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Revisi per 16 Juli 2022 13.27

Teori konspirasi adalah penjelasan untuk suatu peristiwa atau situasi yang memicu persekongkolan oleh kelompok-kelompok jahat dan berkuasa, seringkali bermotif politik,^[3]^[4]^[5] ketika penjelasan lain lebih mungkin.^[3]^[6]^[7] Istilah ini memiliki konotasi negatif, menyiratkan bahwa banding ke konspirasi didasarkan pada prasangka atau bukti yang tidak cukup.^[8] Teori konspirasi tidak sama dengan konspirasi; sebaliknya, ini mengacu pada konspirasi yang dihipotesiskan dengan karakteristik tertentu, seperti oposisi terhadap konsensus arus utama di antara orang-orang (seperti ilmuwan atau sejarawan) yang memenuhi syarat untuk mengevaluasi keakuratannya.^[9]

Teori konspirasi menolak pemalsuan dan diperkuat oleh penalaran melingkar: baik bukti yang menentang konspirasi dan tidak adanya bukti untuk itu ditafsirkan kembali sebagai bukti kebenarannya,^[8]^[10] dimana konspirasi menjadi masalah iman daripada sesuatu yang dapat dibuktikan atau disangkal.^[1]^[11] Studi telah menghubungkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dengan ketidakpercayaan pada otoritas dan sinisme politik.^[12]^[13]^[14] Beberapa peneliti menyarankan bahwa ide konspirasi—kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi—mungkin berbahaya secara psikologis atau patologis,^[15]^[16] dan itu berkorelasi dengan pemikiran analitis yang lebih rendah, kecerdasan rendah, proyeksi psikologis, paranoia, dan Machiavellianisme.^[17] Psikolog biasanya mengaitkan kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi dan menemukan konspirasi di mana tidak ada sejumlah kondisi psikopatologis seperti paranoid, skizotip, narsisisme, dan keterikatan yang tidak aman,^[9] atau ke bentuk bias kognitif yang disebut "persepsi pola ilusi".^[18]^[19] Namun, konsensus ilmiah saat ini menyatakan bahwa sebagian besar ahli teori konspirasi tidak patologis, justru karena keyakinan mereka pada akhirnya bergantung pada kecenderungan kognitif yang tertanam secara neurologis pada spesies manusia dan mungkin memiliki asal-usul evolusioner yang mendalam, termasuk kecenderungan alami terhadap kecemasan dan deteksi agensi.^[9]

Secara historis, teori konspirasi telah dikaitkan erat dengan prasangka, propaganda, perburuan penyihir, perang, dan genosida.^[20]^[21] Mereka sering sangat diyakini oleh para pelaku serangan teroris, dan digunakan sebagai pembenaran oleh Timothy McVeigh dan Anders Breivik, serta oleh pemerintah seperti Nazi Jerman, Uni Soviet, and Turkey.^[22] Penyangkalan AIDS oleh pemerintah Afrika Selatan, dimotivasi oleh teori konspirasi, menyebabkan sekitar 330.000 kematian akibat AIDS, QAnon dan penyangkalan tentang hasil pemilihan presiden Amerika Serikat 2020 menyebabkan serangan Capitol Amerika Serikat 2021,^[23]^[24]^[25] sementara kepercayaan pada teori konspirasi tentang makanan yang dimodifikasi secara genetik membuat pemerintah Zambia menolak bantuan makanan selama kelaparan, pada saat tiga juta orang di negara itu menderita kelaparan. Teori konspirasi merupakan hambatan yang signifikan untuk perbaikan kesehatan masyarakat, mendorong oposisi terhadap vaksinasi dan fluoridasi air antara lain, dan telah dikaitkan dengan wabah penyakit yang dapat dicegah dengan vaksin. Efek lain dari teori konspirasi termasuk berkurangnya kepercayaan pada bukti ilmiah, radikalisasi dan penguatan ideologi kelompok-kelompok ekstremis, dan konsekuensi negatif bagi perekonomian.

Teori konspirasi yang dulunya hanya terbatas pada kalangan pinggiran telah menjadi hal yang lumrah di media massa, internet, dan media sosial,^[9] muncul sebagai fenomena budaya akhir abad ke-20 dan awal abad ke-21.^[26] Mereka tersebar luas di seluruh dunia dan sering diyakini secara umum, beberapa bahkan dipegang oleh mayoritas penduduk. Intervensi untuk mengurangi terjadinya kepercayaan konspirasi termasuk mempertahankan masyarakat yang terbuka dan meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir analitis masyarakat umum.

Referensi

Catatan informasi

Kutipan

^ ^a ^b Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. hlm. 3–4.
^ Issitt, Micah; Main, Carlyn (2014). Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-478-0.
^ ^a ^b Harambam, Jaron; Aupers, Stef (August 2021). "From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims". European Journal of Cultural Studies. SAGE Publications. 24 (4): 990–1008. doi:10.1177/1367549419886045 . ISSN 1460-3551.
^ Goertzel, Ted (December 1994). "Belief in conspiracy theories". Political Psychology. Wiley on behalf of the International Society of Political Psychology. 15 (4): 731–742. doi:10.2307/3791630. ISSN 1467-9221. JSTOR 3791630. "explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups"
^ "conspiracy theory". Oxford English Dictionary (edisi ke-Online). Oxford University Press. Templat:OEDsub "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event"
^ Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C.; Pickering, Alan D. (2013). "Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 279. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279 . ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3659314 . PMID 23734136. A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.
^
Additional sources:
- Aaronovitch, David (2009). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History (dalam bahasa Inggris). Jonathan Cape. hlm. 253. ISBN 9780224074704. Diakses tanggal 17 August 2019. It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.
- Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C. (2014). "Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 28 (2): 238–248. doi:10.1002/acp.2995 . ISSN 0888-4080. A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.
- Jonason, Peter Karl; March, Evita; Springer, Jordan (2019). "Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy". PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0225964. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1425964M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6890261 . PMID 31794581. Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.
- Thresher-Andrews, Christopher (2013). "An introduction into the world of conspiracy" (PDF). PsyPAG Quarterly. 88: 5–8. Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.
^ ^a ^b Byford, Jovan (2011). Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230349216. OCLC 802867724.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Andrade, Gabriel (April 2020). "Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics" (PDF). Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. Springer on behalf of the European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare. 23 (3): 505–518. doi:10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6 . ISSN 1572-8633. PMC 7161434 . PMID 32301040. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 8 May 2020. Diakses tanggal 7 October 2021.
^ Keeley, Brian L. (March 1999). "Of Conspiracy Theories". The Journal of Philosophy. 96 (3): 109–126. doi:10.2307/2564659. JSTOR 2564659.
^ Barkun, Michael (2011). Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. hlm. 10.
^ Swami, Viren (2012-08-06). "Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia". Frontiers in Psychology. London, UK. 3: 280. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280 . ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3412387 . PMID 22888323.
^ Radnitz, Scott (2021), Citizen Cynics: How People Talk and Think about Conspiracy, University of Washington: Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573532.003.0009, ISBN 978-0-19-757353-2, diakses tanggal 2022-05-17
^ Jolley, Daniel; Douglas, Karen M. (2014-02-20). "The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions". PLOS ONE (dalam bahasa Inggris). University of Kent. 9 (2): e89177. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989177J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3930676 . PMID 24586574.
^ Freeman, Daniel; Bentall, Richard P. (29 March 2017). "The concomitants of conspiracy concerns". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology (dalam bahasa Inggris). 52 (5): 595–604. doi:10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4. ISSN 0933-7954. PMC 5423964 . PMID 28352955.
^ Barron, David; Morgan, Kevin; Towell, Tony; Altemeyer, Boris; Swami, Viren (November 2014). "Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences (dalam bahasa Inggris). 70: 156–159. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040.
^ Douglas, Karen M.; Sutton, Robbie M. (12 April 2011). "Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire" (PDF). British Journal of Social Psychology. 10 (3): 544–552. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x. PMID 21486312. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 3 November 2018. Diakses tanggal 28 December 2018.
^ Dean, Signe (23 October 2017). "Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows". Science Alert. Diakses tanggal 17 June 2020.
^ Sloat, Sarah (17 October 2017). "Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists". Inverse. Diakses tanggal 17 June 2020.
^ Frankfurter, David (February 2021). Copp, Paul; Wedemeyer, Christian K., ed. "Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity". History of Religions. University of Chicago Press for the University of Chicago Divinity School. 60 (3): 188–208. doi:10.1086/711943. ISSN 0018-2710. JSTOR 00182710. LCCN 64001081. OCLC 299661763.
^ Nefes, Turkay (2018). "Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series". Dalam Asprem, Egil; Dyrendal, Asbjørn; Robertson, David G. Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. 17. Leiden: Brill Publishers. hlm. 407–422. doi:10.1163/9789004382022_020. ISBN 978-90-04-38150-6. ISSN 1874-6691. Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.
^ Göknar, Erdağ (2019). "Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review)". The Middle East Journal (dalam bahasa Inggris). 73 (2): 336–337. ISSN 1940-3461.
^ Tollefson, Jeff (4 February 2021). "Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down" (PDF). Nature. Vol. 590. Nature Research. hlm. 192–193. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y . ISSN 1476-4687. LCCN 12037118. PMID 33542489 Periksa nilai |pmid= (bantuan). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 27 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 7 October 2021.
^ Crossley, James (September 2021). "The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID". Journal for the Study of the New Testament. SAGE Publications. 44 (1): 93–111. doi:10.1177/0142064X211025464 . ISSN 1745-5294.
^ "QAnon Capitol Siege Trump". The Washington Post. Diakses tanggal 22 February 2021.
^ Barkun 2003, hlm. 58.

Bacaan lanjutan

Aaronovitch, David (2010). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History. Riverhead. ISBN 978-1-59448-895-5.
Arnold, Gordon B., ed. (2008). Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics. Praeger Publishers. hlm. 200. ISBN 978-0-275-99462-4.
Burnett, Thom. Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories
Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. "Bridging the great divide: conspiracy theory research for the 21st century." Diogenes (2016): 0392192116669289. online
Chase, Alston (2003). Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-02002-1.
Coward, Barry, ed. (2004). Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-3564-2.
"Conspiracy Theories" (PDF). CQ Researcher. 19 (37): 885–908. 23 October 2009. ISSN 1056-2036.
Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert (2003). "Panoply of the Absurd". Der Spiegel. Diakses tanggal 6 June 2006.
De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century. Historical Social Research 38, Special Issue, 2013
Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. ISBN 978-1-62356-091-1.
Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories." Political Psychology (1994): 731–742. online
Harris, Lee. "The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories". The American, 12 January 2013.
Hofstadter, Richard. The paranoid style in American politics (1954). online
Johnson, George (1983). Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-275-3.
McConnachie, James; Tudge, Robin (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. Rough Guides. ISBN 978-1-84353-445-7.
Melley, Timothy (1999). Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-8606-7.
Meigs, James B. (2006). "The Conspiracy Industry". Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 24 October 2006. Diakses tanggal 13 October 2006.
Nefes, Türkay Salim (2012). "The history of the social constructions of Dönmes". Journal of Historical Sociology. 25 (3): 413–39. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x.
Nefes, Türkay Salim (2013). "'Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey'". The Sociological Review. 61 (2): 247–64. doi:10.1111/1467-954X.12016.
Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion." American Journal of Political Science 58.4 (2014): 952–966. online
Parsons, Charlotte (24 September 2001). "Why we need conspiracy theories". BBC News – Americas. BBC. Diakses tanggal 26 June 2006.
Pipes, Daniel (1998). The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-17688-4.
Pipes, Daniel (1997). Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 978-0-684-87111-0.
Pigden, Charles (1995). "Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories?". Philosophy of the Social Sciences. 25 (1): 3–34. doi:10.1177/004839319502500101.
Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-53512-8.
Slosson, W. "The 'Conspiracy' Superstition". The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917.
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Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" POLITICO Magazine (Aug 22, 2016)
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Pranala luar

Conspiracy Theories, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[Barkun2003-1] Barkun, Michael (2003). A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. hlm. 3–4.

[2] Issitt, Micah; Main, Carlyn (2014). Hidden Religion: The Greatest Mysteries and Symbols of the World's Religious Beliefs. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-61069-478-0.

[Harambam-Aupers_2021-3] Harambam, Jaron; Aupers, Stef (August 2021). "From the unbelievable to the undeniable: Epistemological pluralism, or how conspiracy theorists legitimate their extraordinary truth claims". European Journal of Cultural Studies. SAGE Publications. 24 (4): 990–1008. doi:10.1177/1367549419886045 . ISSN 1460-3551.

[4] Goertzel, Ted (December 1994). "Belief in conspiracy theories". Political Psychology. Wiley on behalf of the International Society of Political Psychology. 15 (4): 731–742. doi:10.2307/3791630. ISSN 1467-9221. JSTOR 3791630. "explanations for important events that involve secret plots by powerful and malevolent groups"

[5] "conspiracy theory". Oxford English Dictionary (edisi ke-Online). Oxford University Press. Templat:OEDsub "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event"

[BrothertonFrench2013-6] Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C.; Pickering, Alan D. (2013). "Measuring Belief in Conspiracy Theories: The Generic Conspiracist Beliefs Scale". Frontiers in Psychology. 4: 279. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279 . ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3659314 . PMID 23734136. A conspiracist belief can be described as 'the unnecessary assumption of conspiracy when other explanations are more probable'.

[probability-7] Additional sources:
Aaronovitch, David (2009). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History (dalam bahasa Inggris). Jonathan Cape. hlm. 253. ISBN 9780224074704. Diakses tanggal 17 August 2019. It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.

Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C. (2014). "Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 28 (2): 238–248. doi:10.1002/acp.2995 . ISSN 0888-4080. A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.

Jonason, Peter Karl; March, Evita; Springer, Jordan (2019). "Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy". PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0225964. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1425964M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6890261 . PMID 31794581. Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.

Thresher-Andrews, Christopher (2013). "An introduction into the world of conspiracy" (PDF). PsyPAG Quarterly. 88: 5–8. Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.

[8] Aaronovitch, David (2009). Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History (dalam bahasa Inggris). Jonathan Cape. hlm. 253. ISBN 9780224074704. Diakses tanggal 17 August 2019. It is a contention of this book that conspiracy theorists fail to apply the principle of Occam's razor to their arguments.

[9] Brotherton, Robert; French, Christopher C. (2014). "Belief in Conspiracy Theories and Susceptibility to the Conjunction Fallacy". Applied Cognitive Psychology. 28 (2): 238–248. doi:10.1002/acp.2995 . ISSN 0888-4080. A conspiracy theory can be defined as an unverified and relatively implausible allegation of conspiracy, claiming that significant events are the result of a secret plot carried out by a preternaturally sinister and powerful group of people.

[10] Jonason, Peter Karl; March, Evita; Springer, Jordan (2019). "Belief in conspiracy theories: The predictive role of schizotypy, Machiavellianism, and primary psychopathy". PLOS ONE. 14 (12): e0225964. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1425964M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0225964 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6890261 . PMID 31794581. Conspiracy theories are a subset of false beliefs, and generally implicate a malevolent force (e.g., a government body or secret society) involved in orchestrating major events or providing misinformation regarding the details of events to an unwitting public, in part of a plot towards achieving a sinister goal.

[11] Thresher-Andrews, Christopher (2013). "An introduction into the world of conspiracy" (PDF). PsyPAG Quarterly. 88: 5–8. Conspiracy theories are unsubstantiated, less plausible alternatives to the mainstream explanation of the event; they assume everything is intended, with malignity. Crucially, they are also epistemically self-insulating in their construction and arguments.

[Byford-8] Byford, Jovan (2011). Conspiracy theories : a critical introduction. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230349216. OCLC 802867724.

[Andrade2020-9] Andrade, Gabriel (April 2020). "Medical conspiracy theories: Cognitive science and implications for ethics" (PDF). Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. Springer on behalf of the European Society for Philosophy of Medicine and Healthcare. 23 (3): 505–518. doi:10.1007/s11019-020-09951-6 . ISSN 1572-8633. PMC 7161434 . PMID 32301040. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 8 May 2020. Diakses tanggal 7 October 2021.

[Keeley1999-10] Keeley, Brian L. (March 1999). "Of Conspiracy Theories". The Journal of Philosophy. 96 (3): 109–126. doi:10.2307/2564659. JSTOR 2564659.

[Barkun2011-11] Barkun, Michael (2011). Chasing Phantoms: Reality, Imagination, and Homeland Security Since 9/11. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. hlm. 10.

[12] Swami, Viren (2012-08-06). "Social Psychological Origins of Conspiracy Theories: The Case of the Jewish Conspiracy Theory in Malaysia". Frontiers in Psychology. London, UK. 3: 280. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280 . ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 3412387 . PMID 22888323.

[13] Radnitz, Scott (2021), Citizen Cynics: How People Talk and Think about Conspiracy, University of Washington: Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197573532.003.0009, ISBN 978-0-19-757353-2, diakses tanggal 2022-05-17

[14] Jolley, Daniel; Douglas, Karen M. (2014-02-20). "The Effects of Anti-Vaccine Conspiracy Theories on Vaccination Intentions". PLOS ONE (dalam bahasa Inggris). University of Kent. 9 (2): e89177. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...989177J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089177 . ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3930676 . PMID 24586574.

[Freeman_595–604-15] Freeman, Daniel; Bentall, Richard P. (29 March 2017). "The concomitants of conspiracy concerns". Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology (dalam bahasa Inggris). 52 (5): 595–604. doi:10.1007/s00127-017-1354-4. ISSN 0933-7954. PMC 5423964 . PMID 28352955.

[Barron_156–159-16] Barron, David; Morgan, Kevin; Towell, Tony; Altemeyer, Boris; Swami, Viren (November 2014). "Associations between schizotypy and belief in conspiracist ideation" (PDF). Personality and Individual Differences (dalam bahasa Inggris). 70: 156–159. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.040.

[17] Douglas, Karen M.; Sutton, Robbie M. (12 April 2011). "Does it take one to know one? Endorsement of conspiracy theories is influenced by personal willingness to conspire" (PDF). British Journal of Social Psychology. 10 (3): 544–552. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8309.2010.02018.x. PMID 21486312. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 3 November 2018. Diakses tanggal 28 December 2018.

[18] Dean, Signe (23 October 2017). "Conspiracy Theorists Really Do See The World Differently, New Study Shows". Science Alert. Diakses tanggal 17 June 2020.

[19] Sloat, Sarah (17 October 2017). "Conspiracy Theorists Have a Fundamental Cognitive Problem, Say Scientists". Inverse. Diakses tanggal 17 June 2020.

[HR-20] Frankfurter, David (February 2021). Copp, Paul; Wedemeyer, Christian K., ed. "Religion in the Mirror of the Other: The Discursive Value of Cult-Atrocity Stories in Mediterranean Antiquity". History of Religions. University of Chicago Press for the University of Chicago Divinity School. 60 (3): 188–208. doi:10.1086/711943. ISSN 0018-2710. JSTOR 00182710. LCCN 64001081. OCLC 299661763.

[21] Nefes, Turkay (2018). "Framing of a Conspiracy Theory: The Efendi Series". Dalam Asprem, Egil; Dyrendal, Asbjørn; Robertson, David G. Handbook of Conspiracy Theory and Contemporary Religion. Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. 17. Leiden: Brill Publishers. hlm. 407–422. doi:10.1163/9789004382022_020. ISBN 978-90-04-38150-6. ISSN 1874-6691. Conspiracy theories often function as popular conduits of ethno-religious hatred and conflict.

[22] Göknar, Erdağ (2019). "Conspiracy Theory in Turkey: Politics and Protest in the Age of "Post-Truth" by Julian de Medeiros (review)". The Middle East Journal (dalam bahasa Inggris). 73 (2): 336–337. ISSN 1940-3461.

[Nature_2021-23] Tollefson, Jeff (4 February 2021). "Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down" (PDF). Nature. Vol. 590. Nature Research. hlm. 192–193. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y . ISSN 1476-4687. LCCN 12037118. PMID 33542489 Periksa nilai |pmid= (bantuan). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 27 April 2021. Diakses tanggal 7 October 2021.

[Crossley_2021-24] Crossley, James (September 2021). "The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID". Journal for the Study of the New Testament. SAGE Publications. 44 (1): 93–111. doi:10.1177/0142064X211025464 . ISSN 1745-5294.

[25] "QAnon Capitol Siege Trump". The Washington Post. Diakses tanggal 22 February 2021.

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@@ Baris 12: / Baris 12: @@
 Teori konspirasi yang dulunya hanya terbatas pada kalangan pinggiran telah menjadi hal yang lumrah di media massa, internet, dan media sosial,<ref name="Andrade2020"/> muncul sebagai fenomena budaya akhir abad ke-20 dan awal abad ke-21.{{sfn|Barkun|2003|p=58}} Mereka tersebar luas di seluruh dunia dan sering diyakini secara umum, beberapa bahkan dipegang oleh mayoritas penduduk. Intervensi untuk mengurangi terjadinya kepercayaan konspirasi termasuk mempertahankan masyarakat yang terbuka dan meningkatkan kemampuan berpikir analitis masyarakat umum.
+== Referensi ==
+'''Catatan informasi'''
+{{notelist}}
+'''Kutipan'''
+{{reflist}}
+'''Bacaan lanjutan'''
+* {{Cite book|last=Aaronovitch|first=David|title=Voodoo Histories: The Role of the Conspiracy Theory in Shaping Modern History|year=2010|publisher=Riverhead|isbn=978-1-59448-895-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/voodoohistoriesr0000aaro}}
+* {{cite book | editor = Arnold, Gordon B. | year = 2008 | title = Conspiracy Theory in Film, Television, and Politics | page = 200 | publisher = Praeger Publishers | isbn = 978-0-275-99462-4}}
+* Burnett, Thom.  ''Conspiracy Encyclopedia: The Encyclopedia of Conspiracy Theories''
+* Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. "Bridging the great divide: conspiracy theory research for the 21st century." ''Diogenes'' (2016): 0392192116669289.  [http://hssfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/KX-48-20-abstracts.pdf online]
+* {{cite book|author=Chase, Alston|year=2003|title=Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist|location=New York|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-02002-1|url=https://archive.org/details/harvardunabomber00chas}}
+* {{cite book | editor = Coward, Barry |year = 2004 | title = Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | isbn = 978-0-7546-3564-2}}
+* {{cite journal|date=23 October 2009|title=Conspiracy Theories|journal=CQ Researcher|volume=19|issue=37|pages=885–908|issn=1056-2036|url=http://www.maxwell.syr.edu/uploadedFiles/news/Conspiracy%20Theories.pdf}}
+* {{cite news | last1 = Cziesche | first1 = Dominik | author2 = Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert | year = 2003 |url= https://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/cover-story-panoply-of-the-absurd-a-265160.html | title = Panoply of the Absurd | work = Der Spiegel | access-date = 6 June 2006 }}
+* De Graaf, Beatrice and Zwierlein, Cornel (eds.) [https://www.gesis.org/en/hsr/full-text-archive/2013/381-security-and-conspiracy/ ''Security and Conspiracy in History, 16th to 21st Century'']. Historical Social Research 38, Special Issue, 2013
+* Fleming, Chris and Emma A. Jane. ''Modern Conspiracy: The Importance of Being Paranoid''. New York and London: Bloomsbury, 2014. {{ISBN|978-1-62356-091-1}}.
+* Goertzel, Ted. "Belief in conspiracy theories." ''Political Psychology'' (1994): 731–742.  [http://www.crab.rutgers.edu/~goertzel/CONSPIRE.doc online]
+* Harris, Lee. [https://web.archive.org/web/20130114231139/http://american.com/archive/2013/january/the-trouble-with-conspiracy-theories ''"The Trouble with Conspiracy Theories"'']. The American, 12 January 2013.
+* Hofstadter, Richard. ''The paranoid style in American politics'' (1954). [https://web.archive.org/web/20170116220729/http://www.fuminyang.com/michelle/Paranoid%20Style.pdf online]
+* {{cite book|author=Johnson, George|year=1983|title=Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics|location=Los Angeles|publisher=Jeremy P. Tarcher|isbn=978-0-87477-275-3|url=https://archive.org/details/architectsoffear00john}}
+* {{cite book |author1=McConnachie, James |author2=Tudge, Robin | year = 2005 | title = The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories | publisher = Rough Guides | isbn = 978-1-84353-445-7}}
+* {{cite book|author=Melley, Timothy|year=1999|title=Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0-8014-8606-7}}
+* {{cite web |first = James B. |last = Meigs |year = 2006 |url= http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |title = The Conspiracy Industry |work = Popular Mechanics |publisher = Hearst Communications, Inc. |access-date = 13 October 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061024062122/http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/research/4199607.html |archive-date = 24 October 2006 }}
+* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2012 | title = The history of the social constructions of Dönmes | journal = Journal of Historical Sociology | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 413–39 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-6443.2012.01434.x }}
+* {{cite journal | last1 = Nefes | first1 = Türkay Salim | year = 2013 | title = 'Political parties' perceptions and uses of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories in Turkey' | journal = The Sociological Review | volume = 61 | issue = 2| pages = 247–64 | doi = 10.1111/1467-954X.12016 | s2cid = 145632390 }}
+* Oliver, J. Eric, and Thomas J. Wood. "Conspiracy theories and the paranoid style (s) of mass opinion." ''American Journal of Political Science'' 58.4 (2014): 952–966.  [http://hon3397p.wp.txstate.edu/files/2015/08/OliverWood.pdf online]
+* {{cite news |last = Parsons |first = Charlotte |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1561199.stm |title = Why we need conspiracy theories |work = BBC News – Americas |publisher = BBC |access-date=26 June 2006 |date=24 September 2001}}
+* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1998|title=The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy|location=New York|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=978-0-312-17688-4}}
+* {{cite book|author=Pipes, Daniel|year=1997|title=Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From|location=New York|publisher=The Free Press|isbn=978-0-684-87111-0}}
+* {{cite journal |title=Popper Revisited, or What Is Wrong With Conspiracy Theories? |journal=Philosophy of the Social Sciences |year=1995 |last=Pigden |first=Charles |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=3–34 |doi=10.1177/004839319502500101|s2cid=143602969 }}
+* {{cite book|author=Sagan, Carl|year=1996|title=The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark|location=New York|publisher=The Random House|isbn=978-0-394-53512-8}}
+* Slosson, W. [https://archive.org/stream/unpopularreview07newy#page/394/mode/2up ''"The 'Conspiracy' Superstition"'']. The Unpopular Review, Vol. VII, N°. 14, 1917.
+* Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule. "Conspiracy theories: Causes and cures." ''Journal of Political Philosophy'' 17.2 (2009): 202–227. [http://www.ask-force.org/web/Discourse/Sunstein-Conspiracy-Theories-2009.pdf  online]
+* Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, ''American Conspiracy Theories'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0199351813/ excerpt]
+* Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183  ''POLITICO Magazine'' (Aug 22, 2016)]
+* {{cite book|author1=Vankin, Jonathan|author2=John Whalen|year=2004|title=The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time|location=New York|publisher=Citadel Press|isbn=978-0-8065-2531-0}}
+* Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century." ''William and Mary Quarterly''  (1982): 402–441. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1919580 in jstor]
 == Pranala luar ==

Pengawasan otoritas
Umum	Integrated Authority File (Jerman)
Perpustakaan nasional	Prancis (data) Amerika Serikat Republik Ceko
Lain-lain	Faceted Application of Subject Terminology SUDOC (Prancis) 1