Lompat ke isi

Geosentrisme

Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
"Geosentrik" beralih ke halaman ini. Untuk orbit yang mengitari Bumi, lihat Orbit Geosentrik.
Figure of the heavenly bodies (Gambar benda-benda langit) — suatu illustrasi sistem geosentrik of Ptolemeus karya kosmografer dan kartografer Portugis Bartolomeu Velho, 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)

Geosentrisme atau disebut Teori Geosentrik, Model Geosentrik (bahasa Inggris: geocentric model atau geocentrism, Ptolemaic system) adalah istilah astronomi yang menggambarkan alam semesta dengan bumi sebagai pusatnya dan pusat pergerakan semua benda-benda langit. Model ini menjadi sistem kosmologi predominan pada budaya kuno misalnya Yunani kuno, yang meliputi sistem-sistem terkenal yang dikemukakan oleh Aristoteles and Claudius Ptolemaeus.[1]

Yunani kuno

Illustrasi model alam semesta dari Anaximander. Sebelah kiri: siang hari pada musim panas; sebelah kanan: malam hari pada musim dingin.

Teori atau model Geosentrik memasuki astronomi dan filsafat Yunani sejak dini; dapat ditelusuri pada peninggalan filsafat sebelum zaman Sokrates. Pada abad ke-6 SM, Anaximander mengemukakan suatu kosmologi dengan bumi berbentuk seperti potongan suatu tiang (sebuah tabung), berada di awang-awang di pusat segala sesuatu. Matahari, Bulan, and planet-planet adalah lubang-lubang dalam roda-roda yang tidak kelihatan yang mengelilingi bumi; melalui lubang-lubang ini manusia dapat melihat api yang tersembunyi. Pada waktu yang sama, para pengikut Pythagoras, yang disebut kelompok Pythagorean, berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah suatu bola (menurut pengamatan gerhana-gerhana), tetapi bukan sebagai pusat, melainkan bergerak mengelilingi suatu api yang tidak nampak. Kemudian pandangan-pandangan ini digabungkan, sehingga kalangan terpelajar Yunani sejak dari abad ke-4 SM berpikir bahwa bumi adalah bola yang menjadi pusat alam semesta.[2]

Model Ptolemaik

Meskipun prinsip dasar geosentrisme Yunani sudah tersusun pada zaman Aristoteles, detail sistem ini belum menjadi standar. Sistem Ptolemaik, yang diutarakan oleh astronomer Helenistik Mesir Claudius Ptolemaeus pada abad ke- 2 M akhirnya berhasil menjadi standar. Karya astronomi utamanya, Almagest, merupakan puncak karya-karya selama berabad-abad-abad oleh para astronom Yunani kuno, Helenistik dan Babilonia; karya itu diterima selama lebih dari satu milenium sebagai model kosmologi yang benar oleh para astronom Eropa dan Islam. Karena begitu kuat pengaruhnya, sistem Ptolemaik kadang kala dianggap sama dengan model geosentrik.

Ptolemy berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah pusat alam semesta berdasarkan pengamatan sederhana yaitu setengah jumlah bintang-bintang terletak di atas horizon dan setengahnya di bawah horizon pada waktu manapun (bintang-bintang pada bulatan orbitnya), dan anggapan bahwa bintang–bintang semuanya terletak pada suatu jarak tertentu dari pusat semesta. Jika bumi terletak cukup jauh dari pusat semesta, maka pembagian bintang-bintang yang tampak dan tidak tampak tidaklah akan sama. l.[n 1]

Sistem Ptolemaik

Elemen-elemen dasar astronomi Ptolemaik, menunjukkan sebuah planet pada suatu epicycle dengan sebuah deferen eksentrik dan sebuah titik equant.
Halaman-halaman dari Annotazione pada karya Sacrobosco Tractatus de Sphaera (1550), menggambarkan Sistem Ptolemaik.

Templat:Greek astronomy

Templat:Link FA ]]s, and naked eye planets circled Earth, including the noteworthy systems of Aristotle (see Aristotelian physics) and Ptolemy.[1]

Although the basic tenets of Greek geocentrism were established by the time of Aristotle, the details of his system did not become standard. The Ptolemaic system, espoused by the Hellenistic astronomer Claudius Ptolemaeus in the 2nd century AD finally accomplished this process. His main astronomical work, the Almagest, was the culmination of centuries of work by Hellenic, Hellenistic and Babylonian astronomers; it was accepted for over a millennium as the correct cosmological model by European and Islamic astronomers. Because of its influence, the Ptolemaic system is sometimes considered identical with the geocentric model.

Ptolemy argued that the Earth was in the center of the universe, from the simple observation that half the stars were above the horizon and half were below the horizon at any time (stars on rotating stellar sphere), and the assumption that the stars were all at some modest distance from the center of the universe. If the Earth was substantially displaced from the center, this division into visible and invisible stars would not be equal.[n 2]

Ptolemaic system

[[

Geocentrism and Islamic astronomy

Artikel utama: Maragheh observatory, Astronomy in medieval Islam, dan Islamic cosmology

Due to the scientific dominance of the Ptolemaic system in Islamic astronomy, the Muslim astronomers accepted unanimously the geocentric model.[n 3]

In the 12th century, Arzachel departed from the ancient Greek idea of uniform circular motions by hypothesizing that the planet Mercury moves in an elliptic orbit,[6][7] while Alpetragius proposed a planetary model that abandoned the equant, epicycle and eccentric mechanisms,[8] though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate.[9] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), in dealing with his conception of physics and the physical world in his Matalib, rejects the Aristotelian and Avicennian notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (alfa alfi 'awalim) beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his theological argument, he cites the Qur'anic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."[10]

The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the Maragha observatory and continuing with astronomers from the Damascus mosque and Samarkand observatory. Like their Andalusian predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the equant problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an epicycle was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.[11] The most important of the Maragha astronomers included Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (d. 1266), Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī (1201–1274), Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (1236–1311), Ibn al-Shatir (1304–1375), Ali Qushji (c. 1474), Al-Birjandi (d. 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).[12] Ibn al-Shatir, the Damascene astronomer (1304–1375 AD) working at the Umayyad Mosque, wrote a major book entitled Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usul (A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory) on a theory which departs largely from the Ptolemaic system known at that time. In his book, "Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab astronomer of the fourteenth century," E. S. Kennedy wrote "what is of most interest, however, is that Ibn al-Shatir's lunar theory, except for trivial differences in parameters, is identical with that of Copernicus (1473–1543 AD)." The discovery that the models of Ibn al-Shatir are mathematically identical to those of Copernicus suggests the possible transmission of these models to Europe.[13] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories, the Earth's rotation was discussed by al-Tusi and Ali Qushji (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.[14][15]

However, the Maragha school never made the paradigm shift to heliocentrism.[16] The influence of the Maragha school on Copernicus remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.[16][17]

Geocentrism and rival systems

This drawing from an Icelandic manuscript dated around 1750 illustrates the geocentric model.

Not all Greeks agreed with the geocentric model. The Pythagorean system has already been mentioned; some Pythagoreans believed the Earth to be one of several planets going around a central fire.[18] Hicetas and Ecphantus, two Pythagoreans of the 5th century BC, and Heraclides Ponticus in the 4th century BC, believed that the Earth rotated on its axis but remained at the center of the universe.[19] Such a system still qualifies as geocentric. It was revived in the Middle Ages by Jean Buridan. Heraclides Ponticus was once thought to have proposed that both Venus and Mercury went around the Sun rather than the Earth, but this is no longer accepted.[20] Martianus Capella definitely put Mercury and Venus in orbit around the Sun.[21] Aristarchus of Samos was the most radical. He wrote a work, which has not survived, on heliocentrism, saying that the Sun was at the center of the universe, while the Earth and other planets revolved around it.[22] His theory was not popular, and he had one named follower, Seleucus of Seleucia.[23]

Copernican system

Artikel utama: Copernican heliocentrism

In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both natural philosophy and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until Johannes Kepler postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's first law of planetary motion).

With the invention of the telescope in 1609, observations made by Galileo Galilei (such as that Jupiter has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first time someone could see imperfections on a celestial body that was supposed to be composed of perfect aether. As such, because the moon's imperfections could now be related to those seen on Earth, one could argue that neither was unique: rather, they were both just celestial bodies made from earthlike material. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to Cosimo II de' Medici, and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth.[24] This was a significant claim because if true, it would mean that not everything revolved around Earth, shattering previously held theological and scientific belief. As such, Galileo's theories challenging the geocentrism of our universe were silenced by the Church and general skepticism towards any system that did not place Earth at its center, preserving the thoughts and systems of Ptolemy and Aristotle.

Phases of Venus

In December 1610, Galileo Galilei used his telescope to observe that Venus showed all phases, just like the Moon. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system.

However, Ptolemy placed Venus' deferent and epicycle entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system:

If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be crescent or all dark. If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be gibbous or full.

But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent.

This showed that with a Ptolemaic cosmology, the Venus epicycle can be neither completely inside nor completely outside of the orbit of the Sun. As a result, Ptolemaics abandoned the idea that the epicycle of Venus was completely inside the Sun, and later 17th century competition between astronomical cosmologies focused on variations of Tycho Brahe's Tychonic system (in which the Earth was still at the center of the universe, and around it revolved the Sun, but all other planets revolved around the Sun in one massive set of epicycles), or variations on the Copernican system.

Gravitation

Johannes Kepler, after analysing Tycho Brahe's famously accurate observations, constructed his three laws in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in elliptical paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a transit of Venus (for the year 1631). The transition from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically changed the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new mathematical observations were needed to persuade those who still held on to the geocentric model. However, the observations made by Kepler, using Brahe's data, became a problem not easily overturned for geocentrists.

In 1687, Isaac Newton devised his law of universal gravitation, which introduced gravitation as the force that both kept the Earth and planets moving through the heavens and also kept the air from flying away, allowing scientists to quickly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the solar system. In his Principia, Newton explained his system of how gravity, previously considered to be an occult force, conducted the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our solar system in its working order. His descriptions of centripetal force[25] were a breakthrough in scientific thought which used the newly developed differential calculus, and finally replaced the previous schools of scientific thought, i.e. those of Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual.

In 1838, astronomer Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel successfully measured the parallax of the star 61 Cygni, disproving Ptolemy's assertion that parallax motion did not exist. This finally substantiated the suppositions made by Copernicus with accurate, dependable scientific observations, and displayed truly how far away stars were from Earth.

A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for solar-system mechanics and space travel. While a heliocentric frame is most useful in those cases, galactic and extra-galactic astronomy is easier if the sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rotating around the center of our galaxy, and in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the cosmic background.

Religious and contemporary adherence to geocentrism

Map of the Square and Stationary Earth, by Orlando Ferguson (1893)

The Ptolemaic model of the solar system held sway into the early modern age; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the heliocentric model. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the United States between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod published articles disparaging Copernican astronomy, and geocentrism was widely taught within the synod during that period.[26] However, in the 1902 Theological Quarterly, A. L. Graebner claimed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole.[27][Verifikasi gagal]

Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early creation science newsletters associated with the Creation Research Society pointing to some passages in the Bible, which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis for example, Joshua 10:12 where the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and Psalms 93:1 where the world is described as immobile.[28] Contemporary advocates for such religious beliefs include Robert Sungenis (president of Bellarmine Theological Forum and author of the 2006 book Galileo Was Wrong).[29] These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary creationist organizations reject such perspectives.[n 4]

After all, Copernicanism was the first major victory of science over religion, so it's inevitable that some folks would think that everything that's wrong with the world began there. (Steven Dutch of the University of Wisconsin–Madison [31]

Morris Berman quotes survey results that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know.[32] Polls conducted by Gallup in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth.[33] A study conducted in 2005 by Jon D. Miller of Northwestern University, an expert in the public understanding of science and technology,[34] found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.[35] According to 2011 VTSIOM poll, 32% of Russians believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.[36]

Historical positions of the Roman Catholic hierarchy

The famous Galileo affair pitted the geocentric model against the claims of Galileo. In regards to the theological basis for such an argument, two Popes addressed the question of whether the use of phenomenological language would compel one to admit an error in Scripture. Both taught that it would not. Pope Leo XIII wrote:

we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. . . . There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known." If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – `went by what sensibly appeared," or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to. (Providentissimus Deus 18).

Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the "Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina".[37] Pope Pius XII repeated his predecessor's teaching:

The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared" as the Angelic Doctor says,[5] speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science." For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – [6] the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history,"[7] that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks (Divino Afflante Spiritu 3).

In 1664 Alexander VII republished the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a Papal Bull that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known [quo rei ab initio gestae series innotescat]."[38]

The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited all books teaching the earth's motion, although the Dialogue and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer Joseph Settele was allowed to treat the earth's motion as an established fact. In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision. The 1835 edition of the Catholic Index of Prohibited Books for the first time omits the Dialogue from the list.[37] In a papal encyclical written in 1921 Pope Benedict XV stated that, "though this earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ."[39] In 1965 the Second Vatican Council stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and science are mutually opposed."[40] The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's, Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei, 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964). And Pope John Paul II regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated:

Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. . . . The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of the earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.[41]

Orthodox Judaism

Some Orthodox Jewish leaders, particularly the Lubavitcher Rebbe, maintain a geocentric model of the universe based on the aforementioned Biblical verses and an interpretation of Maimonides to the effect that he ruled that the earth is orbited by the sun.[42][43] The Lubavitcher Rebbe also explained that geocentrism is defensible based on the theory of Relativity, which establishes that "when two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, ... science declares with absolute certainty that from the scientific point of view both possibilities are equally valid, namely that the earth revolves around the sun, or the sun revolves around the earth."[44]

While geocentrism is important in Maimonides' calendar calculations,[45] the great majority of Jewish religious scholars, who accept the divinity of the Bible and accept many of his rulings as legally binding, do not believe that the Bible or Maimonides command a belief in geocentrism.[43][46]

However, there is some evidence that geocentrist beliefs are becoming increasingly common among Orthodox Jews.[42][43]

Islam

Prominent cases of modern geocentrism in Islam are very isolated. Very few individuals promoted a geocentric view of the universe. One of them was the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia from 1993 to 1999, Ibn Baz,who promoted the view between 1966 and 1985.

Planetariums

The geocentric (Ptolemaic) model of the solar system is still of interest to planetarium makers, as, for technical reasons, a Ptolemaic-type motion for the planet light apparatus has some advantages over a Copernican-type motion.[47] The celestial sphere, still used for teaching purposes and sometimes for navigation, is also based on a geocentric system[48] which in effect ignores parallax. However this effect is negligible at the scale of accuracy that applies to a planetarium.

Geocentric models in fiction

Alternate history science fiction has produced some literature of interest on the proposition that some alternate universes and Earths might indeed have laws of physics and cosmologies that are Ptolemaic and Aristotelian in design. This subcategory began with Philip Jose Farmer's short story, Sail On! Sail On! (1952), where Columbus has access to radio technology, and where his Spanish-financed exploratory and trade fleet sail off the edge of the (flat) world in his geocentric alternate universe in 1492, instead of discovering North America and South America.

Richard Garfinkle's Celestial Matters (1996) is set in a more elaborated geocentric cosmos, where Earth is divided by two contending factions, the Classical Greece-dominated Delian League and the Chinese Middle Kingdom, both of which are capable of flight within an alternate universe based on Ptolemaic astronomy, Aristotle's physics and Taoist thought. Unfortunately, both superpowers have been fighting a thousand-year war since the time of Alexander the Great.

In the C.S. Lewis novel, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader, one of the Chronicles of Narnia series, the characters involved set out on a naval voyage to discover the edge of the world. The events of the book follow their journey across a flat, geocentric "world" and beyond its fringes. -->

Lihat pula

Catatan

  1. ^ Argumen ini ditulis pada iBuku I, Bab 5, Almagest.[3]
  2. ^ This argument is given in Book I, Chapter 5, of the Almagest.[4]
  3. ^ "All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ... concentrically envelops the other."[5]
  4. ^ Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."[30]

Referensi

  1. ^ a b Lawson, Russell M. (2004). Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. hlm. 29–30. ISBN 1851095349. 
  2. ^ Fraser, Craig G. (2006). The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective. hlm. 14. 
  3. ^ Crowe 1990, hlm. 60–2
  4. ^ Crowe 1990, hlm. 60–2
  5. ^ Sabra, A. I. (1998). "Configuring the universe: Aporetic, problem solving, and kinematic modeling as themes of Arabic astronomy". Perspectives on Science. 6 (3): 317–8. 
  6. ^ Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east". Popular Astronomy. 47 (5): 233–8. 
  7. ^ Hartner, Willy (1955). "The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice". Vistas in Astronomy. 1: 118–22. 
  8. ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (1972). "Theory and observation in medieval astronomy". Isis. 63 (1): 41. 
  9. ^ "Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School". Science and Its Times. Thomson Gale. 2006. 
  10. ^ Setia, Adi (2004). "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey". Islam & Science. 2. 
  11. ^ Saliba, George (1994). A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam. New York University Press. hlm. 233–234, 240. ISBN 0814780237. 
  12. ^ Dallal, Ahmad (1999). "Science, Medicine and Technology". Dalam Esposito, John. The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. hlm. 171. 
  13. ^ Guessoum, N. (June 2008). "Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: Does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots?". The Observatory. 128: 231–9. 
  14. ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context". Science in Context. Cambridge University Press. 14 (1-2): 145–163. 
  15. ^ Ragep, F. Jamil (2001). "Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science". Osiris. 2nd Series. 16 (Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64, 66–71. doi:10.1086/649338. 
  16. ^ a b Huff, Toby E. (2003). The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 58. ISBN 9780521529945. 
  17. ^ Kirmani, M. Zaki; Singh, Nagendra Kr (2005). Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H. Global Vision. ISBN 9788182200586. 
  18. ^ Johansen, K. F.; Rosenmeier, H. (1998). A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine. hlm. 43. 
  19. ^ Sarton, George (1953). Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece. hlm. 290. 
  20. ^ Eastwood, B. S. (1992-11-01). "Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 23: 233. 
  21. ^ Lindberg, David C. (2010). The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (edisi ke-2nd). University of Chicago Press. hlm. 197. ISBN 9780226482040. 
  22. ^ Lawson 2004, hlm. 19
  23. ^ Russell, Bertrand (2013) [1945]. A History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. hlm. 215. ISBN 9781134343676. 
  24. ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2008). The Essential Galileo. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett. hlm. 49. 
  25. ^ Densmore, Dana, ed. (2004). Selections from Newton's Principia. Green Lion Press. hlm. 12. 
  26. ^ Babinski, E. T., ed. (1995). "Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down'". Cretinism of Evilution. TalkOrigins Archive (2). Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01. 
  27. ^ Graebner, A. L. (1902). "Science and the church". Theological Quarterly. St. Louis, MO: Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing. 6: 37–45. 
  28. ^ Numbers, Ronald L. (1993). The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism. University of California Press. hlm. 237. ISBN 0520083938. 
  29. ^ Sefton, Dru (2006-03-30). "In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth". Times-News. Hendersonville, NC. hlm. 5A. 
  30. ^ DeYoung, Donald B. (1997-11-05). "Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book". Answers in Genesis. Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01. 
  31. ^ Geocentrism lives
  32. ^ Berman, Morris (2006). Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393058666. 
  33. ^ Crabtree, Steve (1999-07-06). "New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels". Gallup. 
  34. ^ "Jon D. Miller". Northwestern University website. Diakses tanggal 2007-07-19. 
  35. ^ Dean, Cornelia (2005-08-30). "Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much". New York Times. Diakses tanggal 2007-07-19. 
  36. ^ 'СОЛНЦЕ - СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН (dalam bahasa Rusia) (Пресс-выпуск №1684 [Press release no. 1684]), ВЦИОМ [All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion], 2011-02-08. 
  37. ^ a b Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (1989). The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History. Berkeley: University of California Press. hlm. 307. ISBN 9780520066625. 
  38. ^ Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII (dalam bahasa Latin). Rome: Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae. 1664. hlm. v. 
  39. ^ "In Praeclara Summorum: Encyclical of Pope Benedict XV on Dante to Professors and Students of Literature and Learning in the Catholic World". Rome. 1921-04-30. § 4. 
  40. ^ "Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World 'Gaudium Et Spes' Promulgated by His Holiness, Pope Paul IV on December 7, 1965". § 36. 
  41. ^ Pope John Paul II (1992-11-04). "Faith can never conflict with reason". L'Osservatore Romano. 44 (1264).  (Published English translation).
  42. ^ a b Nussbaum, Alexander (2007-12-19). "Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology". Skeptic Magazine. Diakses tanggal 2008-12-18. 
  43. ^ a b c Nussbaum, Alexander (January–April 2002). "Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists". Reports of the National Center for Science Education: 38–43. 
  44. ^ Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel; Gotfryd, Arnie (2003). Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine. Shamir. hlm. 76ff.; cf. xvi-xvii, 69, 100–1, 171–2, 408ff. ISBN 9789652930804. 
  45. ^ "Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11". Mishneh Torah. Translated by Touger, Eliyahu. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. Halacha 13–14. 
  46. ^ Rabinowitz, Avi (1987). "EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism". Science & Religion. Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01.  Published in Branover, Herman; Attia, Ilana Coven, ed. (1994). Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader. Jason Aronson. ISBN 9781568210346. 
  47. ^ Hort, William Jillard (1822). A General View of the Sciences and Arts. hlm. 182. 
  48. ^ Kaler, James B. (2002). The Ever-changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere. hlm. 25. 

Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> dengan nama "Hetherington2006" yang didefinisikan di <references> tidak digunakan pada teks sebelumnya.

Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag <ref> dengan nama "Goldstein1967" yang didefinisikan di <references> tidak digunakan pada teks sebelumnya.

Pustaka tambahan

  • Crowe, Michael J. (1990). Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261735. 
  • Dreyer, J.L.E. (1953). A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. New York: Dover Publications. 
  • Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press. 
  • Heath, Thomas (1913). Aristarchus of Samos. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 
  • Hoyle, Fred (1973). Nicolaus Copernicus. 
  • Koestler, Arthur (1986) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Penguin Books. ISBN 014055212X.  1990 reprint: ISBN 0140192468.
  • Kuhn, Thomas S. (1957). The Copernican Revolution. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674171039. 
  • Linton, Christopher M. (2004). From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521827508. 
  • Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). Astronomy Before the Telescope. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0714117463. 

Pranala luar

Templat:Greek astronomy

Templat:Link FA

Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/w/index.php?title=Geosentrisme&oldid=7692483"