Kekristenan Kelt: Perbedaan antara revisi

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Revisi per 31 Oktober 2017 23.29

Kekristenan Kelt (Celtic Christianity) atau Kekristenan Insuler (Insular Christianity) merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari agama Kristen yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan bahasa Keltik pada masa Abad Pertengahan Awal.^[1] "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "Gereja Kelt" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari Gereja Katolik "Roma", sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.^[2] Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.^[3] Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik mencukur ubun-ubun (tonsur), sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai penebusan dosa, dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".^[3] Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau Irlandia, tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.

Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari mainstream Kristen Barat.^[4] Yang lain lebih memilih istilah "Kekristenan Insuler".^[5] Sebagaimana Patrick Wormald menjelaskan, "salah satu kesalahpahaman umum adalah bahwa ada suatu 'Gereja Romawi' yang ditentang secara nasional oleh bangsa 'Kelt'."^[6] Di Jerman, digunakan istilah "Iroschottisch", di mana von Lutz Padberg menempatkannya juga pada dikotomi antara Kekristenan Irlandia-Skotlandia dan Kekristenan Romawi.^[7] Wilayah berbahasa Keltik adalah bagian dari Kekristenan Latin secara keseluruhan pada suatu waktu di mana tidak ada variasi regional dari liturgi dan struktur yang signifikan dengan penghormatan kolektif secara umum bagi Uskup Roma yang sama kuatnya di daerah berbahasa Keltik.^[8]

Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh St. Patrick yang berasal dari Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).^[9] Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.

Definisi

"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di wilayah yang berbahasa Keltik, dan banyak pengertian itu sekarang didiskreditkan dalam wacana akademik modern.^[10]^[11] Salah satu fitur yang sangat menonjol dari Kekristenan Kelt adalah perbedaan khas inheren – dan umumnya menentang – Gereja Katolik.^[12] Klaim umum lainnya adalah bahwa Kekristenan Kelt menolak otoritas Paus, kurang otoriter daripada Gereja Katolik, lebih spiritual, lebih ramah untuk perempuan, lebih terhubung dengan alam, dan lebih nyaman berhadapan dengan politeisme Kelt.^[12] Salah satu pandangan, yang memperoleh traksi ilmiah substansial pada abad ke-19, adalah bahwa ada suatu "Gereja Kelt", suatu tubuh Kristus atau denominasi yang diorganisir secara signifikan menyatukan orang Kelt dan memisahkan mereka dari gereja "Roma" di benua Eropa.^[13] Contohnya ditemukan di "Study of History" karya Toynbee, yang mengidentifikasi Kekristenan Kelt dengan sebuah "Peradaban Barat Jauh yang Digugurkan" – inti sebuah masyarakat baru, yang dicegah untuk berakar oleh Gereja Roma, bangsa Viking, dan Normandia.^[14] Yang lain telah konten untuk berbicara tentang "Kekristenan Kelt" yang terdiri dari beberapa tradisi dan kepercayaan intrinsik untuk bangsa Kelt.^[15]

Namun, para sarjana modern telah mengidentifikasi masalah dengan semua klaim ini, dan menemukan istilah "Kekristenan Kelt" bermasalah dalam dan dari dirinya sendiri.^[1] Ide adanya "Gereja Kelt" ini ditolak mentah-mentah oleh para sarjana modern karena kurangnya bukti kuat.^[15] Memang, ada tradisi gereja yang berbeda di Irlandia dan Inggris, masing-masing dengan praktik mereka sendiri, dan ada variasi lokal signifikan bahkan dalam masing-masing lingkungan individu Irlandia dan Inggris.^[16] Sementara ada beberapa tradisi yang diketahui telah umum untuk gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Inggris, meskipun ini relatif sedikit. Bahkan kesamaan ini bukannya ada karena daerah itu bercorak "Kelt", melainkan karena sejarah dan faktor geografis lainnya. Selain itu, orang-orang Kristen dari Irlandia dan Inggris tidaklah "anti-Roma"; otoritas Roma dan kepausan juga dihormati kuat di daerah orang Kelt sebagaimana di wilayah lain di Eropa.^[17] Caitlin Corning lebih lanjut mencatat bahwa "Irlandia dan Inggris tidak lebih pro-perempuan, pro-lingkungan, atau bahkan lebih rohani dari bagian Gereja lainnya."^[12]

Sejarah

Britania Raya

Menurut tradisi Abad Pertengahan, Kekristenan tiba di Britania Raya dalam abad ke-1 atau ke-2.

Tradisi Pan-Keltik

Caitlin Corning mengidentifikasi empat kebiasaan umum yang terdapat pada gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Britania tetapi dijalankan di tempat lain dalam dunia Kristen.^[18] According to hagiographies written some centuries later, Illtud and his pupils David, Gildas, and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th-century Britain.

Not far Llantwit Fawr stood Cadoc's foundation of Llancarfan, founded in the latter part of the fifth century. The son of Gwynllyw, a prince of South Wales, who before his death renounced the world to lead an eremitical life. Cadoc followed his father's example and received the religious habit from St. Tathai, an Irish monk, superior of a small community at Swent near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". Here he established a monastery, college and hospital. The spot at first seemed an impossible one, and an almost inaccessible marsh, but he and his monks drained and cultivated it, transforming it into one of the most famous religious houses in South Wales.^[19] His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.^[20]^{[halaman dibutuhkan]}

Illtud, said to have been an Armorican by descent, spent the first period of his religious life as a disciple of St. Cadoc at Llancarvan. He founded the monastery at Llantwit Major. The monastery stressed learning as well as devotion. One of his fellow students was Paul Aurelian, a key figure in Cornish monasticism.^[21] Gildas the Wise was invited by Cadoc to deliver lectures in the monastery and spent a year there, during which he made a copy of a book of the Gospels, long treasured in the church of St. Cadoc.^[19] One of the most notable pupils of Illtyd was St. Samson of Dol, who lived for a time the life of a hermit in a cave near the river Severn before founding a monastery in Brittany.

St David established his monastery on a promontory on the western sea. It was well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. When Alfred the Great sought a scholar for his court, he summoned Asser of Saint David's. Contemporary with David were Saint Teilo, Cadoc, Padarn, Beuno and Tysilio among them. It was from Illtud and his successors that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Finnian of Clonard studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in Glamorgan.

Ireland

Finnian of Clonard is said to have trained the Twelve Apostles of Ireland at Clonard Abbey.

Saint John, evangelist portrait from the Book of Mulling, Irish, late 8th century

The achievements of insular art, in illuminated manuscripts like the Book of Kells, high crosses, and metalwork like the Ardagh Chalice remain very well known, and in the case of manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art.^[22] The manuscripts were certainly produced by and for monasteries, and the evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops, perhaps as well as secular commercial ones.^[23]

In the 6th and 7th centuries, Irish monks established monastic institutions in parts of modern-day Scotland (especially Columba, also known as Colmcille or, in Old Irish, Colum Cille), and on the continent, particularly in Gaul (especially Columbanus). Monks from Iona under St. Aidan founded the See of Lindisfarne in Anglo-Saxon Northumbria in 635, whence Gaelic-Irish practice heavily influenced northern England.

Irish monks also founded monasteries across the continent, exerting influence greater than many more ancient continental centres.^[24] The first issuance of a Papal privilege granting a monastery freedom from episcopal oversight was that of Pope Honorius I to Bobbio Abbey, one of Columbanus's institutions.^[25]

At least in Ireland, the monastic system became increasingly secularised from the 8th century, as close ties between ruling families and monasteries became apparent. The major monasteries were now wealthy in land and had political importance. On occasion they made war either upon each other or took part in secular wars – a battle in 764 is supposed to have killed 200 from Durrow Abbey when they were defeated by Clonmacnoise.^[26] From early periods the kin nature of many monasteries had meant that some married men were part of the community, supplying labour and with some rights, including in the election of Abbots (but obliged to abstain from sex during fasting periods). Some abbacies passed from father to son, and then even grandsons.^[27] A revival of the ascetic tradition came in the second half of the century, with the culdee or "clients (vassals) of God" movement founding new monasteries detached from family groupings.^[28]

Rule of Columbanus

The monasteries of the Irish missions, and many at home, adopted the Rule of Saint Columbanus, which was stricter than the Rule of Saint Benedict, the main alternative in the West. In particular there was more fasting and an emphasis on corporal punishment. For some generations monks trained by Irish missionaries continued to use the Rule and to found new monasteries using it, but most converted to the Benedictine Rule over the 8th and 9th centuries.^[a]

Again, however, the Rule of Columbanus was used exclusively in monasteries in the Irish sphere of influence; it was not followed in British monasteries.

Baptism

Bede implies that in the time of Augustine of Canterbury, British churches used a baptismal rite that was in some way at variance with the Roman practice. According to Bede, the British Christians' failure to "complete" the Sacrament of Baptism was one of the three specific issues with British practice that Augustine could not overlook.^[29] There is no indication as to how the baptism was "incomplete" according to the Roman custom. It may be that there was some difference in the confirmation rite, or that there was no confirmation at all.^[30] At any rate, it is unlikely to have caused as much discord as the Easter controversy or the tonsure, as no other source mentions it.^[30] As such there is no evidence that heterodox baptism figured into the practice of the Irish church.^[12]^[31]

Accusations of Judaizing

A recurrent accusation levelled against the Irish throughout the Middle Ages is that they were Judaizers, which is to say that they observed certain religious rites after the manner of the Jews.^[32] The belief that Irish Christians were Judaizers can be observed in three main areas: the Easter Controversy, the notion that the Irish practiced obsolete laws from the Old Testament and (not unrelated to this) the view that they adhered too closely to the Old Testament. Quite apart from the intricate theological concerns that underpinned the debate over Easter in early 7th-century Gaul, Columbanus also found himself accused of Quartodecimanism, a heresy whose central tenet was observing Easter on the same date as the eve of the Jewish Passover, namely the fourteenth day of the Jewish lunar month of Nisan. Although this false accusation was raised at a time of heightened political tensions between Columbanus and the Gallic bishops, some historians have cautioned that it ought not be dismissed as a mere ruse because the Gauls may have been genuinely worried about blurring the boundaries between Gallic Christians and their Jewish neighbours.^[33] That the Irish practiced obsolete Old Testament laws is another accusation that repeats itself a number of times in the early Middle Ages, most famously in the case of the 8th-century Irish charismatic preacher, Clement Scotus I (fl. 745), who was condemned as a heretic, in part for urging followers to follow Old Testament law in such controversial matters as obliging a man to marry his widowed sister-in-law upon his brother’s death.^[34] And finally, a good example for the Irish tendency to adhere closely to the Old Testament is the Hibernensis, a late 7th- or early 8th-century Irish canon law collection which was the first text of church law to draw heavily on the bible, and in particular the Old Testament, at a time when Christians were meant to be "dead to the old law" (Romans 7:4). In Scotland similar accusations surround the supposed cultural taboo concerning pork.

Celtic Christian revivalism

Ian Bradley notes that the recurrent interest in medieval Insular Christianity has led to successive revival movements he terms "Celtic Christian revivalism". According to Bradley, most, though not all, revivalists are non-Celts for whom Celtic Christianity has an "exotic and peripheral" appeal.^[35] Adherents typically claim their revivals restore authentic practices and traits, though Bradley notes they reflect contemporary concerns and prejudices much more closely, and most are "at least partially inspired and driven by denominational and national rivalries, ecclesiastical and secular power politics, and an anti-Roman Catholic agenda." Though often inaccurate or distorted, the beliefs of these movements have greatly influenced popular conceptions of historical Celtic Christianity.^[36]

Bradley traces the origins of Celtic Christian revivalism to the Middle Ages. In the 8th and 9th century, authors wrote idealised hagiographies of earlier saints, whose "golden age" of extraordinary holiness contrasted with the perceived corruption of later times. Similarly, the 12th- and 13th-century literary revival popularised and romanticised older Celtic traditions such as the Arthurian legend. These ideas were expanded during the English Reformation, as Protestant authors appropriated the concept of a "Celtic Church" as a native, anti-Roman predecessor to their own movement.^[37]

In the 18th and 19th centuries, antiquarianism, the Romantic movement, and growing nationalism influenced ideas about what was becoming known as "Celtic Christianity". Beginning in the early 20th century, a full-fledged revival movement began, centred on the island of Iona and influenced by the Irish literary revival and more general Christian revivals. By the end of the 20th century, another wave of enthusiasm began, this time influenced by New Age ideals.^[37] Today, a self-identification with and use of "Celtic Christianity" is common in countries such as Ireland, both among participants in established churches and independent groups.^[38] -->

Lihat pula

Catatan

^ The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by Jonas of Bobbio, an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the Saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community.

Referensi

^ ^a ^b Koch 2006, hlm. 431
^ Koch 2006, hlm. 431–432
^ ^a ^b Corning 2006, hlm. 18
^ Ó Cróinín 1995; Charles-Edwards 2000; Davies 1992, hlm. 12–21; Hughes 1981, hlm. 1–20; Kathleen Hughes, The Church in Early English Society (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, The Celtic Church (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).
^ Brown 2003, hlm. 16, 51, 129, 132
^ Wormald 2006, hlm. 207
^ Padberg, Lutz von (1998). Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter. Reclam. ISBN 9783150170151.
^ Sharpe 1984, hlm. 230-270; Wormald 2006, hlm. 207–208, 220 n. 3
^ Wormald 2006, hlm. 223–224 n. 1
^ Corning 2006, hlm. xii
^ Bradley 1999, hlm. vii–ix
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Corning 2006, hlm. 1
^ Koch 2006, hlm. 432
^ Toynbee, Arnold; Somervell, David (1987). A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6. New York: Oxford U Press. hlm. 154–156. ISBN 978-0195050806.
^ ^a ^b Koch 2006, hlm. 432–434
^ Corning 2006, hlm. 4
^ Corning 2006, hlm. 1, 4
^ Corning 2006, hlm. 1–19
^ ^a ^b Chandlery,, Peter (1912). "Welsh Monastic Foundations". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Diakses tanggal 18 December 2015.
^ Newell, E.J. (1895). "Chapter III". A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. London: Elliot Stock – via Internet Archive.
^ Thurston, Herbert (1912). "Welsh Church". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Diakses tanggal 19 November 2013.
^ Nordenfalk 1977^{[halaman dibutuhkan]}; Pächt 1986^{[halaman dibutuhkan]}
^ Youngs 1989, hlm. 15–16, 125
^ John 2000, hlm. 36
^ John 2000, hlm. 37
^ Hughes 2005, hlm. 317
^ Hughes 2005, hlm. 313, 316, 319
^ Hughes 2005, hlm. 319–320
^ Lloyd 1912, hlm. 175
^ ^a ^b Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Lloyd177
^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Koch433
^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama flech
^ Stancliffe 1992, hlm. 211-12
^ Meeder 2011, hlm. 251-80
^ Bradley 1999, hlm. viii–ix
^ Bradley 1999, hlm. ix
^ ^a ^b Bradley 1999, hlm. viii
^ Gierek, Bozena (2011). "Celtic spirituality in contemporary Ireland". Dalam Cosgrove, Olivia; Cox, Laurence; Kuhling, Carmen; Mulholland, Peter. Ireland's new religious movements: Alternative Spiritualities, Migrant Religions, the New Age and New Religious Movements. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. hlm. 300–317. ISBN 978-1-4438-2588-7. OCLC 758707463.

Daftar pustaka

Sumber primer

Adomnan (1991). Anderson, A.O.; Anderson, M.O., ed. Life of Columba (edisi ke-2nd). Oxford Medieval Texts.
Williams, John, ed. (1860). Annales Cambriae. London: Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts – via Internet Archive.
Bede (1896). Plummer, Charles, ed. Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Angelorum. Venerabilis Baedae Opera Historica. Oxonii: E Typographeo Clarendoniano – via Internet Archive.
Cummian (1988). Walsh, Maura; Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí, ed. De controversia paschali and De ratione conputandi. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies. hlm. 93–5.
Gildas (1848). Giles, J.A., ed. De Excidio Brittaniae. Six Old English Chronicles. London.
Giles, J.A., ed. (1848). Historia Brittonum. Six Old English Chronicles. London.
McNeill, John T.; Gamer, Helena M., ed. (1938). Medieval Handbooks of Penance. New York: Columba University Press.
Patrick (Saint) (1998). Skinner, John, ed. Confessio. Diterjemahkan oleh John Skinner. Image.
Baring-Gould, Sabine (1907). The Lives of the British Saints. Scanned by Google; alphabetized.

Sumber sekunder

Baring-Gould, Sabine (1898). "The Celtic Church and its Saints". The Lives of the Saints. 16. New York: Longmans, Green, & Co.
Bradley, Ian (1999). Celtic Christianity: Making Myths and Chasing Dreams. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-1047-2. Diakses tanggal 9 May 2013.
Brown, Peter (2003). The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity (edisi ke-2nd). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Charles-Edwards, T.M. (2000). Early Christian Ireland. Cambridge.
Corning, Caitlin (2006). The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-7299-0.
Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí (1995). Early Medieval Ireland: 400–1200. London.
Davies, Wendy (1992). "The Myth of the Celtic Church". Dalam Edwards, Nancy; Lane, Alan. The Early Church in Wales and the West. Oxbow Monograph. 16. Oxford: Oxbow. hlm. 12–21.
Flechner, Roy; Meeder, Sven, ed. (2016). The Irish in Early Medieval Europe: Identity, Culture and Religion. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137430595.
Herren, Michael W.; Brown, Shirley Ann (2002). Christ in Celtic Christianity. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-889-7.
Hughes, Kathleen (1981). The Celtic Church: Is This a Valid Concept? O'Donnell lectures in Celtic Studies, University of Oxford 1975. Cambridge Medieval Celtic Studies. 1. hlm. 1–20.
Hughes, Kathleen (1966). The Church in Early Irish Society. London: Methuen. ISBN 1-59740-067-X. OCLC 711797907.
Hughes, Kathleen (2005). "The Church in Early Irish Society: 400–800". Dalam Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí. A New History of Ireland: Prehistoric and Early Ireland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922665-8. Google Books link 2
John, Eric (2000). "The Social and Political Problems of the Early English Church". Dalam Pelteret, David A. E. Anglo-Saxon History: Basic Readings. New York: Garland Publishing.
Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.
Lloyd, John Edward (1912). A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest. Longmans, Green, and Co. Diakses tanggal 17 May 2010.
McCarthy, Daniel (2003). "On the Shape of the Insular Tonsure" (PDF). Celtica. 24: 140–167. Diakses tanggal 18 June 2009.
Meeder, Sven (2011). "Boniface and the Irish Heresy of Clemens". Church History. 80: 251–80. Diakses tanggal 1 August 2016.
Nordenfalk, Carl (1977). Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Painting: Book illumination in the British Isles 600–800. New York: George Braziller.
Pächt, Otto (1986). Book Illumination in the Middle Ages. London: Harvey Miller Publishers. ISBN 0-19-921060-8. (trans fr German)
Ryan, John (1931). Irish Monasticism, Origins and Early Development. Dublin: Talbot Press.
Sharpe, Richard (1984). "Some problems concerning the organisation of the Church in early medieval Ireland". Peritia. 3: 230–70.
Stancliffe, Clare (1992). "Columbanus and the Gallic Bishops". Dalam Constable, G.; Rouche, M. Mélanges offerts au Professeur Oliver Guillot. Paris. hlm. 205–14.
Wormald, Patrick (2006). "Bede and the 'Church of the English'". Dalam Baxter, Stephen. The Times of Bede: Studies in Early English Christian Society and its Historian. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
Yorke, Barbara (2006). The Conversion of Britain: Religion, Politics and Society in Britain c. 600–800. London: Pearson/Longman. ISBN 0-582-77292-3.
Youngs, Susan, ed. (1989). 'The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork, 6th–9th centuries AD. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-0554-6.

Pustaka tambahan

Cahill, Thomas (1996). How the Irish Saved Civilization. Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-41849-3.
Mayr-Harting, Henry (1991). The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon England (edisi ke-3rd). London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.

[29] The main source for Columbanus's life or vita is recorded by Jonas of Bobbio, an Italian monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in 618, three years after the Saint's death; Jonas wrote the life c. 643. This author lived during the abbacy of Attala, Columbanus's immediate successor, and his informants had been companions of the saint. Mabillon in the second volume of his "Acta Sanctorum O.S.B." gives the life in full, together with an appendix on the miracles of the saint, written by an anonymous member of the Bobbio community.

[Koch431-1] Koch 2006, hlm. 431

[2] Koch 2006, hlm. 431–432

[Corning18-3] Corning 2006, hlm. 18

[4] Ó Cróinín 1995; Charles-Edwards 2000; Davies 1992, hlm. 12–21; Hughes 1981, hlm. 1–20; Kathleen Hughes, The Church in Early English Society (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, The Celtic Church (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).

[5] Brown 2003, hlm. 16, 51, 129, 132

[6] Wormald 2006, hlm. 207

[7] Padberg, Lutz von (1998). Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter. Reclam. ISBN 9783150170151.

[8] Sharpe 1984, hlm. 230-270; Wormald 2006, hlm. 207–208, 220 n. 3

[9] Wormald 2006, hlm. 223–224 n. 1

[10] Corning 2006, hlm. xii

[11] Bradley 1999, hlm. vii–ix

[Corning1-12] Corning 2006, hlm. 1

[Koch432-13] Koch 2006, hlm. 432

[14] Toynbee, Arnold; Somervell, David (1987). A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6. New York: Oxford U Press. hlm. 154–156. ISBN 978-0195050806.

[Koch432434-15] Koch 2006, hlm. 432–434

[16] Corning 2006, hlm. 4

[17] Corning 2006, hlm. 1, 4

[18] Corning 2006, hlm. 1–19

[Chandlery-19] Chandlery,, Peter (1912). "Welsh Monastic Foundations". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Diakses tanggal 18 December 2015.

[newell-20] Newell, E.J. (1895). "Chapter III". A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries. London: Elliot Stock – via Internet Archive.

[21] Thurston, Herbert (1912). "Welsh Church". The Catholic Encyclopedia. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Diakses tanggal 19 November 2013.

[22] Nordenfalk 1977^{[halaman dibutuhkan]}; Pächt 1986^{[halaman dibutuhkan]}

[23] Youngs 1989, hlm. 15–16, 125

[24] John 2000, hlm. 36

[25] John 2000, hlm. 37

[26] Hughes 2005, hlm. 317

[27] Hughes 2005, hlm. 313, 316, 319

[28] Hughes 2005, hlm. 319–320

[30] Lloyd 1912, hlm. 175

[Lloyd177-31] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Lloyd177

[Koch433-32] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama Koch433

[flech-33] Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> tidak sah; tidak ditemukan teks untuk ref bernama flech

[34] Stancliffe 1992, hlm. 211-12

[Meeder-35] Meeder 2011, hlm. 251-80

[36] Bradley 1999, hlm. viii–ix

[37] Bradley 1999, hlm. ix

[Bradleyviii-38] Bradley 1999, hlm. viii

[39] Gierek, Bozena (2011). "Celtic spirituality in contemporary Ireland". Dalam Cosgrove, Olivia; Cox, Laurence; Kuhling, Carmen; Mulholland, Peter. Ireland's new religious movements: Alternative Spiritualities, Migrant Religions, the New Age and New Religious Movements. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars. hlm. 300–317. ISBN 978-1-4438-2588-7. OCLC 758707463.

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@@ Baris 1: / Baris 1: @@
-[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib Celtic di Knock, Irlandia.]]
+[[Berkas:Celtic_cross_Knock_Ireland.jpg|ka|jmpl|Sebuah Salib Keltik di Knock, Irlandia.]]
-'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal|Awal Abad Pertengahan]].<ref name="Koch431">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=431}}</ref> "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "'''Gereja Kelt'''" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik "Roma"]], sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=431–432}}</ref> Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.<ref name="Corning18">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=18}}</ref> Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik [[Tonsur|mencukur ubun-ubun]], sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai [[Penitensi|penebusan dosa]], dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".<ref name=Corning18/>  Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau [[Pulau Irlandia|Irlandia]], tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.
+'''Kekristenan Kelt''' (''Celtic Christianity'') atau '''Kekristenan Insuler''' (''Insular Christianity'') merujuk secara luas untuk fitur-fitur tertentu dari [[Kekristenan|agama Kristen]] yang umum, atau dianggap umum, di seluruh tempat yang menggunakan [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|bahasa Keltik]] pada masa [[Abad Pertengahan Awal]].<ref name="Koch431">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=431}}</ref> "Kekristenan Kelt" telah dipahami dengan tingkat kekhasan yang berbeda: beberapa penulis telah menjelaskan suatu "'''Gereja Kelt'''" tersendiri yang menyatukan orang Kelt dan membedakan mereka dari [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik "Roma"]], sementara yang lain mengklasifikasikan hanya sebagai satu set praktik khas yang terjadi di sejumlah daerah.<ref>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=431–432}}</ref> Para sarjana sekarang menolak gagasan yang terdahulu, tetapi memperhatikan bahwa ada beberapa tradisi dan praktik yang digunakan dalam gereja-gereja di Irlandia dan Inggris yang tidak diterapkan lebih luas dalam dunia Kristen.<ref name="Corning18">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=18}}</ref> Ini termasuk sistem khas untuk menentukan penanggalan Paskah, gaya monastik [[Tonsur|mencukur ubun-ubun (tonsur)]], sebuah sistem yang unik mengenai [[Penitensi|penebusan dosa]], dan popularitas untuk menjalani "pengasingan bagi Kristus".<ref name=Corning18/>  Selain itu, ada praktik-praktik lain yang berkembang dalam bagian-bagian tertentu di Inggris atau [[Pulau Irlandia|Irlandia]], tetapi yang tidak tersebar di luar wilayah tertentu tersebut. Karenanya, istilah Kekristenan Kelt menunjukkan praktik kedaerahan di antara gereja-gereja insuler (terpisah) dan kaitannya, daripada perbedaan teologis yang sebenarnya.
 Istilah "Gereja Kelt" sudah jarang dipakai oleh banyak sejarawan karena menyiratkan suatu entitas kesatuan dan teridentifikasi yang sama sekali terpisah dari mainstream [[Dunia Kristiani|Kristen]] Barat.<ref>{{harvnb|Ó Cróinín|1995}}; {{harvnb|Charles-Edwards|2000}}; {{harvnb|Davies|1992|pp=12–21}}; {{harvnb|Hughes|1981|pp=1–20}}; Kathleen Hughes, ''The Church in Early English Society'' (London, 1966); W. Davies and P. Wormald, ''The Celtic Church'' (Audio Learning Tapes, 1980).</ref> Yang lain lebih memilih istilah "Kekristenan Insuler".<ref>{{harvnb|Brown|2003|pp=16, 51, 129, 132}}</ref> Sebagaimana Patrick Wormald menjelaskan, "salah satu kesalahpahaman umum adalah bahwa ada suatu 'Gereja Romawi' yang ditentang secara nasional oleh bangsa 'Kelt'."<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|p=207}}</ref> Di Jerman, digunakan istilah "Iroschottisch", di mana von Lutz Padberg menempatkannya juga pada dikotomi antara Kekristenan Irlandia-Skotlandia dan Kekristenan Romawi.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s0HFQAAACAAJ|title=Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter|last=Padberg|first=Lutz von|publisher=Reclam|year=1998|isbn=9783150170151|author-link=Lutz von Padberg}}</ref> Wilayah berbahasa Keltik adalah bagian dari Kekristenan Latin secara keseluruhan pada suatu waktu di mana tidak ada variasi regional dari liturgi dan struktur yang signifikan dengan penghormatan kolektif secara umum bagi [[Paus (Gereja Katolik)|Uskup Roma]] yang sama kuatnya di daerah berbahasa Keltik.<ref>{{harvnb|Sharpe|1984|pp=230-270}}; {{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=207–208, 220 n. 3}}</ref>
-Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick yang berasal dari]] Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=223–224 n. 1}}</ref> Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.
+Meskipun demikian, beberapa tradisi khas dikembangkan dan menyebar ke Irlandia dan Britania Raya, terutama pada abad ke-6 dan ke-7. Beberapa elemen mungkin telah diperkenalkan ke Irlandia oleh [[Patrick (santo)|St. Patrick]] yang berasal dari Britania, dan kemudian orang lain menyebarkan dari Irlandia ke Inggris melalui sistem misi Irlandia St. Columba. Sejarah gereja Irlandia, Wales, Skotlandia, Breton, Cornish, dan Manx bercabang secara signifikan setelah abad ke-8 (yang mengakibatkan perbedaan besar bahkan persaingan dengan tradisi Irlandia).<ref>{{harvnb|Wormald|2006|pp=223–224 n. 1}}</ref> Minat akan subjek ini pada waktu kemudian telah menyebabkan serangkaian gerakan "kebangkitan kembali orang Kristen Kelt", yang telah membentuk persepsi populer dari budaya dan praktik keagamaan Kelt.
 == Definisi ==
-"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di&nbsp; [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|wilayah yang berbahasa Keltik]], dan banyak pengertian itu sekarang didiskreditkan dalam wacana akademik modern.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=xii}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|pp=vii–ix}}</ref> Salah satu fitur yang sangat menonjol dari Kekristenan Kelt adalah perbedaan khas inheren – dan umumnya menentang – [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik]].<ref name="Corning1">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=1}}</ref> Klaim umum lainnya adalah bahwa Kekristenan Kelt menolak [[Supremasi kepausan|otoritas Paus]], kurang otoriter daripada Gereja Katolik, lebih spiritual, lebih ramah untuk perempuan, lebih terhubung dengan alam, dan lebih nyaman berhadapan dengan politeisme Kelt.<ref name=Corning1/> Salah satu pandangan, yang memperoleh traksi ilmiah substansial pada abad ke-19, adalah bahwa ada suatu "Gereja Kelt", suatu tubuh Kristus atau denominasi yang diorganisir secara signifikan menyatukan orang Kelt dan memisahkan mereka dari gereja "Roma" di benua Eropa.<ref name="Koch432">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=432}}</ref> Contohnya ditemukan di "Study of History" karya [[Arnold Joseph Toynbee|Toynbee]], yang mengidentifikasi Kekristenan Kelt dengan sebuah "Peradaban Barat Jauh yang Digugurkan" – inti sebuah masyarakat baru, yang dicegah untuk berakar oleh Gereja Roma, bangsa Viking, dan Normandia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold|last2=Somervell|first2=David|date=1987|publisher=Oxford U Press|isbn=978-0195050806|location=New York|pages=154-156}}</ref> Yang lain telah konten untuk berbicara tentang "Kekristenan Kelt" yang terdiri dari beberapa tradisi dan kepercayaan intrinsik untuk bangsa Kelt.<ref name="Koch432434">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=432–434}}</ref>
+"Kekristen Kelt" telah dipahami dengan cara yang berbeda pada waktu yang berbeda. Tulisan-tulisan pada topik ini sering mengatakan lebih lanjut tentang masa di saat mana mereka berasal daripada sejarah negara Kristen pada awal abad pertengahan di&nbsp; [[Rumpun bahasa Keltik|wilayah yang berbahasa Keltik]], dan banyak pengertian itu sekarang didiskreditkan dalam wacana akademik modern.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=xii}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Bradley|1999|pp=vii–ix}}</ref> Salah satu fitur yang sangat menonjol dari Kekristenan Kelt adalah perbedaan khas inheren – dan umumnya menentang – [[Gereja Katolik Roma|Gereja Katolik]].<ref name="Corning1">{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=1}}</ref> Klaim umum lainnya adalah bahwa Kekristenan Kelt menolak [[Supremasi kepausan|otoritas Paus]], kurang otoriter daripada Gereja Katolik, lebih spiritual, lebih ramah untuk perempuan, lebih terhubung dengan alam, dan lebih nyaman berhadapan dengan politeisme Kelt.<ref name=Corning1/> Salah satu pandangan, yang memperoleh traksi ilmiah substansial pada abad ke-19, adalah bahwa ada suatu "Gereja Kelt", suatu tubuh Kristus atau denominasi yang diorganisir secara signifikan menyatukan orang Kelt dan memisahkan mereka dari gereja "Roma" di benua Eropa.<ref name="Koch432">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=432}}</ref> Contohnya ditemukan di "Study of History" karya [[Arnold Joseph Toynbee|Toynbee]], yang mengidentifikasi Kekristenan Kelt dengan sebuah "Peradaban Barat Jauh yang Digugurkan" – inti sebuah masyarakat baru, yang dicegah untuk berakar oleh Gereja Roma, bangsa Viking, dan Normandia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Study of History: Abridgment of, Volumes 1-6|last=Toynbee|first=Arnold|last2=Somervell|first2=David|date=1987|publisher=Oxford U Press | isbn = 978-0195050806 | location = New York | pages=154-156}}</ref> Yang lain telah konten untuk berbicara tentang "Kekristenan Kelt" yang terdiri dari beberapa tradisi dan kepercayaan intrinsik untuk bangsa Kelt.<ref name="Koch432434">{{harvnb|Koch|2006|pp=432–434}}</ref>
 Namun, para sarjana modern telah mengidentifikasi masalah dengan semua klaim ini, dan menemukan istilah "Kekristenan Kelt" bermasalah dalam dan dari dirinya sendiri.<ref name=Koch431/> Ide adanya "Gereja Kelt" ini ditolak mentah-mentah oleh para sarjana modern karena kurangnya bukti kuat.<ref name=Koch432434/> Memang, ada tradisi gereja yang berbeda di Irlandia dan Inggris, masing-masing dengan praktik mereka sendiri, dan ada variasi lokal signifikan bahkan dalam masing-masing lingkungan individu Irlandia dan Inggris.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|p=4}}</ref> Sementara ada beberapa tradisi yang diketahui telah umum untuk gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Inggris, meskipun ini relatif sedikit. Bahkan kesamaan ini bukannya ada karena daerah itu bercorak "[[Kelt]]", melainkan karena sejarah dan faktor geografis lainnya. Selain itu, orang-orang Kristen dari Irlandia dan Inggris tidaklah "anti-Roma"; otoritas Roma dan kepausan juga dihormati kuat di daerah orang Kelt sebagaimana di wilayah lain di Eropa.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=1, 4}}</ref> Caitlin Corning lebih lanjut mencatat bahwa "Irlandia dan Inggris tidak lebih pro-perempuan, pro-lingkungan, atau bahkan lebih rohani dari bagian Gereja lainnya."<ref name="Corning1"/>
@@ Baris 38: / Baris 38: @@
 At the end of the 6th century, [[Pope Gregory I]] dispatched a [[Gregorian mission|mission]] under [[Augustine of Canterbury]] to convert the [[Anglo-Saxons]], establish new sees and churches throughout their territories, and reassert papal authority over the native church. Gregory intended for Augustine to become the [[metropolitan bishop]] over all of southern Britain, including the existing dioceses under Welsh and Cornish control. Augustine met with British bishops in a series of conferences&mdash;known as the [[Synod of Chester]]&mdash;that attempted to assert his authority and to compel them to abandon aspects of their service that had fallen out of line with Roman practice. The [[Northumbria]]n cleric [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'' is the only surviving account of these meetings: according to it, some of the clerics of the nearest British province met Augustine at a site on the border of the [[Kingdom of Kent]] that was known thereafter as Augustine's Oak. Augustine focused on seeking assistance for his work among the Saxons and reforming the Britons' [[Easter controversy|obsolete method for calculating Easter]]; the clerics responded that they would need to confer with their people and await a larger assembly.<ref name=Lloyd174175>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|pp=174–175}}</ref> Bede relates that the bishops particularly consulted a hermit on how to respond. He told them to respond based on Augustine's conduct: were he to rise to greet them, they would know him for a humble servant of Christ and should submit to his authority but, were he to remain seated, they would know him to be arrogant and prideful and should reject him. As it happened, Augustine did keep his seat, provoking outrage. In the negotiations that followed, he offered to allow the Britons to maintain all their native customs but three: they should adopt Rome's more advanced method of calculating the date of Easter, reform their baptismal ritual, and join the missionary efforts among the Saxons. The British clerics rejected all of these, as well as Augustine's authority over them.<ref name=Lloyd174175/> [[John Edward Lloyd]] argues that the primary reason for the British bishops' rejection of Augustine – and especially his call for them to join his missionary effort – was his claim to sovereignty over them, given that his see would be so deeply entwined with Anglo-Saxon Kent.<ref name=Lloyd177>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=177}}</ref>
-The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at [[Diocese of St David's|St David's]], [[Diocese of Llandaff|Llandaff]], and [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]]. It was not until the death of [[Bishop of St Davids|Bishop]] [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bernard]] ({{circa|lk=no|1147}}) that St&nbsp;Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the [[Province of Canterbury]], by which point the popularity of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s pseudohistorical ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] and followers of [[John Wycliffe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=B. |date=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=0-345-34957-1 }}</ref> as well as by English Catholics during the [[English Reformation]]. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in [[William Blake]]'s 1804 poem "[[And did those feet in ancient time]]".  The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by [[Hubert Parry]] as the well-known hymn or anthem "Jerusalem".
+The death of hundreds of British clerics to the pagan king [[Æthelfrith]] of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] around 616 at the [[Battle of Chester]] was taken by [[Bede]] as fulfillment of a prophecy allegedly made by [[Augustine of Hippo]] that the British church would receive war and death from the Saxons they refused to proselytise.<ref>{{harvnb|Lloyd|1912|p=180}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Yorke|2006|pp=118-119}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Bede |title=Ecclesiastical History of England |location=London |publisher=George Bell and Sons |date=1907 |url=https://archive.org/details/forestculturean01coopgoog |via=Internet Archive }}</ref>{{page needed|date=May 2017}}{{efn|Bede says 1,200 British clergy died; the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says 200. Bede is unclear on the date of the battle, but the current view is that it occurred in 616.}} Despite the inaccuracies of their system, the Britons did not adopt the Roman and Saxon ''[[computus]]'' until induced to do so around 768 by "[[Bishop of Bangor|Archbishop]]" [[Elfodd]] of "Gwynedd". The [[Norman invasion of Wales]] finally brought Welsh dioceses under [[Kingdom of England|England]]'s control. The development of legends about the mission of Fagan and Deruvian and [[Philip the Apostle]]'s dispatch of [[Yusuf Arimatea]] in part aimed to preserve the priority and authority of the native establishments at [[Diocese of St David's|St David's]], [[Diocese of Llandaff|Llandaff]], and [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]]. It was not until the death of [[Bishop of St Davids|Bishop]] [[Bernard (bishop of St Davids)|Bernard]] ({{circa|lk=no|1147}}) that St&nbsp;Davids finally abandoned its claims to metropolitan status and submitted to the [[Province of Canterbury]], by which point the popularity of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s pseudohistorical ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' had begun spreading these inventions further afield. Such ideas were used by mediaeval anti-Roman movements such as the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] and followers of [[John Wycliffe]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Tuchman |first=B. |date=1978 |title=A Distant Mirror |publisher=Ballantine Books |location=New York |isbn=0-345-34957-1 }}</ref> as well as by English Catholics during the [[English Reformation]]. The legend that Jesus himself visited Britain is referred to in [[William Blake]]'s 1804 poem "[[And did those feet in ancient time]]".  The words of Blake's poem were set to music in 1916 by [[Hubert Parry]] as the well-known hymn or anthem "Jerusalem".
 --><!--
-====Scotland====
+==== Skotlandia ====
 [[Image:Columba at Bridei's fort.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Columba]] pada gerbang benteng [[Bridei I]].]]
 <!--{{see also|Hiberno-Scottish mission}}
 According to Bede, [[Saint Ninian]] was born about 360, in what is present day Galloway, the son of a chief of the Novantae, apparently a Christian. He studied under [[Martin of Tours]] before returning to his own land about 397. He established himself at [[Whithorn]] where he built a church of stone, "Candida Casa". Tradition holds that Ninian established an episcopal see at the Candida Casa in Whithorn, and named the see for Saint Martin of Tours. He converted the southern Picts to Christianity,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whithorn.com/saint-ninian.htm |title=Saint Ninian |website=The Whithorn Trust }}</ref> and died around 432. Many Irish saints trained at the "Candida Casa", such as [[Tigernach of Clones]], [[Ciarán of Clonmacnoise]], and [[Finnian of Movilla]]. Ninian's work was carried on by Palladius, who left Ireland to work among the Picts.The mission to the southern Picts apparently met with some setbacks, as Patrick charged Coroticus and the "apostate Picts" with conducting raids on the Irish coast and seizing Christians as slaves. [[Ternan]] and [[Saint Serf]] followed Palladius. Serf was the teacher of [[Saint Mungo]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bartleby.com/210/7/061.html |title=Butler, Alban. "The Lives of the Saints", Vol. VII, 1866 |website=Bartleby }}</ref> the apostle of Strathclyde, and patron saint of Glasgow.
-====Cornwall====
+==== Cornwall ====
 {{see also|List of Cornish saints}}
 A Welshman of noble birth, [[Saint Petroc]] was educated in Ireland. He set out in a small boat with a few followers. In a type of ''peregrinatio'', they let God determine their course. The winds and tides brought them to the Padstow estuary.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |title=The Story of St. Petroc |website=St. Petroc's, Padstow |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130820051815/http://www.padstowparishchurch.org.uk/padstowchurch.htm |archive-date=20 August 2013 }}</ref> [[Kevin of Glendalough]] was a student of Petroc. [[Saint Endelienta]] was the daughter of the Welsh king [[Brychan]]. She also travelled to [[Cornwall]] to evangelize the locals. Her brother [[Nectan of Hartland]] worked in Devon. [[Saint Piran]] is the patron saint of tin miners. An Irishman, he is said to have floated across to Cornwall after being thrown into the sea tied to a millstone. He has been identified on occasion with [[Ciarán of Saigir]].<ref name=schaff>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc03/Page_117.html |title=Saint Ciaran of Saigir |encyclopedia=New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge |page=117 }}</ref>
@@ Baris 61: / Baris 61: @@
 A uniquely Irish [[penance|penitential system]] was eventually adopted as a universal practice of the Church by the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] of 1215.
 -->
 == Tradisi Pan-Keltik ==
 Caitlin Corning mengidentifikasi empat kebiasaan umum yang terdapat pada gereja-gereja Irlandia dan Britania tetapi dijalankan di tempat lain dalam dunia Kristen.<ref>{{harvnb|Corning|2006|pp=1–19}}</ref>
@@ Baris 103: / Baris 102: @@
 [[Image:National Library of Ireland MS G10 p24.jpg|thumb|right|Excerpt from the [[Martyrology of Oengus]]]]
 Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers. According to Richard Woods, the familial, democratic, and decentralized aspects of Egyptian Christianity were better suited to structures and values of Celtic culture than was a legalistic diocesan form.<ref name=woods/> Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".<ref name=woods/> An example of this would be [[Kevin of Glendalough]] and [[Cuthbert]] of [[Lindisfarne]].
 The claim is made that the true Ecclesiastical power in the Celtic world lay in the hands of [[abbots]] of [[monasteries]], rather than the Bishop of [[Dioceses]]s.<ref name=Corning1/><ref name=Koch433>{{harvnb|Koch|2006|p=433}}</ref> It is certain that the ideal of monasticism was universally esteemed in Celtic Christianity.<ref name=Herren13>{{harvnb|Herren|Brown|2002|p=13}}</ref> This was especially true in Ireland and areas evangelised by Irish missionaries, where monasteries and their abbots came to be vested with a great deal of ecclesiastical and secular power. Following the growth of the monastic movement in the 6th century, Abbots controlled not only individual monasteries, but also expansive estates and the secular communities that tended them.<ref name=Hughes311312>{{harvnb|Hughes|2005|pp=311–312}}</ref> As monastics, abbots were not necessarily [[Holy Orders (Catholic Church)|ordained]] (i.e. they were not necessarily [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priests]] or bishops). They were usually descended from one of the many Irish royal families, and the founding regulations of the Abbey sometimes specified that the Abbotcy should if possible be kept within one family lineage.<ref>[[Dáibhí Ó Cróinín|Ó Cróinín, Dáibhí]] in {{harvnb|Youngs|1989|pp=13–14}}</ref>
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 ====Wales====
-{{main article|Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)}}
+<!--{{main article|Clas (ecclesiastical settlement)}}-->
 According to [[hagiography|hagiographies]] written some centuries later, [[Illtud]] and his pupils [[Saint David|David]], Gildas, and [[Deiniol]] were leading figures in 6th-century Britain.
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 * [[Ancient British Church]] (part of the "neo-Celtic Christian" restoration movement of 19th century origin)
 * [[Celtic Orthodox Church]]
-* [[Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages#Celtic Christian traditions|Celtic Christian traditions in Gwynedd until 1100]]
+* [[Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages#Celtic Christian traditions|Celtic Christian traditions in Gwynedd until 1100]]-->
-* [[Christianity in Ireland]]
+* [[Kekristenan di Irlandia]]
-* [[David Adam (minister)]]
+<!--* [[David Adam (minister)]]
 * [[Gallican Rite]]
 * [[Gregorian Reform]]