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{{Infobox philosopher
{{Infobox philosopher
|region = [[Western Philosophy]]
|region = [[Western Philosophy]]
|era = [[20th-century philosophy]]
|era = [[filsuf]] [[abad ke-20]]
|color = #B0C4DE
|color = #B0C4DE
|name = Norman Geisler
|name = Norman Geisler
|image =
|image =
|image_size = 150px
|image_size = 150px
|birth_date = 21 Juli 1932
| birth_date = {{birth date|1932|07|21|mf=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Warren, Michigan]], [[Amerika Serikat]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|2019|07|01|1932|07|21|mf=yes}}
|school_tradition = [[Calvinisme]] Moderat, [[Filsafat]] [[Kristen]]
|school_tradition = [[Calvinisme]] Moderat, [[Filsafat]] [[Kristen]]
|main_interests = [[Filsafat agama]], [[Apologetik Kristen]], [[Calvinisme]] Moderat
|main_interests = [[Filsafat]] [[agama]], [[Apologetik Kristen]], [[Calvinisme]] Moderat
|notable_ideas =
|notable_ideas =
|influences = [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Étienne Gilson]]
|influences = [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Étienne Gilson]]
|influenced = [[Ravi Zacharias]]}}
|influenced = [[Ravi Zacharias]]}}
'''Norman L. Geisler''' ({{lahirmati||21|7|1932}}) adalah seorang [[apologetik Kristen|apologet]] [[Kristen]] yang berasal dari [[Amerika Serikat]]. Ia adalah salah satu pendiri [[:en:Southern Evangelical Seminary|Southern Evangelical Seminary]] yang berlokasi dekat [[Charlotte]], [[North Carolina]], di mana ia dulunya mengajar. Ia meraih gelar [[Ph.D.]] dalam bidang [[filsafat]] dari [[:en:Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]]. Geisler terkenal karena kontribusi kesarjanaannya pada topik [[Apologetik Kristen]], [[filsafat]], dan [[Calvinisme]] moderat serta telah mengarang, bersama-sama mengarang atau menyunting lebih dari 60 buku dan ratusan artikel.
'''Norman Leo Geisler''' ({{lahirmati||21|7|1932||1|7|2019}})<ref>[https://www.christianpost.com/news/norman-geisler-noted-apologist-and-theologian-dead-at-86.html Norman Geisler, noted apologist and theologian, dead at 86]</ref> adalah seorang [[apologetik Kristen|apologet]] [[Kristen]] yang berasal dari [[Amerika Serikat]]. Ia adalah salah satu pendiri [[:en:Southern Evangelical Seminary|Southern Evangelical Seminary]] yang berlokasi dekat [[Charlotte, Carolina Utara|Charlotte]], [[North Carolina]], di mana ia dulunya mengajar. Ia meraih gelar [[Ph.D.]] dalam bidang [[filsafat]] dari [[:en:Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]]. Geisler terkenal karena kontribusi kesarjanaannya pada topik [[Apologetik Kristen]], [[filsafat]], dan [[Calvinisme]] moderat serta telah mengarang, bersama-sama mengarang atau menyunting lebih dari 60 buku dan ratusan artikel.


==Biografi ==
== Biografi ==
Geisler meninggalkan [[Evangelical Theological Society]] pada tahun 2003, setelah sekolah itu tidak mau mengeluarkan [[Clark Pinnock]], yang mendukung ''[[open theism]]''.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.normgeisler.com/articles/Bible/Inspiration-Inerrancy/ETS/2003-WhyIResignedFromTheETS.htm | year = 2003 | first = Norman | last = Geisler | title = Why I Resigned from The Evangelical Theological Society}}.</ref> Pada akhir abad ke-20, Geisler memasuki arena [[Mormon]]: ia mengarang bersama Rhodes ''When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation''.{{Sfn | Geisler | Rhodes | 1997}} 47 artikel yang didaftarkan di indeks berkaitan dengan [[Mormonisme]]. Ia berkontribusi kepada ''The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism''.{{Sfn | Geisler | 1998}} Pada tahun 2009, Geisler bersama-sama mendirikan Veritas Evangelical Seminary di Murrieta, [[California]]. Seminari ini menawarkan gelar master dalam bidang [[Teologi]], [[Apologetik]] dan ''Divinity''. Geisler menjabat sebagai ''Chancellor'', ''distinguished Professor of Apologetics and Theology'' dan ''Norman L. Geisler Chair of Christian Apologetics''.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.veritasseminary.com/ | title = Veritas Evangelical Seminary}}.</ref>
Geisler meninggalkan Evangelical Theological Society pada tahun 2003, setelah sekolah itu tidak mau mengeluarkan [[Clark Pinnock]], yang mendukung ''[[:en:open theism|teisme terbuka]]''.<ref>{{Citation |url = http://www.normgeisler.com/articles/Bible/Inspiration-Inerrancy/ETS/2003-WhyIResignedFromTheETS.htm |year = 2003 |first = Norman |last = Geisler |title = Why I Resigned from The Evangelical Theological Society |accessdate = 2014-04-30 |archive-date = 2013-06-30 |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130630010344/http://www.normgeisler.com/articles/Bible/Inspiration-Inerrancy/ETS/2003-WhyIResignedFromTheETS.htm |dead-url = yes }}.</ref> Pada akhir abad ke-20, Geisler memasuki arena [[Mormon]]: ia mengarang bersama Rhodes "''When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation''".{{Sfn |Geisler |Rhodes |1997}} 47 artikel yang didaftarkan di indeks berkaitan dengan [[Mormonisme]]. Ia berkontribusi pada "''The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism''".{{Sfn |Geisler |1998}} Pada tahun 2009, Geisler bersama-sama mendirikan Veritas Evangelical Seminary di Murrieta, [[California]]. Seminari ini menawarkan gelar master dalam bidang [[Teologi]], [[Apologetik]] dan ''Divinity''. Geisler menjabat sebagai ''Chancellor'', ''distinguished Professor of Apologetics and Theology'' dan ''Norman L. Geisler Chair of Christian Apologetics''.<ref>{{Citation |url = http://www.veritasseminary.com/ |title = Veritas Evangelical Seminary}}.</ref>


Geisler menikah dengan Barbara Jean dan mereka dikaruniai enam anak, 15 cucu dan 3 cicit.
Geisler menikah dengan Barbara Jean dan mereka dikaruniai enam anak, 15 cucu dan 3 cicit.


== Pendidikan ==
== Pendidikan ==
Pendidikan Geisler meliputi program diploma (1955) dan Th.B. (1964) dari [[William Tyndale College]], B.A. dalam bidang filsafat (1958) dan M.A. dalam bidang [[teologi]] (1960) dari [[:en:Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton College]], dan Ph.D. dalam bidang filsafat dari [[:en:Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]]. Ia mengerjakan karya graduat tambahan pada [[Wayne State University]], [[University of Detroit]], dan [[Northwestern University]] di Evanston, [[Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web|title= About | first = Norman L | last = Geisler | work = Official Web page|url = http://www.normgeisler.com/about/}}</ref>
Pendidikan Geisler meliputi program diploma (1955) dan Th.B. (1964) dari [[:en:William Tyndale College|William Tyndale College]], B.A. dalam bidang filsafat (1958) dan M.A. dalam bidang [[teologi]] (1960) dari [[:en:Wheaton College (Illinois)|Wheaton College]], dan Ph.D. dalam bidang filsafat dari [[:en:Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]]. Ia mengerjakan karya graduat tambahan pada [[Wayne State University]], [[:en:University of Detroit|University of Detroit]], dan [[Northwestern University]] di Evanston, [[Illinois]].<ref>{{cite web |title = About |first = Norman L |last = Geisler |work = Official Web page |url = http://www.normgeisler.com/about/ |access-date = 2014-04-30 |archive-date = 2014-06-12 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140612190602/http://www.normgeisler.com/about/ |dead-url = yes }}</ref>

== Kerangka sistem apologetika Geisler ==
Geisler terutama dikenal sebagai seorang apologetika Kristen klasik. Antara tahun 1970 dan 1990 ia berpartisipasi banyak debat publik dan mendapatkan reputasi sebagai seorang pembela theisme, mukjizat alkitabiah, [[kebangkitan Yesus]], dan reliabilitas (dapat dipercayanya) [[Alkitab]]. Penerbitan pertama kerangka metode apologetikanya dicantumkan pada lampiran buku tahun 1990 "''When Skeptics Ask''" ("Ketika orang skeptis bertanya"). Lampiran ini diberi judul "''Reasoning to Christianity from Ground Zero''" ("Penalaran Kekristenan Dari Dasar Nol"). Di dalamnya terkandung pandangan tingkat tinggi dari sistem holistik apologetika klasik yang telah dikembangkannya selama bertahun-tahun. Kerangka pertama terdiri dari 14 poin argumen:<ref>Geisler, N. L., & Brooks, R. M. (1990). When skeptics ask (p. 289). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.
</ref>

# Ada kebenaran yang terbukti sendiri (misalnya, "Aku ada", "Logika diterapkan pada kenyataan").
# Kebenaran bersesuaian dengan kenyataan.
# Kebenaran dapat diketahui (pandangan-pandangan lain mengalahkan diri sendiri).
# Orang dapat melanjutkan dari kebenaran yang terbukti sendiri kepada keberadaan Allah.
## Argumen dari Penciptaan (berlanjut dari "Aku ada")
## Argumen dari moral (berlanjut dari "Nilai-nilai tidak dapat disangkal")
## Argumen dari desain/rancangan (berlanjut dari "Desain menyiratkan adanya desainer"/"Rancangan menyiratkan adanya perancang")
# Allah adalah Keberadaan yang diperlukan (argumen dari keberadaan).
# Keberadaanku bukan sesuatu yang diperlukan (bukti dari definisi "Keberadaan yang diperlukan").
# Karenanya, theisme adalah benar (ada suatu Keberadaan yang diperlukan di luar dunia yang telah menciptakan benda-benda pokok dalam dunia dan bercampur tangan di dalam dunia [bab 3]).
## Keberatan mengenai masalah kejahatan dapat dipecahkan.
## Keberatan mengenai mukjizat dapat dipecahkan.
# Alkitab berdasarkam sejarah adalah dokumen yang dapat dipercaya.
## Sejarah adalah pembelajaran objektif mengenai masa lampau.
## Ada banyak bukti sejarah, arkeologis, dan ilmiah yang memastikan reliabilitas Alkitab. (Kelanjutannya: Alkitab memuat catatan yang dapat dipercaya mengenai ajaran Yesus Kristus.)
# Yesus mengklaim diri sepenuhnya manusia dan sepenuhnya Allah.
# Ia memberikan bukti untuk mendukung klaim tersebut.
## Penggenapan nubuat-nubuat
## Kehidupan-Nya yang ajaib dan tanpa dosa
## [[Kebangkitan Yesus|Kebangkitan-Nya]]
# Karenanya, Yesus adalah sepenuhnya manusia dan sepenuhnya Allah.
# Apapun yang Allah ajarkan adalah benar.
# Yesus (Allah) mengajarkan bahwa [[Perjanjian Lama]] adalah Argumen yang terilhami dari Allah dan Ia menjanjikan [[Perjanjian Baru]].
# Karenanya, baik Perjanjian Lama maupun Perjanjian Baru adalah Firman Allah yang terilhami.

Ikhtisar sistem ini kemudian sedikit dipersingkat dalam skema 12 poin, sejak tahun 1999, sebagai berikut:<ref>Geisler, N. L. "Apologetics, Argument of", in ''The Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics''. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. 1999</ref>

# Kebenaran mengenai kenyataan dapat diketahui.
# Hal-hal yang berlawanan tidak dapat sama-sama benar.
# Ada Allah yang theistis.
# Mukjizat mungkin terjadi.
# Mukjizat yang dilakukan dalam hubungan dengan klaim kebenaran adalah tindakan Allah untuk memastikan kebenaran Allah melalui utusan Allah.
# Dokumen Perjanjian Baru dapat dipercaya.
# Sebagaimana kesaksian Perjanjian Baru, Yesus mengklaim sebagai Allah.
# Klaim keilahian Yesus dibuktikan dengan suatu kumpulan mukjizat yang unik.
# Karenanya, Yesus adalah Allah di dalam daging manusia.
# Apapun yang dinyatakan benar oleh Yesus adalah benar.
# Yesus menyatakan bahwa Alkitab adalah Firman Allah.
# Karenanya, adalah benar bahwa Alkitab adalah Firman Allah dan apapun yang berlawanan dengan Kebenaran alkitabiah adalah salah.
Dua belas langkah yang sama menjadi kerangka bab-bab dari buku yang sangat populer "''I Don't Have Enough Faith to be an Atheist''" ("Aku tidak punya cukup iman untuk menjadi seorang ateis")<ref>Geisler, N. L., & Turek, F. I Don't have Enough Faith to be an Atheist. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. 2004</ref> terbitan tahun 2004 dan karya Geisler terbitan tahun 2012 yang berupa e-book "''Twelve Points that Show Christianity is True''" ("Dua belas poin yang menunjukkan Kekristenan itu benar").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bastionbooks.com/shop/twelve-points/|title=12 Points that Show Christianity is True|work=Bastion Books|accessdate=September 8, 2016|archive-date=2016-09-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160916021711/http://bastionbooks.com/shop/twelve-points/|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

== Teologi ==
Geisler adalah seorang sarjana evangelikal konservatif yang telah menulis suatu teologi sistematika empat volume.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kreider|first1=Glenn|title=Review: Systematic Theology by Normal Geisler|url=http://www.dts.edu/reviews/norman-geisler-systematic-theology/|website=Dallas Theological Seminary|accessdate=December 23, 2014|archive-date=2017-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622122516/http://www.dts.edu/reviews/norman-geisler-systematic-theology|dead-url=yes}}</ref>

Ia adalah seorang pembela inerrancy Alkitab penuh, menjadi salah satu pemrakarsa dan perancang "Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy" (1978) serta editor buku "''Inerrancy''" (Zondervan, 1978). Kemudian, ia menulis "''Defending Inerrancy''" bersama William Roach (Baker, 2013). Ia juga menulis (bersama William Nix) "''General Introduction to the Bible''" (Moody Press, 1986)<ref>{{cite web|title=A General Introduction to the Bible|url=http://www.christianbook.com/general-introduction-the-bible-revised-expanded/norman-geisler/9780802429162/pd/2916X|website=Christian Book|accessdate=December 23, 2014}}</ref> and ''From God to Us'', revised (Moody, 2012).

=== Calvinisme Moderat ===
Geisler menyebut dirinya seorang penganut "Calvinisme Moderat" ("''moderate Calvinism''"),{{Sfn |Geisler |1999b |p = 129}} sebagaimana dinyatakan dalam buku-buku tulisannya "''Chosen but Free''" (Harvest House, 2001) dan "''Systematic Theology, in One Volume''" (Harvest House, 2012).
<!--
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Onthe Five Points of Calvinism, he believes:
== Calvinisme Moderat ==

Geisler menyebut dirinya seorang penganut "Calvinisme Moderat" ("''moderate Calvinism''").{{Sfn | Geisler | 1999b | p = 129}} Geisler menolak konsep tradisional Kalvinis mengenai ''[[unconditional election]]'' ("pemilihan tanpa syarat"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa tidak ada syarat hanya dari pihak Allah), ''[[irresistible grace]]'' ("anugerah tidak tertahan"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa Allah menghimbau mereka yang "mau menerima karya Allah") dan ''[[limited atonement]]'' ("penebusan terbatas"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa penebusan hanya dibatasi oleh hasilnya). Namun para kritikus menolak istilah "moderate Calvinism". [[James White (theologian)|James White]] menyebut "hanya bentuk termodifikasi dari [[Arminianisme]] dalam sejarah."<ref>{{Citation | first = James | last = White | title = The Potter's Freedom | page = 29}}.</ref> <!--[[Michael Horton (theologian)|Michael Horton]] mencatat bahwa dalam sejarah "moderate Calvinism" referred to [[Amyraldianism]], but "Geisler’s position is much further from Calvinism than Amyraldianism."<ref>{{Citation | first = Michael | last = Horton | editor-first = J Matthew | editor-last = Pinson | title = Four Views on Eternal Security | page = 113}}.</ref> While Geisler contrasts his position with what he calls "extreme" Calvinism, he does concede that "theologians we classify as extreme Calvinists consider themselves simply ‘[[Calvinism|Calvinists]]’ and would probably object to our categorizing them in this manner."{{Sfn | Geisler | 1999b | p = 20}} Geisler contributed to the book ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' under the term "moderate Calvinism" but the general editor did not allow Geisler to use the term "extreme Calvinism", only "strong Calvinism".<ref>{{Citation | editor-first = J Matthew | editor-last = Pinson | title = Four Views on Eternal Security | ISBN = 0-31023439-5 | page = 63}}.</ref>
#Total depravity extends to the whole person but does not destroy the image of God in fallen human beings;
#Election is unconditional from the standpoint of God's giving it and only one condition for humans receiving it—faith;
#The atonement is unlimited in its scope—Christ died for all mankind—but limited in its application to only the elect;
#Grace is irresistible on the willing but does not force the unwilling;
#All those who are regenerate will, by God's grace, persevere to the end and be saved.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Allen|first1=Bob|title=Traditional Southern Baptists counter Calvinism|url=http://baptistnews.com/faith/theology/item/28790-traditional-southern-baptists-counter-calvinism|website=Baptist News Global|accessdate=December 23, 2014}}</ref>

-->
Geisler menolak konsep tradisional Kalvinis mengenai ''[[unconditional election]]'' ("pemilihan tanpa syarat"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa tidak ada syarat hanya dari pihak Allah), ''[[irresistible grace]]'' ("anugerah tidak tertahan"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa Allah menghimbau mereka yang "mau menerima karya Allah") dan ''[[limited atonement]]'' ("penebusan terbatas"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa penebusan hanya dibatasi oleh hasilnya). Namun para kritikus menolak istilah "moderate Calvinism". [[James White (theologian)|James White]] menyebut "hanya bentuk termodifikasi dari [[Arminianisme]] dalam sejarah."<ref>{{Citation |first = James |last = White |title = The Potter's Freedom |page = 29}}.</ref> <!--[[Michael Horton (theologian)|Michael Horton]] mencatat bahwa dalam sejarah "moderate Calvinism" referred to [[Amyraldianism]], but "Geisler’s position is much further from Calvinism than Amyraldianism."<ref>{{Citation |first = Michael |last = Horton |editor-first = J Matthew |editor-last = Pinson |title = Four Views on Eternal Security |page = 113}}.</ref> While Geisler contrasts his position with what he calls "extreme" Calvinism, he does concede that "theologians we classify as extreme Calvinists consider themselves simply ‘[[Calvinism|Calvinists]]’ and would probably object to our categorizing them in this manner."{{Sfn |Geisler |1999b |p = 20}} Geisler contributed to the book ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' under the term "moderate Calvinism" but the general editor did not allow Geisler to use the term "extreme Calvinism", only "strong Calvinism".<ref>{{Citation |editor-first = J Matthew |editor-last = Pinson |title = Four Views on Eternal Security |ISBN = 0-31023439-5 |page = 63}}.</ref>


==Graded absolutism==
==Graded absolutism==
{{BLP primary sources|section|date=January 2012}}
{{BLP primary sources|section|date=January 2012}}
Geisler advocates the view called [[graded absolutism]], which is a theory of [[moral absolutism]] which resolves the objection to absolutism that in moral conflicts we are obligated to opposites.{{Sfn | Geisler | 2009}} Moral absolutism is the [[Ethics|ethical]] view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the intentions behind them. Graded absolutism is moral absolutism but clarifies that a moral absolute, like "Do not kill," can be greater or lesser than another moral absolute, like "Do not lie". According to graded absolutism, in [[Ethical dilemma|moral conflicts]], the dilemma is not that we are obligated to opposites, because greater absolutes are not opposites of lesser absolutes, and evil is not the opposite of good but is instead the privation of good. Since evil is the privation of good, only the privation of the greater good counts as evil, since whenever there is a moral conflict, we are only obligated to the greater good. The real dilemma is that we cannot perform both conflicting absolutes at the same time. 'Which' absolutes are in conflict depends on the context, but which conflicting absolute is ‘greater’ does not depend on the context. That is why graded absolutism is also called 'contextual absolutism' but is not to be confused with [[situational ethics]]. The conflict is resolved in acting according to the greater absolute. That is why graded absolutism is also called the 'greater good view', but is not to be confused with [[utilitarianism]]{{Citation needed |date=January 2012}} (see also [[prima facie right|''prima facie'' right]].)
Geisler advocates the view called [[graded absolutism]], which is a theory of [[moral absolutism]] which resolves the objection to absolutism that in moral conflicts we are obligated to opposites.{{Sfn |Geisler |2009}} Moral absolutism is the [[Ethics|ethical]] view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the intentions behind them. Graded absolutism is moral absolutism but clarifies that a moral absolute, like "Do not kill," can be greater or lesser than another moral absolute, like "Do not lie". According to graded absolutism, in [[Ethical dilemma|moral conflicts]], the dilemma is not that we are obligated to opposites, because greater absolutes are not opposites of lesser absolutes, and evil is not the opposite of good but is instead the privation of good. Since evil is the privation of good, only the privation of the greater good counts as evil, since whenever there is a moral conflict, we are only obligated to the greater good. The real dilemma is that we cannot perform both conflicting absolutes at the same time. 'Which' absolutes are in conflict depends on the context, but which conflicting absolute is ‘greater’ does not depend on the context. That is why graded absolutism is also called 'contextual absolutism' but is not to be confused with [[situational ethics]]. The conflict is resolved in acting according to the greater absolute. That is why graded absolutism is also called the 'greater good view', but is not to be confused with [[utilitarianism]]{{Citation needed |date=January 2012}} (see also [[prima facie right|''prima facie'' right]].)-->

-->
== Pandangan mengenai etika ==
== Pandangan mengenai etika ==

Geisler percaya bahwa [[Revolusi Amerika]] tidak dapat dibenarkan dari standar Alkitab maupun teori perang adil. Namun, ia bukan sama sekali seorang "pasifis", percaya bahwa perang untuk membela diri dapat dibenarkan tetapi revolusi tidak.{{Sfn | Geisler | 1989 | at = chapters 12–13}}{{Page needed | date = October 2013}}
Geisler telah menulis buku-buku penting mengenai etika: ''Christian Ethics''<ref>Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options, 2nd Edition. Baker Academic. 1989, 2010.</ref> dan ''The Christian Love Ethic''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bastionbooks.com/shop/the-christian-love-ethic/|title=The Christian Love Ethic|work=Bastion Books|accessdate=September 8, 2016}}</ref> Ia menyampaikan perspektifnya mengenai pilihan-pilihan etika, aborsi, infantisida (pembunuhan bayi-bayi), euthanasia, hal-hal biomedis, hukuman mati, perang, ketidakpatuhan sipil, hak-hal seksual, homoseksualitas, pernikahan dan perceraian, ekologi, hak-hak binatang, obat terlarang, judi, pornografi, pengaturan kelahiran, dan lainnya.
<!--
Of the six major ethical systems (antinomianism, situationalism, generalism, unqualified absolutism, conflicting absolutism, and graded absolutism), Geisler advocates [[graded absolutism]], which is a theory of [[moral absolutism]] which affirms that in moral conflicts we are obligated to perform the higher moral duty.{{Sfn | Geisler | 2009}} Moral absolutism is the [[Ethics|ethical]] view that certain actions are absolutely right or wrong regardless of other contexts such as their consequences or the intentions behind them. Graded absolutism is moral absolutism but clarifies that a moral absolute, like "Do not kill", can be greater or lesser than another moral absolute, like "Do not lie". Graded absolutism is also called "contextual absolutism" but is not to be confused with [[situational ethics]]. The conflict is resolved in acting according to the greater absolute. That is why graded absolutism is also called the "greater good view", but is not to be confused with [[utilitarianism]]<ref>Christian Ethics, Chapter 4</ref> (see also [[prima facie right|''prima facie'' right]]).

-->
Geisler percaya bahwa [[Revolusi Amerika]] tidak dapat dibenarkan dari standar Alkitab maupun teori perang adil. Namun, ia bukan sama sekali seorang "pasifis", percaya bahwa perang untuk membela diri dapat dibenarkan tetapi revolusi tidak.{{Sfn |Geisler |1989 |at = chapters 12–13}}


== Publikasi ==
== Publikasi ==

* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1971 | title = Ethics: Alternatives and Issues | publisher = [[Zondervan]]}}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1973 | title = The Christian Ethic of Love | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1971 |title = Ethics: Alternatives and Issues |publisher = [[Zondervan]]}}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1974 | title = From God to Us | publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1973 |title = The Christian Ethic of Love |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1975 | title = To Understand the Bible—Look for Jesus | publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1974 |title = From God to Us |publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1976 | title = Christian Apologetics | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1975 |title = To Understand the Bible—Look for Jesus |publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1977 | title = A Popular Survey of the Old Testament | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1976 |title = Christian Apologetics |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1978 | title = The Roots of Evil | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1977 |title = A Popular Survey of the Old Testament |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1979 | title = Inerrancy | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1978 |title = The Roots of Evil |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1980 | title = Introduction to Philosophy: A Christian Perspective | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1979 |title = Inerrancy |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1980 |title = Introduction to Philosophy: A Christian Perspective |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1981 | title = Options in Contemporary Christian Ethics | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1981 |title = Options in Contemporary Christian Ethics |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1981 | title = Biblical Errancy: Its Philosophical Roots | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1981 |title = Biblical Errancy: Its Philosophical Roots |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1982 | title = Decide for Yourself: How History Views the Bible | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1982 |title = Decide for Yourself: How History Views the Bible |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1982 | title = The Creator in the Courtroom—Scopes II | others = et al | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1982 |title = The Creator in the Courtroom—Scopes II |others = et al |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1981 | title = What Augustine Says | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1981 |title = What Augustine Says |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1983 | title = Is Man the Measure? | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1983 |title = Is Man the Measure? |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1983 | title = Cosmos: Carl Sagan's Religion for the Scientific Mind | publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1983 |title = Cosmos: Carl Sagan's Religion for the Scientific Mind |publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1983 | title = Religion of the Force | publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1983 |title = Religion of the Force |publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1984 | title = To Drink or Not to Drink: A Sober Look at the Problem | publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1984 |title = To Drink or Not to Drink: A Sober Look at the Problem |publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1984 | title = Perspectives: Understanding and Evaluating Today's World Views | publisher = Here's Life }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1984 |title = Perspectives: Understanding and Evaluating Today's World Views |publisher = Here's Life }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1985 | title = Christianity Under Attack | type = book, video series | publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1985 |title = Christianity Under Attack |type = book, video series |publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1985 | title = False Gods of Our Time | publisher = Harvest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1985 |title = False Gods of Our Time |publisher = Harvest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Normal L | year = 1986 | title = General Introduction to the Bible | publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] | origyear = 1968 | edition = revised & expanded }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Normal L |year = 1986 |title = General Introduction to the Bible |publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] |origyear = 1968 |edition = revised & expanded }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1986 | title = Reincarnation Sensation | publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1986 |title = Reincarnation Sensation |publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1987 | title = Origin Science | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1987 |title = Origin Science |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1988 | title = Philosophy of Religion | publisher = [[Zondervan]] | origyear = 1974 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1988 |title = Philosophy of Religion |publisher = [[Zondervan]] |origyear = 1974 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1988 | title = Signs and Wonders | publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1988 |title = Signs and Wonders |publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | date = September 1, 1989 | title = Christian Ethics: Options and Issues | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] | edition = 8 impr | ISBN = 978-0-80103832-7 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |date = September 1, 1989 |title = Christian Ethics: Options and Issues |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] |edition = 8 impr |ISBN = 978-0-80103832-7 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1989 | title = World's Apart | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1989 |title = World's Apart |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1989 | title = Knowing The Truth About Creation | publisher = Servant }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1989 |title = Knowing The Truth About Creation |publisher = Servant }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1989 | title = The Infiltration of the New Age | publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1989 |title = The Infiltration of the New Age |publisher = [[Tyndale House|Tyndale]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1989 | title = The Battle for the Resurrection | publisher = Thomas Nelson }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1989 |title = The Battle for the Resurrection |publisher = Thomas Nelson }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1990 | title = Apologetics in the New Age | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1990 |title = Apologetics in the New Age |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1990 | title = Come Let Us Reason: An Introduction to Logical Thinking | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1990 |title = Come Let Us Reason: An Introduction to Logical Thinking |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1990 | title = Gambling: A Bad Bet | publisher = Fleming H Revell }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1990 |title = Gambling: A Bad Bet |publisher = Fleming H Revell }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1990 | title = The Life and Death Debate | publisher = Greenwood }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1990 |title = The Life and Death Debate |publisher = Greenwood }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1991 | title = In Defense of the Resurrection | publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1991 |title = In Defense of the Resurrection |publisher = Quest }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1991 | title = Thomas Aquinas: An Evangelical Appraisal }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1991 |title = Thomas Aquinas: An Evangelical Appraisal }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1991 | title = Matters of Life and Death: Calm Answers to Tough Questions about Abortion and Euthanasia | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1991 |title = Matters of Life and Death: Calm Answers to Tough Questions about Abortion and Euthanasia |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1991 | title = Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1991 |title = Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1992 | title = When Critics Ask: A Handbook on Bible Difficulties | publisher = Victor }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1992 |title = When Critics Ask: A Handbook on Bible Difficulties |publisher = Victor }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1992 | title = Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1992 |title = Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1993 | title = Answering Islam | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1993 |title = Answering Islam |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1995 | title = Roman Catholics and Evangelicals }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1995 |title = Roman Catholics and Evangelicals }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1996 | title = Love Is Always Right | publisher = Word }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1996 |title = Love Is Always Right |publisher = Word }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1997 | title = Creating God in the Image of Man? | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1997 |title = Creating God in the Image of Man? |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Geisler | first1 = Norman L | year = 1997 | title = When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation | first2 = Ron | last2 = Rhodes | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last1 = Geisler |first1 = Norman L |year = 1997 |title = When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation |first2 = Ron |last2 = Rhodes |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1998 | title = The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism | publisher = Harvest House | place = Eugene, [[Oregon|OR]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1998 |title = The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism |publisher = Harvest House |place = Eugene, [[Oregon|OR]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1998 | title = Legislating Morality | publisher = Bethany House }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1998 |title = Legislating Morality |publisher = Bethany House }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1999 | title = Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1999 |title = Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 1999b | title = Chosen But Free | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 1999b |title = Chosen But Free |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2001 | title = Unshakable Foundations | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2001 |title = Unshakable Foundations |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2001 | title = Why I Am a Christian | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2001 |title = Why I Am a Christian |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2001 | title = Battle for God | publisher = Kregel }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2001 |title = Battle for God |publisher = Kregel }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2002 | title = Living Loud: Defending Your Faith | publisher = Broadman & Holman }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2002 |title = Living Loud: Defending Your Faith |publisher = Broadman & Holman }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2002 | title = Systematic Theology | volume = 1. Introduction – Bible | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2002 |title = Systematic Theology |volume = 1. Introduction – Bible |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2003 | title = Systematic Theology | volume = 2. God – Creation | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2003 |title = Systematic Theology |volume = 2. God – Creation |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2003 | title = Is Your Church Ready? | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2003 |title = Is Your Church Ready? |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2003 | title = Who Made God? | publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2003 |title = Who Made God? |publisher = [[Zondervan]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2004 | title = Systematic Theology | volume = 3. Sin – Salvation | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2004 |title = Systematic Theology |volume = 3. Sin – Salvation |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2004 | title = I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist | publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2004 |title = I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist |publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2005 | title = Systematic Theology | volume = 4. Church – Last Things | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2005 |title = Systematic Theology |volume = 4. Church – Last Things |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2005 | title = Bringing Your Faith To Work | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2005 |title = Bringing Your Faith To Work |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2005 | title = Correcting The Cults | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2005 |title = Correcting The Cults |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2007 | title = Love Your Neighbor | publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2007 |title = Love Your Neighbor |publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2007 | title = Essential Doctrine Made Easy | publisher = Rose }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2007 |title = Essential Doctrine Made Easy |publisher = Rose }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = A Popular Survey of the Old Testament | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = A Popular Survey of the Old Testament |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = A Popular Survey of the New Testament | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = A Popular Survey of the New Testament |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = Conviction Without Compromise'' (Harvest House }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = Conviction Without Compromise'' (Harvest House }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = Is Rome the True Church?: A Consideration of the Roman Catholic Claim | publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = Is Rome the True Church?: A Consideration of the Roman Catholic Claim |publisher = Crossway }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = When Skeptics Ask | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = When Skeptics Ask |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2008 | title = The Big Book of Bible Difficulties | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2008 |title = The Big Book of Bible Difficulties |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | date = April 17, 2009 | url = http://www.equip.org/articles/any-absolutes-absolutely- | title = Any Absolutes? Absolutely! | newspaper = Equip | publisher = [[Christian Research Institute]]| accessdate= 18 Oct 2013 | id = DE198 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |date = April 17, 2009 |url = http://www.equip.org/articles/any-absolutes-absolutely- |title = Any Absolutes? Absolutely! |newspaper = Equip |publisher = [[Christian Research Institute]]|accessdate= 18 Oct 2013 |id = DE198 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2009 | title = The Apologetics of Jesus | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2009 |title = The Apologetics of Jesus |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2009 | title = Making Sense of Bible Difficulties | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2009 |title = Making Sense of Bible Difficulties |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | date = January 1, 2010 | origyear = 1989 | title = Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options | trans_title = Christian Ethics: Options and Issues | place = Grand Rapids, MI | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] Academic | edition = 2 | ISBN = 978-0-80103879-2 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |date = January 1, 2010 |origyear = 1989 |title = Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options |trans_title = Christian Ethics: Options and Issues |place = Grand Rapids, MI |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] Academic |edition = 2 |ISBN = 978-0-80103879-2 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2011 | title = If God, Why Evil? | publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2011 |title = If God, Why Evil? |publisher = Bethany }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2011 | title = Systematic Theology: In One Volume | publisher = Bethany | ISBN = 978-0-76420603-0 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2011 |title = Systematic Theology: In One Volume |publisher = Bethany |ISBN = 978-0-76420603-0 }}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Geisler | first1 = Norman L | year = 2012 | title = Defending Inerrancy: Affirming the Accuracy of Scripture for a New Generation | first2 = William C | last2 = Roach | others = Packer, JI foreword | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] | ISBN = 978-0-80101434-5 }}.
* {{Citation |last1 = Geisler |first1 = Norman L |year = 2012 |title = Defending Inerrancy: Affirming the Accuracy of Scripture for a New Generation |first2 = William C |last2 = Roach |others = Packer, JI foreword |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] |ISBN = 978-0-80101434-5 }}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Geisler | first1 = Norman L | year = 2012 | title = From God To Us Revised and Expanded: How We Got Our Bible | first2 = William E | last2 = Nix | publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] | ISBN = 978-0-80242882-0 }}.
* {{Citation |last1 = Geisler |first1 = Norman L |year = 2012 |title = From God To Us Revised and Expanded: How We Got Our Bible |first2 = William E |last2 = Nix |publisher = [[Moody Publishers|Moody]] |ISBN = 978-0-80242882-0 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2012 | title = Big Book of Christian Apologetics, The: An A to Z Guide | series = A to Z Guides | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] | ISBN = 978-0-80101417-8 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2012 |title = Big Book of Christian Apologetics, The: An A to Z Guide |series = A to Z Guides |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] |ISBN = 978-0-80101417-8 }}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Geisler | first1 = Norman L | year = 2013 | title = Reasons for Belief: Easy-to-Understand Answers to 10 Essential Questions | first2 = Patty | last2 = Tunnicliffe | publisher = Bethany | ISBN = 978-0-76421057-0 }}.
* {{Citation |last1 = Geisler |first1 = Norman L |year = 2013 |title = Reasons for Belief: Easy-to-Understand Answers to 10 Essential Questions |first2 = Patty |last2 = Tunnicliffe |publisher = Bethany |ISBN = 978-0-76421057-0 }}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Geisler | first1 = Norman L | year = 2013 | title = When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook on Christian Evidences | first2 = Norman L | last2 = Brooks | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] | ISBN = 978-0-80101498-7 }}.
* {{Citation |last1 = Geisler |first1 = Norman L |year = 2013 |title = When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook on Christian Evidences |first2 = Norman L |last2 = Brooks |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] |ISBN = 978-0-80101498-7 }}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | year = 2013 | title = Christian Apologetics | edition = revised & expanded | origyear = 1976 | publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] | ISBN = 978-0-80104854-8 }}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |year = 2013 |title = Christian Apologetics |edition = revised & expanded |origyear = 1976 |publisher = [[Baker Publishing Group|Baker]] |ISBN = 978-0-80104854-8 }}.


== Lihat pula ==
== Lihat pula ==

* [[Lee Strobel]]
* [[Lee Strobel]]


== Referensi ==
== Referensi ==

{{Reflist |64em}}
{{Reflist|2}}


== Pranala luar ==
== Pranala luar ==
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | url = http://www.normgeisler.com/ | title = Official Webpage}}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | url = http://www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID=233 | title = The Dating of the New Testament | publisher = Be thinking | author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt | title = I Believe… in the Resurrection of the Flesh | journal = CRI | number = 56 | publisher = ICL net | author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation | last = Geisler | first = Norman L | url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-nwsl/crn0072a.txt | title = Answering Islam | type = interview | journal = CRI | number = 72 | publisher = ICL net | author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation | url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-nwsl/web/crn0041a.html | title = The Battle for the Resurrection | type = interview with Geisler | first = Ron | last = Rhodes | journal = CRI | number = 41 | publisher = ICL net}}.


* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |url = http://www.normgeisler.com/ |title = Official Webpage}}.
{{Authority control|VIAF=10425836}}
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |url = http://www.bethinking.org/resource.php?ID=233 |title = The Dating of the New Testament |publisher = Be thinking |author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/crj0056a.txt |title = I Believe… in the Resurrection of the Flesh |journal = CRI |number = 56 |publisher = ICL net |author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation |last = Geisler |first = Norman L |url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-nwsl/crn0072a.txt |title = Answering Islam |type = interview |journal = CRI |number = 72 |publisher = ICL net |author-mask = 3}}.
* {{Citation |url = http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-nwsl/web/crn0041a.html |title = The Battle for the Resurrection |type = interview with Geisler |first = Ron |last = Rhodes |journal = CRI |number = 41 |publisher = ICL net}}.

{{Authority control}}


{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. -->
| NAME = Geisler, Norman
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1932
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geisler, Norman}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geisler, Norman}}
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Revisi terkini sejak 31 Juli 2024 02.36

Norman Geisler
Lahir(1932-07-21)21 Juli 1932
Warren, Michigan, Amerika Serikat
Meninggal1 Juli 2019(2019-07-01) (umur 86)
Erafilsuf abad ke-20
KawasanWestern Philosophy
AliranCalvinisme Moderat, Filsafat Kristen
Minat utama
Filsafat agama, Apologetik Kristen, Calvinisme Moderat
Dipengaruhi
Memengaruhi

Norman Leo Geisler (21 Juli 1932 – 1 Juli 2019)[1] adalah seorang apologet Kristen yang berasal dari Amerika Serikat. Ia adalah salah satu pendiri Southern Evangelical Seminary yang berlokasi dekat Charlotte, North Carolina, di mana ia dulunya mengajar. Ia meraih gelar Ph.D. dalam bidang filsafat dari Loyola University. Geisler terkenal karena kontribusi kesarjanaannya pada topik Apologetik Kristen, filsafat, dan Calvinisme moderat serta telah mengarang, bersama-sama mengarang atau menyunting lebih dari 60 buku dan ratusan artikel.

Biografi

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Geisler meninggalkan Evangelical Theological Society pada tahun 2003, setelah sekolah itu tidak mau mengeluarkan Clark Pinnock, yang mendukung teisme terbuka.[2] Pada akhir abad ke-20, Geisler memasuki arena Mormon: ia mengarang bersama Rhodes "When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation".[3] 47 artikel yang didaftarkan di indeks berkaitan dengan Mormonisme. Ia berkontribusi pada "The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism".[4] Pada tahun 2009, Geisler bersama-sama mendirikan Veritas Evangelical Seminary di Murrieta, California. Seminari ini menawarkan gelar master dalam bidang Teologi, Apologetik dan Divinity. Geisler menjabat sebagai Chancellor, distinguished Professor of Apologetics and Theology dan Norman L. Geisler Chair of Christian Apologetics.[5]

Geisler menikah dengan Barbara Jean dan mereka dikaruniai enam anak, 15 cucu dan 3 cicit.

Pendidikan

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Pendidikan Geisler meliputi program diploma (1955) dan Th.B. (1964) dari William Tyndale College, B.A. dalam bidang filsafat (1958) dan M.A. dalam bidang teologi (1960) dari Wheaton College, dan Ph.D. dalam bidang filsafat dari Loyola University. Ia mengerjakan karya graduat tambahan pada Wayne State University, University of Detroit, dan Northwestern University di Evanston, Illinois.[6]

Kerangka sistem apologetika Geisler

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Geisler terutama dikenal sebagai seorang apologetika Kristen klasik. Antara tahun 1970 dan 1990 ia berpartisipasi banyak debat publik dan mendapatkan reputasi sebagai seorang pembela theisme, mukjizat alkitabiah, kebangkitan Yesus, dan reliabilitas (dapat dipercayanya) Alkitab. Penerbitan pertama kerangka metode apologetikanya dicantumkan pada lampiran buku tahun 1990 "When Skeptics Ask" ("Ketika orang skeptis bertanya"). Lampiran ini diberi judul "Reasoning to Christianity from Ground Zero" ("Penalaran Kekristenan Dari Dasar Nol"). Di dalamnya terkandung pandangan tingkat tinggi dari sistem holistik apologetika klasik yang telah dikembangkannya selama bertahun-tahun. Kerangka pertama terdiri dari 14 poin argumen:[7]

  1. Ada kebenaran yang terbukti sendiri (misalnya, "Aku ada", "Logika diterapkan pada kenyataan").
  2. Kebenaran bersesuaian dengan kenyataan.
  3. Kebenaran dapat diketahui (pandangan-pandangan lain mengalahkan diri sendiri).
  4. Orang dapat melanjutkan dari kebenaran yang terbukti sendiri kepada keberadaan Allah.
    1. Argumen dari Penciptaan (berlanjut dari "Aku ada")
    2. Argumen dari moral (berlanjut dari "Nilai-nilai tidak dapat disangkal")
    3. Argumen dari desain/rancangan (berlanjut dari "Desain menyiratkan adanya desainer"/"Rancangan menyiratkan adanya perancang")
  5. Allah adalah Keberadaan yang diperlukan (argumen dari keberadaan).
  6. Keberadaanku bukan sesuatu yang diperlukan (bukti dari definisi "Keberadaan yang diperlukan").
  7. Karenanya, theisme adalah benar (ada suatu Keberadaan yang diperlukan di luar dunia yang telah menciptakan benda-benda pokok dalam dunia dan bercampur tangan di dalam dunia [bab 3]).
    1. Keberatan mengenai masalah kejahatan dapat dipecahkan.
    2. Keberatan mengenai mukjizat dapat dipecahkan.
  8. Alkitab berdasarkam sejarah adalah dokumen yang dapat dipercaya.
    1. Sejarah adalah pembelajaran objektif mengenai masa lampau.
    2. Ada banyak bukti sejarah, arkeologis, dan ilmiah yang memastikan reliabilitas Alkitab. (Kelanjutannya: Alkitab memuat catatan yang dapat dipercaya mengenai ajaran Yesus Kristus.)
  9. Yesus mengklaim diri sepenuhnya manusia dan sepenuhnya Allah.
  10. Ia memberikan bukti untuk mendukung klaim tersebut.
    1. Penggenapan nubuat-nubuat
    2. Kehidupan-Nya yang ajaib dan tanpa dosa
    3. Kebangkitan-Nya
  11. Karenanya, Yesus adalah sepenuhnya manusia dan sepenuhnya Allah.
  12. Apapun yang Allah ajarkan adalah benar.
  13. Yesus (Allah) mengajarkan bahwa Perjanjian Lama adalah Argumen yang terilhami dari Allah dan Ia menjanjikan Perjanjian Baru.
  14. Karenanya, baik Perjanjian Lama maupun Perjanjian Baru adalah Firman Allah yang terilhami.

Ikhtisar sistem ini kemudian sedikit dipersingkat dalam skema 12 poin, sejak tahun 1999, sebagai berikut:[8]

  1. Kebenaran mengenai kenyataan dapat diketahui.
  2. Hal-hal yang berlawanan tidak dapat sama-sama benar.
  3. Ada Allah yang theistis.
  4. Mukjizat mungkin terjadi.
  5. Mukjizat yang dilakukan dalam hubungan dengan klaim kebenaran adalah tindakan Allah untuk memastikan kebenaran Allah melalui utusan Allah.
  6. Dokumen Perjanjian Baru dapat dipercaya.
  7. Sebagaimana kesaksian Perjanjian Baru, Yesus mengklaim sebagai Allah.
  8. Klaim keilahian Yesus dibuktikan dengan suatu kumpulan mukjizat yang unik.
  9. Karenanya, Yesus adalah Allah di dalam daging manusia.
  10. Apapun yang dinyatakan benar oleh Yesus adalah benar.
  11. Yesus menyatakan bahwa Alkitab adalah Firman Allah.
  12. Karenanya, adalah benar bahwa Alkitab adalah Firman Allah dan apapun yang berlawanan dengan Kebenaran alkitabiah adalah salah.

Dua belas langkah yang sama menjadi kerangka bab-bab dari buku yang sangat populer "I Don't Have Enough Faith to be an Atheist" ("Aku tidak punya cukup iman untuk menjadi seorang ateis")[9] terbitan tahun 2004 dan karya Geisler terbitan tahun 2012 yang berupa e-book "Twelve Points that Show Christianity is True" ("Dua belas poin yang menunjukkan Kekristenan itu benar").[10]

Teologi

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Geisler adalah seorang sarjana evangelikal konservatif yang telah menulis suatu teologi sistematika empat volume.[11]

Ia adalah seorang pembela inerrancy Alkitab penuh, menjadi salah satu pemrakarsa dan perancang "Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy" (1978) serta editor buku "Inerrancy" (Zondervan, 1978). Kemudian, ia menulis "Defending Inerrancy" bersama William Roach (Baker, 2013). Ia juga menulis (bersama William Nix) "General Introduction to the Bible" (Moody Press, 1986)[12] and From God to Us, revised (Moody, 2012).

Calvinisme Moderat

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Geisler menyebut dirinya seorang penganut "Calvinisme Moderat" ("moderate Calvinism"),[13] sebagaimana dinyatakan dalam buku-buku tulisannya "Chosen but Free" (Harvest House, 2001) dan "Systematic Theology, in One Volume" (Harvest House, 2012). Geisler menolak konsep tradisional Kalvinis mengenai unconditional election ("pemilihan tanpa syarat"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa tidak ada syarat hanya dari pihak Allah), irresistible grace ("anugerah tidak tertahan"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa Allah menghimbau mereka yang "mau menerima karya Allah") dan limited atonement ("penebusan terbatas"; sebaliknya berargumen bahwa penebusan hanya dibatasi oleh hasilnya). Namun para kritikus menolak istilah "moderate Calvinism". James White menyebut "hanya bentuk termodifikasi dari Arminianisme dalam sejarah."[14]

Pandangan mengenai etika

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Geisler telah menulis buku-buku penting mengenai etika: Christian Ethics[15] dan The Christian Love Ethic.[16] Ia menyampaikan perspektifnya mengenai pilihan-pilihan etika, aborsi, infantisida (pembunuhan bayi-bayi), euthanasia, hal-hal biomedis, hukuman mati, perang, ketidakpatuhan sipil, hak-hal seksual, homoseksualitas, pernikahan dan perceraian, ekologi, hak-hak binatang, obat terlarang, judi, pornografi, pengaturan kelahiran, dan lainnya. Geisler percaya bahwa Revolusi Amerika tidak dapat dibenarkan dari standar Alkitab maupun teori perang adil. Namun, ia bukan sama sekali seorang "pasifis", percaya bahwa perang untuk membela diri dapat dibenarkan tetapi revolusi tidak.[17]

Publikasi

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  • Geisler, Norman L (1971), Ethics: Alternatives and Issues, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1973), The Christian Ethic of Love, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1974), From God to Us, Moody .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1975), To Understand the Bible—Look for Jesus, Moody .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1976), Christian Apologetics, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1977), A Popular Survey of the Old Testament, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1978), The Roots of Evil, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1979), Inerrancy, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1980), Introduction to Philosophy: A Christian Perspective, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1981), Options in Contemporary Christian Ethics, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1981), Biblical Errancy: Its Philosophical Roots, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1982), Decide for Yourself: How History Views the Bible, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1982), The Creator in the Courtroom—Scopes II, et al, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1981), What Augustine Says, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1983), Is Man the Measure?, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1983), Cosmos: Carl Sagan's Religion for the Scientific Mind, Quest .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1983), Religion of the Force, Quest .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1984), To Drink or Not to Drink: A Sober Look at the Problem, Quest .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1984), Perspectives: Understanding and Evaluating Today's World Views, Here's Life .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1985), Christianity Under Attack (book, video series), Quest .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1985), False Gods of Our Time, Harvest .
  • Geisler, Normal L (1986) [1968], General Introduction to the Bible (edisi ke-revised & expanded), Moody .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1986), Reincarnation Sensation, Tyndale .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1987), Origin Science, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1988) [1974], Philosophy of Religion, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1988), Signs and Wonders, Tyndale .
  • Geisler, Norman L (September 1, 1989), Christian Ethics: Options and Issues (edisi ke-8 impr), Baker, ISBN 978-0-80103832-7 .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1989), World's Apart, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1989), Knowing The Truth About Creation, Servant .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1989), The Infiltration of the New Age, Tyndale .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1989), The Battle for the Resurrection, Thomas Nelson .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1990), Apologetics in the New Age, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1990), Come Let Us Reason: An Introduction to Logical Thinking, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1990), Gambling: A Bad Bet, Fleming H Revell .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1990), The Life and Death Debate, Greenwood .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1991), In Defense of the Resurrection, Quest .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1991), Thomas Aquinas: An Evangelical Appraisal .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1991), Matters of Life and Death: Calm Answers to Tough Questions about Abortion and Euthanasia, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1991), Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1992), When Critics Ask: A Handbook on Bible Difficulties, Victor .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1992), Miracles and the Modern Mind: A Defense of Biblical Miracles, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1993), Answering Islam, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1995), Roman Catholics and Evangelicals .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1996), Love Is Always Right, Word .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1997), Creating God in the Image of Man?, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L; Rhodes, Ron (1997), When Cultists Ask: A Popular Handbook on Cultic Misinterpretation, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1998), The Counterfeit Gospel of Mormonism, Eugene, OR: Harvest House .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1998), Legislating Morality, Bethany House .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1999), Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (1999b), Chosen But Free, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2001), Unshakable Foundations, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2001), Why I Am a Christian, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2001), Battle for God, Kregel .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2002), Living Loud: Defending Your Faith, Broadman & Holman .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2002), Systematic Theology, 1. Introduction – Bible, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2003), Systematic Theology, 2. God – Creation, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2003), Is Your Church Ready?, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2003), Who Made God?, Zondervan .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2004), Systematic Theology, 3. Sin – Salvation, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2004), I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist, Crossway .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2005), Systematic Theology, 4. Church – Last Things, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2005), Bringing Your Faith To Work, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2005), Correcting The Cults, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2007), Love Your Neighbor, Crossway .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2007), Essential Doctrine Made Easy, Rose .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), A Popular Survey of the Old Testament, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), A Popular Survey of the New Testament, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), Conviction Without Compromise (Harvest House .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), Is Rome the True Church?: A Consideration of the Roman Catholic Claim, Crossway .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), When Skeptics Ask, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2008), The Big Book of Bible Difficulties, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (April 17, 2009), "Any Absolutes? Absolutely!", Equip, Christian Research Institute, DE198, diakses tanggal 18 Oct 2013 .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2009), The Apologetics of Jesus, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2009), Making Sense of Bible Difficulties, Baker .
  • Geisler, Norman L (January 1, 2010) [1989], Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options (edisi ke-2), Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, ISBN 978-0-80103879-2  .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2011), If God, Why Evil?, Bethany .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2011), Systematic Theology: In One Volume, Bethany, ISBN 978-0-76420603-0 .
  • Geisler, Norman L; Roach, William C (2012), Defending Inerrancy: Affirming the Accuracy of Scripture for a New Generation, Packer, JI foreword, Baker, ISBN 978-0-80101434-5 .
  • Geisler, Norman L; Nix, William E (2012), From God To Us Revised and Expanded: How We Got Our Bible, Moody, ISBN 978-0-80242882-0 .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2012), Big Book of Christian Apologetics, The: An A to Z Guide, A to Z Guides, Baker, ISBN 978-0-80101417-8 .
  • Geisler, Norman L; Tunnicliffe, Patty (2013), Reasons for Belief: Easy-to-Understand Answers to 10 Essential Questions, Bethany, ISBN 978-0-76421057-0 .
  • Geisler, Norman L; Brooks, Norman L (2013), When Skeptics Ask: A Handbook on Christian Evidences, Baker, ISBN 978-0-80101498-7 .
  • Geisler, Norman L (2013) [1976], Christian Apologetics (edisi ke-revised & expanded), Baker, ISBN 978-0-80104854-8 .

Lihat pula

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Referensi

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  1. ^ Norman Geisler, noted apologist and theologian, dead at 86
  2. ^ Geisler, Norman (2003), Why I Resigned from The Evangelical Theological Society, diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-06-30, diakses tanggal 2014-04-30 .
  3. ^ Geisler & Rhodes 1997.
  4. ^ Geisler 1998.
  5. ^ Veritas Evangelical Seminary .
  6. ^ Geisler, Norman L. "About". Official Web page. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2014-06-12. Diakses tanggal 2014-04-30. 
  7. ^ Geisler, N. L., & Brooks, R. M. (1990). When skeptics ask (p. 289). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.
  8. ^ Geisler, N. L. "Apologetics, Argument of", in The Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books. 1999
  9. ^ Geisler, N. L., & Turek, F. I Don't have Enough Faith to be an Atheist. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books. 2004
  10. ^ "12 Points that Show Christianity is True". Bastion Books. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2016-09-16. Diakses tanggal September 8, 2016. 
  11. ^ Kreider, Glenn. "Review: Systematic Theology by Normal Geisler". Dallas Theological Seminary. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-06-22. Diakses tanggal December 23, 2014. 
  12. ^ "A General Introduction to the Bible". Christian Book. Diakses tanggal December 23, 2014. 
  13. ^ Geisler 1999b, hlm. 129.
  14. ^ White, James, The Potter's Freedom, hlm. 29 .
  15. ^ Christian Ethics: Contemporary Issues and Options, 2nd Edition. Baker Academic. 1989, 2010.
  16. ^ "The Christian Love Ethic". Bastion Books. Diakses tanggal September 8, 2016. 
  17. ^ Geisler 1989.

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