ada dalam sejarah lokal, negara bagian, dan nasional selama bertahun-tahun.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=KOCO |date=2021-05-28 |title=How did the Tulsa Race Massacre history become hidden, forgotten? |url=https://www.koco.com/article/how-did-the-tulsa-race-massacre-history-become-hidden-forgotten/36572505 |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=KOCO |language=en}}</ref> |
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Pada tahun 1996, 75 tahun setelah pembantaian, sekelompok bipartisan di badan legislatif negara bagian mengesahkan pembentukan Komisi Oklahoma untuk Mempelajari Kerusuhan Ras Tulsa 1921. Laporan akhir komisi, yang diterbitkan pada tahun 2001, menyatakan bahwa kota tersebut bersekongkol dengan massa rasis; mereka merekomendasikan program reparasi untuk penyintas dan keturunannya. Negara bagian kemudian mengesahkan undang-undang untuk mendirikan beasiswa bagi keturunan penyintas, mendorong pengembangan ekonomi Greenwood, dan mengembangkan taman untuk mengenang para korban pembantaian di Tulsa.{{sfn|Oklahoma Commission|2001|p}} Taman ini diresmikan pada tahun 2010. Sejak tahun 2002,<ref>{{cite news|last=Miller |first=Ken |date=February 20, 2020|title=Curriculum being developed to teach Tulsa race massacre|publisher=Associated Press|url=https://apnews.com/article/34194a1966ee9ed703a3a28b6fd8a39b|access-date=June 7, 2021}}</ref> sekolah-sekolah di Oklahoma diwajibkan mengajarkan tentang pembantaian ini kepada siswa, dan pada tahun 2020, pembantaian ini secara resmi menjadi bagian dari kurikulum sekolah di Oklahoma.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Will Officially Become a Part of the Oklahoma School Curriculum Beginning in the Fall |last=Connor |first=Jay |year=2020 |magazine=The Root |url=https://www.theroot.com/the-1921-tulsa-race-massacre-will-officially-become-a-p-1841814944/ |access-date=February 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221043731/https://www.theroot.com/the-1921-tulsa-race-massacre-will-officially-become-a-p-1841814944|archive-date=February 21, 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> |
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== Referensi == |
== Referensi == |
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==Daftar pustaka== |
==Daftar pustaka== |
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{{Library resources box}} |
{{Library resources box}} |
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* {{cite book |first=Alfred L. |last=Brophy |title=Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Race Reparations, and Reconciliation |place=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-514685-9}} "[T]the best account of the 1921 Tulsa riot, which drew wide acclaim from historians and others." – {{cite journal |first=Gautham |last=Rao |s2cid=148763755 |title=''University, Court, and Slave: Pro-Slavery Thought in Southern Colleges and Courts and the Coming of Civil War'' by Alfred L. Brophy (review) |journal=Journal of the Civil War Era |volume=7 |number=3 |date=September 2017 |pages=481–483 |doi=10.1353/cwe.2017.0069}} |
* {{cite book |first=Alfred L. |last=Brophy |title=Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Race Reparations, and Reconciliation |url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructingdr0000brop |place=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-19-514685-9}} "[T]the best account of the 1921 Tulsa riot, which drew wide acclaim from historians and others." – {{cite journal |first=Gautham |last=Rao |s2cid=148763755 |title=''University, Court, and Slave: Pro-Slavery Thought in Southern Colleges and Courts and the Coming of Civil War'' by Alfred L. Brophy (review) |journal=Journal of the Civil War Era |volume=7 |number=3 |date=September 2017 |pages=481–483 |doi=10.1353/cwe.2017.0069}} |
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* {{cite book |first=Scott |last=Ellsworth |title=Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |location=Baton Rouge, LA |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8071-1767-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9SlbjZHeHgC |access-date=March 29, 2016}} |
* {{cite book |first=Scott |last=Ellsworth |title=Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |location=Baton Rouge, LA |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |date=1992 |isbn=978-0-8071-1767-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u9SlbjZHeHgC |access-date=March 29, 2016}} |
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* {{cite web |last=Franklin |first=Buck Colbert |title=The Tulsa Race Riot and Three of Its Victims |url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |website=National Museum of African American History and Culture |date=August 22, 1931 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152335/https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |url-status=live}} [https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 Full text.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027185825/https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |date=October 27, 2018 }} |
* {{cite web |last=Franklin |first=Buck Colbert |title=The Tulsa Race Riot and Three of Its Victims |url=https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |access-date=December 3, 2018 |website=National Museum of African American History and Culture |date=August 22, 1931 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203152335/https://nmaahc.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |url-status=live}} [https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 Full text.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027185825/https://www.si.edu/object/nmaahc_2015.176.1 |date=October 27, 2018 }} |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Halliburton |first1=R. |title=The Tulsa Race War of 1921 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=March 1, 1972 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=333–358 |doi=10.1177/002193477200200305 |jstor=2783722 |s2cid=161789413 }} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Halliburton |first1=R. |title=The Tulsa Race War of 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-black-studies_1972-03_2_3/page/333 |journal=Journal of Black Studies |date=March 1, 1972 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=333–358 |doi=10.1177/002193477200200305 |jstor=2783722 |s2cid=161789413 }} |
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* {{cite book |last=Halliburton |first=Rudia H. |year=1975 |title=Tulsa Race War of 1921 |location=San Jose, CA |publisher=R and E Publishing |isbn=0-88-247333-6}} |
* {{cite book |last=Halliburton |first=Rudia H. |year=1975 |title=Tulsa Race War of 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/tulsaracewarof190000hall |location=San Jose, CA |publisher=R and E Publishing |isbn=0-88-247333-6}} |
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* {{cite book |last=Hirsch |first=James S. |year=2002 |title=Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-618-10813-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnPs7DQpsa8C |access-date=September 1, 2020 }} |
* {{cite book |last=Hirsch |first=James S. |year=2002 |title=Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy |location=Boston, MA |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=0-618-10813-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MnPs7DQpsa8C |access-date=September 1, 2020 }} |
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* Rob Hower, ''1921 Tulsa Race Riot: The American Red Cross – Angels of Mercy.'' Tulsa, OK: Homestead Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-96-658230-6}} |
* Rob Hower, ''1921 Tulsa Race Riot: The American Red Cross – Angels of Mercy.'' Tulsa, OK: Homestead Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-96-658230-6}} |
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* Hannibal B. Johnson, ''Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District.'' Austin, TX: Eakin Press 1998. {{ISBN|1-57-168221-X}} |
* Hannibal B. Johnson, ''Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District.'' Austin, TX: Eakin Press 1998. {{ISBN|1-57-168221-X}} |
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* Tim Madigan, ''The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001. {{ISBN|0-31-227283-9}} |
* Tim Madigan, ''The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921.'' New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001. {{ISBN|0-31-227283-9}} |
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* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Lee E. |title=Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921 |date=1972 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-0-87805-009-3}} |
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Lee E. |title=Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/anatomyoffourrac0000will |date=1972 |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |isbn=978-0-87805-009-3}} |
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* {{cite web |last=Willows |first=Maurice |date=December 31, 1921 |url=https://www.tulsahistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th-with-watermark.pdf |title=Disaster Relief Report Riot 1921 |website=Tulsa Historical Society & Museum |publisher=American Red Cross |access-date=February 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101001129/http://tulsahistory.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th.pdf |archive-date=January 1, 2017}} |
* {{cite web |last=Willows |first=Maurice |date=December 31, 1921 |url=https://www.tulsahistory.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th-with-watermark.pdf |title=Disaster Relief Report Riot 1921 |website=Tulsa Historical Society & Museum |publisher=American Red Cross |access-date=February 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101001129/http://tulsahistory.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/1921-Red-Cross-Report-December-30th.pdf |archive-date=January 1, 2017}} |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Witten |first1=Alan |last2=Brooks |first2=Robert |last3=Fenner |first3=Thomas |title=The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A geophysical study to locate a mass grave |journal=The Leading Edge |date=June 2001 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=655–660 |doi=10.1190/1.1439020}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Witten |first1=Alan |last2=Brooks |first2=Robert |last3=Fenner |first3=Thomas |title=The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A geophysical study to locate a mass grave |journal=The Leading Edge |date=June 2001 |volume=20 |issue=6 |pages=655–660 |doi=10.1190/1.1439020}} |
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*{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=Ronni Michelle |title=Remembrance, Responsibility, and Reparations: The Use of Emotions in Talk about the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot |journal=Journal of Social Issues |date=June 2015 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=338–355 |doi=10.1111/josi.12114}} |
*{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=Ronni Michelle |title=Remembrance, Responsibility, and Reparations: The Use of Emotions in Talk about the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot |journal=Journal of Social Issues |date=June 2015 |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=338–355 |doi=10.1111/josi.12114}} |
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*{{cite book |last1=Krehbiel |first1=Randy |title=Tulsa, 1921: Reporting a Massacre |date=2019 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-6583-7}} |
*{{cite book |last1=Krehbiel |first1=Randy |title=Tulsa, 1921: Reporting a Massacre |url=https://archive.org/details/tulsa1921reporti0000kreh |date=2019 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=978-0-8061-6583-7}} |
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*{{citation |author=Oklahoma Commission |contribution=Final Report |title=Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |place=Tulsa, Oklahoma |date=February 28, 2001 |contribution-url=http://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf |contribution-format=PDF |access-date=June 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://archive.org/ |
*{{citation |author=Oklahoma Commission |contribution=Final Report |title=Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 |place=Tulsa, Oklahoma |date=February 28, 2001 |contribution-url=http://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf |contribution-format=PDF |access-date=June 20, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210617013441/https://www.okhistory.org/research/forms/freport.pdf |archive-date=2021-06-17 |dead-url=unfit }} |
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* {{cite web |last1=Parrish |first1=Mary E. Jones |year=1922 |publisher=University of Tulsa, Department of Special Collections and University Archives |title=Events of the Tulsa Disaster |url=http://cdm15887.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/fullbrowser/collection/p15887coll1/id/28/rv/compoundobject/cpd/129 |access-date=March 5, 2019 |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305075554/http://cdm15887.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/fullbrowser/collection/p15887coll1/id/28/rv/compoundobject/cpd/129 |archive-date=March 5, 2019 |url-status=live}} |
* {{cite web |last1=Parrish |first1=Mary E. Jones |year=1922 |publisher=University of Tulsa, Department of Special Collections and University Archives |title=Events of the Tulsa Disaster |url=http://cdm15887.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/fullbrowser/collection/p15887coll1/id/28/rv/compoundobject/cpd/129 |access-date=March 5, 2019 |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190305075554/http://cdm15887.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/fullbrowser/collection/p15887coll1/id/28/rv/compoundobject/cpd/129 |archive-date=March 5, 2019 |url-status=live}} |
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Revisi terkini sejak 18 September 2024 12.02
Pembantaian ras Tulsa terjadi pada 31 Mei dan 1 Juni 1921, saat segerombolan penduduk kulit putih, beberapa diantaranya dikerahkan dan diberi senjata oleh para pejabat kota, menyerang penduduk kulit hitam dan menghancurkan rumah-rumah dan usaha-usaha di Greenwood District, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Amerika Serikat. Juga disebut sebagai kerusuhan ras Tulsa[1] atau pembantaian Black Wall Street,[2] peristiwa tersebut adalah salah satu "insiden terburuk tunggal dari kekerasal rasial dalam sejarah Amerika".[3] Serangan tersebut membakar dan menghancurkan lebih dari 35 blok persegi kawasan tersebut – di komunitas kulit hitam terkaya di Amerika Serikat pada masa itu, yang dikenal sebagai "Black Wall Street".[4]
Lebih dari 800 orang dibawa ke rumah sakit, dan sekitar 6.000 warga kulit hitam Tulsa ditahan di berbagai fasilitas, banyak di antaranya selama beberapa hari.[5] Biro Vital Statistics Oklahoma secara resmi mencatat 36 orang tewas.[6] Koalisi Reparasi Tulsa 2001 yang meneliti kejadian ini menemukan 39 orang tewas, 26 kulit hitam dan 13 kulit putih, berdasarkan laporan otopsi, akta kematian, dan catatan lainnya. Komisi tersebut memberikan estimasi mulai dari 75 hingga 300 orang tewas.[7]
Pembantaian ini dimulai selama akhir pekan hari memorial setelah Dick Rowland, seorang pemoles sepatu berkulit hitam berusia 19 tahun, dituduh menyerang Sarah Page, seorang operator lift kulit putih berusia 21 tahun di Gedung Drexel.[8] Rowland ditangkap, dan desas-desus bahwa dia akan digantung menyebar di seluruh kota. Tahun sebelumnya, seorang pria kulit putih bernama Roy Belton sudah digantung di kota tersebut. Ketika laporan tentang sekelompok ratusan pria kulit putih yang berkumpul di sekitar penjara tempat Rowland ditahan tersebar, sekelompok 75 pria kulit hitam, beberapa di antaranya bersenjata, datang ke penjara untuk melindungi Rowland. Sheriff meyakinkan mereka untuk pergi, mengatakan bahwa dia sudah mengendalikan situasi.
Insiden yang paling banyak dilaporkan terjadi ketika kelompok pria kulit hitam meninggalkan lokasi. Seorang pria kulit putih tua mendekati O. B. Mann, pria kulit hitam, dan menuntut agar Mann menyerahkan pistolnya. Mann menolak, dan pria tua itu mencoba merampas senjatanya. Tiba-tiba tembakan terdengar, dan menurut laporan sheriff, "semua neraka sudah meledak." Kedua kelompok saling menembaki sampai tengah malam, ketika kelompok pria kulit hitam kalah jumlah dan terpaksa mundur ke Greenwood. Di akhir baku tembak, 12 orang tewas, 10 kulit putih dan 2 kulit hitam. Ada juga versi lain yang mengatakan tembakan dimulai "di jalanan dekat kantor Pengadilan" ketika pebisnis berkulit hitam datang membela seorang pria kulit hitam yang diserang oleh sekelompok sekitar enam pria kulit putih.[9] Bisa jadi saksi mata tidak menyadari bahwa kejadian ini bagian dari baku tembak yang sudah berlangsung. Begitu berita kekerasan menyebar, kekacauan semakin parah.[10] Para perusuh kulit putih menyerbu Greenwood malam itu dan pagi berikutnya, membunuh para pria lalu membakar serta menjarah toko dan rumah. Sekitar tengah hari pada 1 Juni, Garda Nasional Oklahoma memberlakukan hukum militer dan menghentikan pembantaian.[11][12]
Sekitar 10.000 orang kulit hitam kehilangan tempat tinggal, dan kerusakan properti mencapai lebih dari $1,5 juta untuk properti real estat dan $750.000 untuk barang pribadi (setara dengan $38,43 juta di tahun 2023). Pada akhir tahun 1922, sebagian besar rumah warga sudah dibangun kembali, tapi kota dan perusahaan real estat menolak memberikan kompensasi.[13] Banyak penyintas meninggalkan Tulsa, sementara yang tetap tinggal, terlepas dari ras, umumnya memilih untuk bungkam tentang teror, kekerasan, dan kerugian yang terjadi selama puluhan tahun. Pembantaian ini hampir tidak ada dalam sejarah lokal, negara bagian, dan nasional selama bertahun-tahun.[14]
Pada tahun 1996, 75 tahun setelah pembantaian, sekelompok bipartisan di badan legislatif negara bagian mengesahkan pembentukan Komisi Oklahoma untuk Mempelajari Kerusuhan Ras Tulsa 1921. Laporan akhir komisi, yang diterbitkan pada tahun 2001, menyatakan bahwa kota tersebut bersekongkol dengan massa rasis; mereka merekomendasikan program reparasi untuk penyintas dan keturunannya. Negara bagian kemudian mengesahkan undang-undang untuk mendirikan beasiswa bagi keturunan penyintas, mendorong pengembangan ekonomi Greenwood, dan mengembangkan taman untuk mengenang para korban pembantaian di Tulsa.[15] Taman ini diresmikan pada tahun 2010. Sejak tahun 2002,[16] sekolah-sekolah di Oklahoma diwajibkan mengajarkan tentang pembantaian ini kepada siswa, dan pada tahun 2020, pembantaian ini secara resmi menjadi bagian dari kurikulum sekolah di Oklahoma.[17]
Referensi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ White, Walter F. (August 23, 2001). "Tulsa, 1921". The Nation. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal June 12, 2018. Diakses tanggal September 16, 2018.
- ^ "Nearly 100 Years Later, Tulsa Begins Search for Mass Graves From 1921 Black Wall Street Massacre". The Root. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal October 9, 2019. Diakses tanggal October 9, 2019.
- ^ Ellsworth, Scott (2009). "Tulsa Race Riot". The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal June 13, 2020. Diakses tanggal December 31, 2016.
- ^ Huddleston Jr, Tom (2020-07-04). "'Black Wall Street': The history of the wealthy black community and the massacre perpetrated there". CNBC. Diakses tanggal 2020-08-30.
- ^ Messer, Chris M.; Beamon, Krystal; Bell, Patricia A. (2013). "The Tulsa Riot of 1921: Collective Violence and Racial Frames". The Western Journal of Black Studies. 37 (1): 50–59. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal June 11, 2020. Diakses tanggal June 11, 2020.
- ^ Various (February 21, 2001). Report on Tulsa Race Riot of 1921 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. hlm. 123. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal June 21, 2020. Diakses tanggal June 22, 2020.
(...) the official count of 36 (...)
- ^ Oklahoma Commission 2001, hlm. 13, 23.
- ^ Hopkins, Randy (2023-07-06). "The Notorious Sarah Page". CfPS (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2024-04-09.
- ^ Clark, Nia (January 21, 2020). "A black Wall Street Legend - The Story of Peg Leg Taylor and the Legacy of Trauma". Dreams of Black Wall Street. Diakses tanggal 24 March 2022.
- ^ National Endowment for the Humanities (June 18, 1921). "The broad ax. [volume] (Salt Lake City, Utah) 1895–19??, June 18, 1921, Image 1". The Broad Ax. ISSN 2163-7202. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal October 23, 2019. Diakses tanggal October 23, 2019.
- ^ "Tulsa Race Massacre | The Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture". Oklahoma Historical Society | OHS (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2024-05-26.
- ^ ""Martial Law Declared", 1921-06-01 | The University of Tulsa Archival Catalog". utulsa.as.atlas-sys.com. Diakses tanggal 2024-05-26.
- ^ Luckerson, Victor (2018-06-28). "Black Wall Street: The African American Haven That Burned and Then Rose From the Ashes". The Ringer (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2022-10-05.
- ^ Staff, KOCO (2021-05-28). "How did the Tulsa Race Massacre history become hidden, forgotten?". KOCO (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2024-05-26.
- ^ Oklahoma Commission & 2001 p.
- ^ Miller, Ken (February 20, 2020). "Curriculum being developed to teach Tulsa race massacre". Associated Press. Diakses tanggal June 7, 2021.
- ^ Connor, Jay (2020). "The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Will Officially Become a Part of the Oklahoma School Curriculum Beginning in the Fall". The Root. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal February 21, 2020. Diakses tanggal February 21, 2020.
Daftar pustaka
[sunting | sunting sumber]Sumber pustaka mengenai Pembantaian ras Tulsa |
- Brophy, Alfred L. (2002). Reconstructing the Dreamland: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Race Reparations, and Reconciliation. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514685-9. "[T]the best account of the 1921 Tulsa riot, which drew wide acclaim from historians and others." – Rao, Gautham (September 2017). "University, Court, and Slave: Pro-Slavery Thought in Southern Colleges and Courts and the Coming of Civil War by Alfred L. Brophy (review)". Journal of the Civil War Era. 7 (3): 481–483. doi:10.1353/cwe.2017.0069.
- Ellsworth, Scott (1992). Death in a Promised Land: The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-1767-5. Diakses tanggal March 29, 2016.
- Franklin, Buck Colbert (August 22, 1931). "The Tulsa Race Riot and Three of Its Victims". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal December 3, 2018. Diakses tanggal December 3, 2018. Full text. Diarsipkan October 27, 2018, di Wayback Machine.
- Halliburton, R. (March 1, 1972). "The Tulsa Race War of 1921". Journal of Black Studies. 2 (3): 333–358. doi:10.1177/002193477200200305. JSTOR 2783722.
- Halliburton, Rudia H. (1975). Tulsa Race War of 1921. San Jose, CA: R and E Publishing. ISBN 0-88-247333-6.
- Hirsch, James S. (2002). Riot and Remembrance: The Tulsa Race War and Its Legacy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0-618-10813-0. Diakses tanggal September 1, 2020.
- Rob Hower, 1921 Tulsa Race Riot: The American Red Cross – Angels of Mercy. Tulsa, OK: Homestead Press, 1993. ISBN 0-96-658230-6
- Hannibal B. Johnson, Black Wall Street: From Riot to Renaissance in Tulsa's Historic Greenwood District. Austin, TX: Eakin Press 1998. ISBN 1-57-168221-X
- Tim Madigan, The Burning: Massacre, Destruction, and the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2001. ISBN 0-31-227283-9
- Williams, Lee E. (1972). Anatomy of Four Race Riots: Racial Conflict in Knoxville, Elaine (Arkansas), Tulsa, and Chicago, 1919–1921. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-0-87805-009-3.
- Willows, Maurice (December 31, 1921). "Disaster Relief Report Riot 1921" (PDF). Tulsa Historical Society & Museum. American Red Cross. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal January 1, 2017. Diakses tanggal February 14, 2020.
- Witten, Alan; Brooks, Robert; Fenner, Thomas (June 2001). "The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921: A geophysical study to locate a mass grave". The Leading Edge. 20 (6): 655–660. doi:10.1190/1.1439020.
- Greenwood, Ronni Michelle (June 2015). "Remembrance, Responsibility, and Reparations: The Use of Emotions in Talk about the 1921 Tulsa Race Riot". Journal of Social Issues. 71 (2): 338–355. doi:10.1111/josi.12114.
- Krehbiel, Randy (2019). Tulsa, 1921: Reporting a Massacre. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 978-0-8061-6583-7.
- Oklahoma Commission (February 28, 2001), "Final Report" (PDF), Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921, Tulsa, Oklahoma, Archived from the original on 2021-06-17, diakses tanggal June 20, 2018
- Parrish, Mary E. Jones (1922). "Events of the Tulsa Disaster". University of Tulsa, Department of Special Collections and University Archives. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal March 5, 2019. Diakses tanggal March 5, 2019.
Bacaan tambahan
[sunting | sunting sumber]- DeNeed L. Brown (19 Oct 2020). "Tulsa begins search for 'Original 18' black people killed in 1921 race massacre". The Washington Post.
- Linda Christensen. "Burned Out of Homes and History: Unearthing the Silenced Voices of the Tulsa Massacre" (8-page lesson plan for high school students). Zinn Education Project/Rethinking Schools.
- Dexter Mullins (19 July 2014). "Survivors of infamous 1921 Tulsa race riot still hope for justice". Al-Jazeera.
- I. Marc Carlson (8 May 2014). "A Survey of the Tulsa Race Riot Photographs, Part 2".
- "Interview with Otis Clark, Tulsa Race Massacre Survivor" (Audio podcast with transcript). Voices of Oklahoma. 23 Nov 2009.
- "Interview with Wess (& Cathryn) Young, Tulsa Race Massacre Survivor" (Audio podcast with transcript). Voices of Oklahoma. 21 Aug 2009.
- "Tulsa Race Riot: A Report". The Oklahoma Commission to Study the Tulsa Race Riot of 1921. February 28, 2001.
- "Tulsa 1921 Race Riot Commission renamed Race Massacre Commission". KJRH News. Tulsa. November 29, 2019. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal February 22, 2019. Diakses tanggal May 10, 2019.
Sen. Kevin Matthews held a news conference Thursday morning, in which he announced the official name change of the 1921 Race Riot Commission to the 1921 Race Massacre Commission.
- Day, Meagan (September 21, 2016). "The history of the Tulsa race massacre that destroyed America's wealthiest black neighborhood". Timeline. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal August 23, 2018. Diakses tanggal February 27, 2019.
- Rao, Sameer (May 31, 2017). "It's Been 96 Years Since White Mobs Destroyed Tulsa's Black Wall Street". Colorlines. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal March 1, 2018. Diakses tanggal March 1, 2018.
- Moorehead, Monica (June 10, 1999). "U.S. ethnic cleansing: The 1921 Tulsa Massacre". Workers World. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal May 23, 2019. Diakses tanggal March 1, 2018.
Pranala luar
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Facts and Links for "The Tulsa Race Riot of 1921", Subliminal.org
- "1921 Tulsa Race Massacre", Tulsa Historical Society. Archived copy: "Tulsa Race Riot"
- "Tulsa Race Riot: Photographs from the Beryl Ford Collection", Tulsa City County Library: African American Resource Center
- Tulsa Race Massacre Collection at Oklahoma State University