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Revisi per 26 Februari 2007 13.10

IQ and the Wealth of Nations adalah sebuah buku kontroversial oleh Dr. Richard Lynn, Professor Emeritus of Psychology di University of Ulster, Irlandia Utara, dan Dr. Tatu Vanhanen, Professor Emeritus of Political Science di University of Tampere, Tampere, Finlandia. Buku ini terbit pada tahun 2002. Menurut buku ini, perbedaan pendapatan nasional (dalam bentuk GDP per kapita) berhubungan dengan IQ rata-rata negara itu. Hal ini ditafsirkan sebagai pentingnya IQ dalam sumbangan kekayaan nasional dan pertumbuhan ekonomi, namun IQ bukan satu-satunya faktor penentu.

Buku ini juga berisi perhitungan IQ rata-rata dari 81 negara oleh Lynn dan Vanhanen. Mereka juga menyimpulkan bahwa GDP rendah dapat menyebabkan IQ rendah, dan IQ rendah dapat menyebabkan GDP rendah. Mereka juga mengatakan bahwa negara-negara kaya memiliki tanggungjawab untuk membantu negara-negara miskin, seperti halnya orang kaya memiliki tanggungjawab untuk membantu orang miskin.

Karena Tatu Vanhanen adalah ayah dari Matti Vanhanen, perdana menteri Finlandia, karyanya mendapat banyak perhatian di Finlandia.

Templat:IQ and the Wealth of Nations

Dalam beberapa kasus, GDP tidak berhubungan dengan IQ karena sumber daya alam. Contohnya adalah Qatar, yang IQ-nya diperkirakan 78 namun memiliki GDP USD 17.000. Hal ini karena Qatar memiliki sumber minyak. Contoh lain adalah Botswana dengan tambang intannya.

@@ Baris 9: / Baris 9: @@
 Dalam beberapa kasus, GDP tidak berhubungan dengan IQ karena sumber daya alam. Contohnya adalah [[Qatar]], yang IQ-nya diperkirakan 78 namun memiliki GDP USD 17.000. Hal ini karena Qatar memiliki sumber minyak. Contoh lain adalah [[Botswana]] dengan tambang intannya.
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-Several negative reviews have been published in the scholarly literature. Susan Barnett and Wendy Williams wrote that "we see an edifice built on layer upon layer of arbitrary assumptions and selective data manipulation. The data on which the entire book is based are of questionably validity and are used in ways that cannot be justified."<ref>{{Cite journal | journal = Contemporary Psychology: APA Review of Books | month = August | year = 2004 | volume = 49 | issue = 4 | pages = 389-396 | author = Barnett, Susan M. and Williams, Wendy | title = National Intelligence and the Emperor's New Clothes | url = http://psycinfo.apa.org/psyccritiques/display/?uid=2004-17780-001}}</ref> They also wrote that cross country comparisons are "virtually meaningless." Ken Richardson wrote "This is not so much science, then, as a social crusade. The [[Pioneer Fund]] of America, champion of many dubious causes in the past, will obtain little credit from having assisted this one."<ref>[http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v92/n4/full/6800418a.html Heredity April 2004, Volume 92, Number 4, Pages 359-360]</ref> Thomas Nechyba wrote of "relatively weak statistical evidence and dubious presumptions."<ref>Nechyba, T. (2004). Review of IQ and the Wealth of Nations. Journal of
-Economic Literature, 42, 220–221. (p. 220)</ref> Astrid Ervik asked "are people in rich countries smarter than those in poorer countries?" and concluded that "the authors fail to present convincing evidence and appear to jump to conclusions."<ref>Ervik, A. O. (2003). IQ and the Wealth of Nations. The Economic Journal, 113, No. 488, F406–F407.</ref>
-Denny Borsbom (2006) finds that mainstream contemporary test analysis does not reflect substantial recent developments in the field and "bears an uncanny resemblance to the psychometric state of the art as it existed in the 1950s." For example, it notes that ''IQ and the Wealth of Nations'', in order to show that the tests are unbiased, use outdated methodology, if anything indicative of that test bias exist.<ref>[http://users.fmg.uva.nl/dborsboom/papers.htm The attack of the psychometricians]. DENNY BORSBOOM. PSYCHOMETRIKA VOL 71, NO 3, 425–440. SEPTEMBER 2006.</ref>
-Thomas Volken wrote that the study is "neither methodologically nor theoretically convincing."<ref>''The Impact of National IQ on Income and Growth'' [http://www.suz.unizh.ch/volken/ThomasVolken/pdfs/IQWealthNation.pdf]</ref> Although critical of the IQ data, for the sake of argument Volken assumes that the data is correct but then criticizes the statistical methods used, finding no effect on growth or income. Using the same assumption, Garett Jones
-and W. Joel Schneider report a strong connection between intelligence and economic growth.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Intelligence, Human Capital, and Economic Growth: An Extreme-Bounds Analysis | url = http://www.siue.edu/~garjone/JonesSchneApr.pdf | author = Jones, G, Schneider, WJ | volume = Forthcoming | journal = Journal of Economic Growth | year = 2006}}</ref>
-Erich Weede and Sebastian Kampf wrote that "there is one clear and robust result: average IQ does promote growth."<ref>Weede, E. and Kämpf, S. (2002). The Impact of Intelligence and Institutional Improvements on Economic Growth. Kyklos, 55, Fasc. 3, 361–380. (p. 376)</ref> Edward Miller wrote that "the theory helps significantly to explain why some countries are rich and some poor."<ref>Miller, E. (2002). Differential Intelligence and National Income. A review of IQ and the Wealth of Nations. Journal of Social, Political & Economic Studies, 27, 413–524. (p. 522)</ref>  Michael Palairet wrote that "Lynn and Vanhanen have launched a powerful challenge to economic historians and development economists who prefer not to use IQ as an analytical input."<ref>Palairet, M. R. (2004). Book review, IQ and the Wealth of Nations. Heredity, 92, 361–362.</ref>
-In a reanalysis of the Lynn and Vanhanen's hypothesis, Dickerson (2006) finds that IQ and GDP data is best fitted by an exponential function, with IQ explaining approximately 70% of the variation in GDP<ref>{{cite journal | author = Dickerson, R. E. | year = 2006 | month = May-June | title = Exponential correlation of IQ and the wealth of nations | journal = Intelligence | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 291-295 | id = | doi = 10.1016/j.intell.2005.09.006 }}</ref>. Dickerson concludes that as a rough approximation "an increase of 10 points in mean IQ results in a doubling of the per capita GDP."
-Whetzel and McDaniel (2006) conclude that the book's "results regarding the relationship between IQ, democracy and economic freedom are robust"<ref>{{cite journal | author = Whetzel, D. L. & McDaniel, M. A. | year = 2006 | month = September-October | title = Prediction of national wealth | journal = Intelligence | volume = 34 | issue = 5 | pages = 449-458 | doi = 10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.003 }}</ref>. Moreover, they address "criticisms concerning the measurement of IQ in purportedly low IQ countries", finding that by setting "all IQ scores below 90 to equal 90, the relationship between IQ and wealth of nations remained strong and actually increased in magnitude." On this question they conclude that their findings "argue against claims made by some that inaccuracies in IQ estimation of low IQ countries invalidate conclusions about the relationship between IQ and national wealth."
-Voracek (2004) used the national IQ data to examine the relationship between intelligence and suicide, finding national IQ was positively correlated with national male and female suicide rates<ref>{{cite journal | author = Voracek, M. | year = 2004 | month = | title = National intelligence and suicide rate: an ecological study of 85 countries | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 543-553 | id = | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.09.025 }}</ref>. The effect was not attenuated by controlling for GDP.
-Barber (2005) found that national IQ was associated with rates of secondary education enrollment, illiteracy, and agricultural employment<ref>{{cite journal | author = Barber, N. | year = 2005 | month = | title = Educational and ecological correlates of IQ: A cross-national investigation | journal = Intelligence | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 273-284 | id = | url =  http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.01.001 }}</ref>. The effect on illiteracy and agricultural employment remained with national wealth, infant mortality, and geographic continent controlled.
-Both Lynn and [[J. Philippe Rushton|Rushton]] have suggested that high IQ is associated with colder climates. To test this hypothesis, Templer and Arikawa (2006) compare the national IQ data from Lynn and Vanhanen with data sets that describe national average skin color and average winter and summer temperatures<ref>{{cite journal | author = Templer, D. I. and Arikawa, H. | year = 2006 | month =  | title = Temperature, skin color, per capita income, and IQ: An international perspective | journal = Intelligence | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 121-139| id = | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2005.04.002 }}
- see also discussion [http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol4no3/dt-tbc.html]</ref>. They find that the strongest correlations to national IQ were −0.92 for skin color and −0.76 for average high winter temperature. They interpret this finding as strong support for IQ-climate association. Other studies using different data sets find no correlation [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/35/12824][http://dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/greekiq/].
-Kanazawa (2006), "IQ and the wealth of states" (in press in ''Intelligence''), replicates across U.S. states Lynn and Vanhanen's demonstration that national IQs strongly correlate with macroeconomic performance<ref>{{cite journal | author = Kanazawa, S.  | year = 2006  | month =   | title = IQ and the wealth of states  | journal = Intelligence  | volume = 34  | issue = 6  | pages = 593-600 | id =  | doi = 10.1016/j.intell.2006.04.003 | format = | accessdate = }}</ref>. Kanazawa finds that state cognitive ability scores, based on the SAT data, correlate moderately with state economic performance, explaining about a quarter of the variance in gross state product per capita.
-Hunt and Wittmann (in press) use data from the [[Program for International Student Assessment]] (PISA) to conclude that "in spite of the weaknesses [in] several of their data points Lynn and Vanhanen's empirical conclusion was correct, but we question the simple explanation that national intelligence causes national wealth. We argue that the relationship is more complex"<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hunt, E., Wittmann, W. | year = in press | month =  | title = National intelligence and national prosperity | journal = Intelligence | volume =  | issue =  | pages =  | id = | url = http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.11.002 }}</ref>.
-The book was followed by Lynn's 2006 ''[[Race Differences in Intelligence]]'', which expands the data by nearly four times and concludes the average human IQ is presently 90 when compared to a norm of 100 based on UK data, or two thirds of a standard deviation below the UK norm, and Lynn and Vanhanen's 2006 ''[[IQ and Global Inequality]]''<ref>Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2006). IQ and global inequality. Athens, GA: Washington Summit Books. see also {{cite journal | author = Lynn, R., & Mikk, J. | title = National differences in intelligence and educational attainment | journal = Intelligence | volume = In Press, Corrected Proof. | doi = 10.1016/j.intell.2006.06.001 }}</ref>.
-[[Jared Diamond]]'s ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'' instead argues that historical differences in economic and technological development for different areas can be explained by differences in geography (which affects factors like population density and spread of new technology) and differences in available crops and domesticatable animals. [[Richard E. Nisbett|Richard Nisbett]] argues in his 2004 ''The Geography of Thought'' that some of these regional differences shaped lasting cultural traits, such as the collectivism required by East Asian rice [[irrigation]], compared with the individualism of [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] herding, maritime mercantilism, and money crops wine and olive oil (pp. 34-35).
-== Criticism ==
-Lynn has been frequently criticized as a [[Pioneer fund]] grantee.
-The figures were obtained by taking [[weighted mean|unweighted averages]] of different IQ tests. The number of studies is very limited; the IQ figure is based on one study in 34 nations, two studies in 30 nations. There were actual tests for IQ in 81 nations. In 104 of the world's nations there were no IQ studies at all and IQ was estimated based on IQ in surrounding nations.<ref>[http://www.suz.unizh.ch/volken/ThomasVolken/pdfs/IQWealthNation.pdf The Impact of National IQ on Income and Growth: A Critique of [[Richard Lynn]] and Tatu Vanhanens Recent Book] by Thomas Volken </ref> The number of participants in each study was usually limited, often numbering under a few hundred.  The exceptions to this were the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], for which studies using more than several thousand participants are available.
-Many nations are very heterogeneous ethnically. This is true for many [[developing countries]]. It is very doubtful that an often limited number of participants from one or a few areas are representative for the population as whole.
-Studies that were averaged together often used different methods of IQ testing, different scales for IQ values and/or were done decades apart. IQ in children is different although correlated with IQ later in life and many of the studies tested only young children.
-A test of 108 9-15-year olds in Barbados, of 50 13-16-year olds in Colombia, of 104 5-17-year olds in Ecuador, of 129 6-12-year olds in Egypt, of 48 10-14-year olds in Equatorial Guinea, and so on, all were taken as measures of 'national IQ'.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v92/n4/full/6800418a.html Book Review: IQ and the Wealth of Nations] Heredity April 2004, Volume 92, Number 4, Pages 359-360. K Richardson.</ref>
-The notion that there is such a thing as a culturally neutral intelligence test is disputed.<ref>[https://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?ContentID=1544 ''The Cultural Context of Learning and Thinking: An Exploration in Experimental Anthropology''] Gay, Glick and Sharp (1971) made the following insightful observation: "Cultural differences in cognition reside more in the situations to which particular cognitive processes are applied than in the existence of a process in one cultural group, and its absence in another." A similar position is held by Berry in ''Acculturative Stress'' 1974 [http://jcc.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/5/4/382]</ref><ref>''Educational Handicap, Public Policy, and Social History: A Broadened Perspective on Mental Retardation'' ISBN 0029279208 Sarason and Doris (1979) view intelligence as a cultural invention that does not hold true across cultures.</ref><ref>[http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1468-2389.2006.00346.x Case for Non-Biased Intelligence Testing Against Black Africans Has Not Been Made: A Comment on Rushton, Skuy, and Bons (2004)] 1*, Leah K. Hamilton1, Betty R. Onyura1 and Andrew S. Winston International Journal of Selection and Assessment Volume 14 Issue 3 Page 278 - September 2006</ref><ref>[http://asm.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/12/3/303 Culture-Fair Cognitive Ability Assessment] Steven P. Verney Assessment, Vol. 12, No. 3, 303-319 (2005)</ref><ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=15742541&dopt=Abstract Cross-cultural effects on IQ test performance: a review and preliminary normative indications on WAIS-III test performance.] Shuttleworth-Edwards AB, Kemp RD, Rust AL, Muirhead JG, Hartman NP, Radloff SE. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2004 Oct;26(7):903-20.</ref> There are many difficulties when one is measuring IQ scores across cultures, and in multiple languages. Use of the same set of exams requires translation, with all its attendant difficulties and possible misunderstandings in other cultures.<ref>Instruments developed to quantify smartness are culturally based and cannot simply be "transplanted" to a culture with different values (Greenfield, 1997). In ''Culture as process: Empirical methods for cultural psychology''</ref> To adapt to this, some IQ test rely on non-verbal approaches, which involve pictures, diagrams, and conceptual relationships (such as ''in-out'', ''big-small'', and so on).
-One common criticism is that many of the countries with the best average scores are those where testing (e.g. [[United States|American]] [[SAT]]s, [[baccalaureate]] examinations) is a crucial aspect of the [[education]]al process, and that many of these tests (esp. the SATs) have been shown to be very similar to IQ tests. In these nations, because students study extensively for the high-stakes examinations, it is quite possible that IQ scores are higher because people are subjected to frequent examinations for which they prepare extensively.
-There are also errors in the raw data presented by authors. The results from Vinko Buj's 1981 study of 21 European cities and the Ghanaian capital [[Accra]] used different scaling from Lynn and Vanhanen's. A comparison of the reported to actual data from only a single study found 5 errors in 19 reported IQ scores.<ref>[http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2004/08/richard-lynns-massaged-iq-data.html Richard Lynn's Massaged IQ Data]</ref><ref>[http://dienekes.angeltowns.net/articles/greekiq/ Greek IQ] by Dienekes Pontikos</ref>
-As noted earlier, in many cases arbitrary adjustments were made by authors to account for the [[Flynn effect]] or when the authors thought that the studies were not representative of the ethnic or social composition of the nation.
-One critic writes: "Their scheme is to take the British Ravens IQ in 1979 as 100, and simply add or subtract 2 or 3 to the scores from other countries for each decade that the relevant date of test departs from that year. The assumptions of size, linearity and universal applicability of this correction across all countries are, of course, hugely questionable if not breathtaking. Flynn's original results were from only 14 (recently extended to twenty) industrialised nations, and even those gains varied substantially with test and country and were not linear. For example, recent studies report increases of eight points per decade among Danes; six points per decade in Spain; and 26 points over 14 years in Kenya (confirming the expectation that newly developing countries would show more rapid gains)."<ref>[http://www.nature.com/hdy/journal/v92/n4/full/6800418a.html Book Review: IQ and the Wealth of Nations] Heredity April 2004, Volume 92, Number 4, Pages 359-360. K Richardson.</ref>
-There is controversy about the definition and usage of [[IQ]] and [[intelligence]]. See also [[race and intelligence]].
-It is generally agreed many factors, including environment, culture, demographics, wealth, pollution, and educational opportunities, affect measured IQ. See also [[Health and intelligence]].
-Finally, the [[Flynn effect]] may well reduce or eliminate differences in IQ between nations in the future. One estimate is that the average IQ of the US was below 75 before factors like improved nutrition started to increase IQ scores. Some predict that considering that the Flynn effect started first in more affluent nations, it will also disappear first in these nations. Then the IQ gap between nations will diminish. However, even assuming that the IQ difference will disappear among the babies born today, the differences will remain for decades simply because of the composition of the current workforce. [[Steve Sailer]] noted as much when discussing the workforce in both India and China (see second diagram) [http://www.vdare.com/sailer/060423_lynn.htm].
-==End material==
-===References===
-<references/>
-===See also===
-*''[[The Bell Curve]]''
-*[[Race and intelligence]]
-*[[Economic inequality]]
-===External links===
-* [http://www.rlynn.co.uk/pages/article_intelligence/1.asp "Intelligence and the Wealth and Poverty of Nations"] - article by Lynn and Vanhanen
-* [http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/table.html PISA scores transformed into IQ values in comparison with IQ estimated by Lynn and Vanhanen]
-* [http://www.lagriffedulion.f2s.com/sft2.htm Smart Fraction Theory of IQ and the Wealth of Nations]
-* [http://www.iapsych.com/articles/dickerson2006ip.pdf Exponential correlation of IQ and the wealth of nations] - Peer reviewed article to be published in an upcoming edition of [[Intelligence (journal)]]
-* [http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/L&Vreview.pdf "The Bigger Bell Curve: Intelligence, National Achievement, and The Global Economy"], review by [[J. Philippe Rushton]]
-* [http://rpongett.phpwebhosting.com/gdp.html "A Reader's statistical update of IQ & The Wealth of Nations"]
-* [http://www.vdare.com/sailer/wealth_of_nations.htm A Few Thoughts on IQ and the Wealth of Nations], Steve Sailer, ''VDARE'', April 2002.
-[[Category:2002 books]]
-[[Category:Economics books]]
-[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy]]
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