Bondol peking: Perbedaan antara revisi

Dari Wikipedia bahasa Indonesia, ensiklopedia bebas
Jelajahi riwayat secara interaktif
← Revisi sebelumnya
Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan
VisualTeks wiki
Wie146 (bicara | kontrib)
Peninjau
6.999 suntingan
Wagino Bot (bicara | kontrib)
Bot
4.149.742 suntingan
k Bot: Merapikan artikel
 
(16 revisi perantara oleh 10 pengguna tidak ditampilkan)
Baris 3: Baris 3:
| status = LC
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22719821 |title=''Lonchura punctulata'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=10 Juni 2014}}</ref>
| status_ref =<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|id=22719821 |title=''Lonchura punctulata'' |assessors=[[BirdLife International]] |version=2013.2 |year=2012 |accessdate=10 Juni 2014}}</ref>
| image = Lonchura punctulata (Nagarhole, 2004).jpg
| image = Lonchura punctulata (Nagarhole, 2004).jpg
| image_caption = Individu dewasa subspesies ''punctulata'' di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, [[India]]
| image_caption = Individu dewasa subspesies ''punctulata'' di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, [[India]]
Baris 22: Baris 22:
'''Bondol peking''' atau '''pipit peking''' (''Lonchura punctulata'') adalah sejenis [[burung]] kecil pemakan padi dan biji-bijian. Nama ''punctulata'' berarti berbintik-bintik, menunjuk kepada warna bulu-bulu di dadanya.
'''Bondol peking''' atau '''pipit peking''' (''Lonchura punctulata'') adalah sejenis [[burung]] kecil pemakan padi dan biji-bijian. Nama ''punctulata'' berarti berbintik-bintik, menunjuk kepada warna bulu-bulu di dadanya.


Orang [[bahasa Jawa|Jawa]] menyebutnya ''emprit peking'', ''prit peking''; orang [[bahasa Sunda|Sunda]] menamainya ''piit peking'' atau ''manuk peking'', meniru bunyi suaranya. Di [[Malaysia]] burung ini disebut ''pipit pinang'', dan dalam [[bahasa Inggris]] dikenal sebagai ''Scaly-breasted Munia'' --lagi-lagi terkait dengan bintik di dadanya yang mirip gambaran sisik.
Orang [[bahasa Jawa|Jawa]] menyebutnya ''emprit peking'', ''prit peking''; orang [[bahasa Sunda|Sunda]] menamainya ''piit peking'' atau ''manuk peking'', meniru bunyi suaranya. Di [[Malaysia]] burung ini disebut ''pipit pinang'', dan dalam [[bahasa Inggris]] dikenal sebagai ''Scaly-breasted Munia''—lagi-lagi terkait dengan bintik di dadanya yang mirip gambaran sisik.


== Pemerian ==
== Pemerian ==
[[Berkas: Lonch punctu 071126-1777 tdp.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Burung dewasa, Bogor.]]
[[Berkas: Lonch punctu 071126-1777 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Burung dewasa, Bogor.]]
Burung yang berukuran kecil, dari paruh hingga ujung ekor sekitar 11 cm. Burung dewasa berwarna cokelat di leher dan sisi atas tubuhnya, ''dengan coretan-coretan agak samar berwarna muda'' dan tangkai bulu putih. Tenggorokan cokelat kemerahan. Sisi bawah putih, ''dengan lukisan serupa sisik berwarna coklat pada dada dan sisi tubuh''.<ref name=mackinnon/> Perut bagian bawah sampai pantat putih. Burung muda dengan dada dan perut kuning tua sampai agak coklat kotor, tanpa sisik<ref name=john/>. Jantan tidak berbeda dengan betina dalam penampakannya.
Burung yang berukuran kecil, dari paruh hingga ujung ekor sekitar 11&nbsp;cm. Burung dewasa berwarna cokelat di leher dan sisi atas tubuhnya, ''dengan coretan-coretan agak samar berwarna muda'' dan tangkai bulu putih. Tenggorokan cokelat kemerahan. Sisi bawah putih, ''dengan lukisan serupa sisik berwarna coklat pada dada dan sisi tubuh''.<ref name=mackinnon/> Perut bagian bawah sampai pantat putih. Burung muda dengan dada dan perut kuning tua sampai agak coklat kotor, tanpa sisik.<ref name=john/> Jantan tidak berbeda dengan betina dalam penampakannya.


Iris mata coklat gelap; paruh khas pipit berwarna abu-abu kebiruan; kaki hitam keabu-abuan.<ref name=mackinnon>{{aut|MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen}}. 2000. ''Burung-burung di Sumatera, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan'': 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor :LIPI dan BirdLife IP.</ref>
Iris mata coklat gelap; paruh khas pipit berwarna abu-abu kebiruan; kaki hitam keabu-abuan.<ref name=mackinnon>{{aut|MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen}}. 2000. ''Burung-burung di Sumatra, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan'': 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor:LIPI dan BirdLife IP.</ref>


== Tempat hidup dan kebiasaan ==
== Tempat hidup dan kebiasaan ==
[[Berkas: Lonch punctu J 071129-1999 tdp.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Burung yang muda, Bogor.]]
[[Berkas: Lonch punctu J 071129-1999 tdp.jpg|jmpl|kiri|160px|Burung yang muda, Bogor.]]
Bondol peking sering ditemui di lingkungan perdesaan dan kota, terutama di dekat [[sawah|persawahan]] atau [[tegalan]]. Makanan utama burung ini adalah aneka [[biji]] [[rumput|rumput-rumputan]] termasuk [[padi]]<ref name=john/>. Oleh sebab itu bondol peking kerap mengunjungi sawah, [[padang rumput]], lapangan terbuka ber[[vegetasi]] dan [[kebun]].
Bondol peking sering ditemui di lingkungan perdesaan dan kota, terutama di dekat [[sawah|persawahan]] atau [[tegalan]]. Makanan utama burung ini adalah aneka [[biji]] [[rumput|rumput-rumputan]] termasuk [[padi]].<ref name=john/> Daerah jelajah bondol peking terutama di padang rumput terbuka pada lahan pertanian, sawah, kebun dan semak sekunder.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Budiman|first=M. Asyief Khasan|date=2017|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336317567_Burung-Burung_di_Kawasan_Konservasi_Pulai_Gading|title=Burung-Burung di Kawasan Konservasi Pulai Gading JOB Pertamina - Talisman Jambi Merang Kabupaten Musi Banyuasin Sumatera Selatan|location=Jakarta Selatan|publisher=PT Indocarbon Nusantara|isbn=978-602-50308-0-2|pages=106|url-status=live}}</ref>


Hidup berpasangan atau dalam kelompok kecil, bondol peking sering teramati bergerombol memakan bulir biji-bijian di semak rerumputan atau bahkan turun ke atas tanah. Kelompok ini umumnya lincah dan bergerak bersama-sama, sambil terus berbunyi-bunyi saling memanggil.
Hidup berpasangan atau dalam kelompok kecil, bondol peking sering teramati bergerombol memakan bulir biji-bijian di semak rerumputan atau bahkan turun ke atas tanah. Kelompok ini umumnya lincah dan bergerak bersama-sama, sambil terus berbunyi-bunyi saling memanggil.


Bunyi dua suku, ''ki-dii, ki-dii..''; panggilan ''ki-ii..'' atau ''ckii, ckii..''; dan suara tanda bahaya ''tret.. tret.. ''.<ref name=john>{{aut|MacKinnon, J.}} 1993. ''Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali'': 379. Yogyakarta :Gadjah Mada University Press.</ref>
Bunyi dua suku, ''ki-dii, ki-dii..''; panggilan ''ki-ii..'' atau ''ckii, ckii..''; dan suara tanda bahaya ''tret.. tret.. ''.<ref name=john>{{aut|MacKinnon, J.}} 1993. ''Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali'': 379. Yogyakarta:Gadjah Mada University Press.</ref>


Burung ini tidak segan untuk bercampur dengan jenis bondol lainnya<ref name=mackinnon/>, seperti dengan [[bondol jawa]] (''L. leucogastroides'') atau yang lain. Kelompok bondol ini pada awalnya mungkin hanya terdiri dari beberapa ekor saja, akan tetapi di musim panen padi dapat membesar hingga mencapai ratusan ekor. Terlihat menyolok di sore hari pada saat terbang dan hinggap bersama-sama di pohon-pohon tempat tidurnya. Kelompok yang besar semacam ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian yang besar kepada para petani.
Burung ini tidak segan untuk bercampur dengan jenis bondol lainnya,<ref name=mackinnon/> seperti dengan [[bondol jawa]] (''L. leucogastroides'') atau yang lain. Kelompok bondol ini pada awalnya mungkin hanya terdiri dari beberapa ekor saja, akan tetapi di musim panen padi dapat membesar hingga mencapai ratusan ekor. Terlihat menyolok di sore hari pada saat terbang dan hinggap bersama-sama di pohon-pohon tempat tidurnya. Kelompok yang besar semacam ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian yang besar kepada para petani.


Bondol peking kerap menghuni kebun, pekarangan dan tepi jalan. Seperti tecermin dari namanya di Malaysia, bondol ini sering memilih pohon [[pinang]] atau [[palma]] lainnya, pohon atau semak yang tinggi, untuk tempatnya bersarang. Sarang berbentuk bola atau botol dibangun dari rerumputan, diletakkan tersembunyi di antara daun-daun dan ranting<ref name=john/>. [[Telur]]nya berwarna putih, 4-6(-10) butir, masing-masing berukuran sekitar 15 x 11 [[milimeter|mm]]. Berbiak di sepanjang tahun.<ref>{{aut|Hoogerwerf, A.}} 1949. ''De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java)'': 112-3. Buitenzorg :Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.</ref>
Bondol peking kerap menghuni kebun, pekarangan dan tepi jalan. Seperti tecermin dari namanya di Malaysia, bondol ini sering memilih pohon [[pinang]] atau [[palma]] lainnya, pohon atau semak yang tinggi, untuk tempatnya bersarang. Sarang berbentuk bola atau botol dibangun dari rerumputan, diletakkan tersembunyi di antara daun-daun dan ranting.<ref name=john/> [[Telur]]nya berwarna putih, 4-6(-10) butir, masing-masing berukuran sekitar 15 x 11 [[milimeter|mm]]. Berbiak di sepanjang tahun.<ref>{{aut|Hoogerwerf, A.}} 1949. ''De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java)'': 112-3. Buitenzorg:Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.</ref>


Bondol ini hidup mulai dari ketinggian dekat muka laut hingga sekitar 1.800 m dpl.<ref name=mackinnon/>, bahkan hingga 2.200 m di [[Lombok]] dan 2.300 m di [[Timor]]<ref name=coates>{{aut|Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop}}. 2000. ''Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea'': 185. Bogor :BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.</ref>.
Bondol ini hidup mulai dari ketinggian dekat muka laut hingga sekitar 1.800 m dpl.<ref name=mackinnon/>, bahkan hingga 2.200 m di [[Lombok]] dan 2.300 m di [[Timor]].<ref name=coates>{{aut|Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop}}. 2000. ''Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea'': 185. Bogor:BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.</ref>


== Subspesies dan penyebaran ==
== Subspesies dan penyebaran ==
Bondol peking tersebar di [[Asia Selatan]] dan [[Asia Tenggara]] dengan 12 subspesies sebagai berikut<ref name=clements>{{cite book |title= The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8 |author= Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson |year= 2013 |publisher= The Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/}}</ref>:
Bondol peking tersebar di [[Asia Selatan]] dan [[Asia Tenggara]] dengan 12 subspesies sebagai berikut:<ref name=clements>{{cite book|title= The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8|author= Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson|year= 2013|publisher= The Cornell Lab of Ornithology|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/clementschecklist/download/}}</ref>
#'''''L. p. punctulata''''' ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758), tersebar dari [[Nepal]] hingga [[Sikkim]], [[India]] dan [[Sri Lanka]]
# '''''L. p. punctulata''''' ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758), tersebar dari [[Nepal]] hingga [[Sikkim]], [[India]] dan [[Sri Lanka]]
#'''''L. p. subundulata''''' (Godwin-Austen, 1874), tersebar di timur laut [[India]] ([[Assam]]) hingga [[Bhutan]] dan bagian barat [[Myanmar]]
# '''''L. p. subundulata''''' (Godwin-Austen, 1874), tersebar di timur laut [[India]] ([[Assam]]) hingga [[Bhutan]] dan bagian barat [[Myanmar]]
#'''''L. p. yunnanensis''''' (Parkes, 1958), tersebar di timur laut [[Myanmar]] dan barat daya [[China]]
# '''''L. p. yunnanensis''''' (Parkes, 1958), tersebar di timur laut [[Myanmar]] dan barat daya [[China]]
#'''''L. p. topela''''' (Swinhoe, 1863), tersebar di selatan [[China]] hingga utara [[Thailand]], [[Indochina]], [[Hainan]], dan [[Taiwan]]
# '''''L. p. topela''''' (Swinhoe, 1863), tersebar di selatan [[China]] hingga utara [[Thailand]], [[Indochina]], [[Hainan]], dan [[Taiwan]]
#'''''L. p. cabanisi''''' ([[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1890), tersebar di [[Filipina]] ([[Luzon]], [[Mindoro]], [[Panay]], [[Cebu]], Calauit dan [[Palawan]])
# '''''L. p. cabanisi''''' ([[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1890), tersebar di [[Filipina]] ([[Luzon]], [[Mindoro]], [[Panay]], [[Cebu]], Calauit dan [[Palawan]])
#'''''L. p. fretensis''''' (Kloss, 1931), tersebar di selatan [[Thailand]] dan [[Semenanjung Malaysia]] hingga [[Sumatera]] dan pulau-pulau di sekitarnya
# '''''L. p. fretensis''''' (Kloss, 1931), tersebar di selatan [[Thailand]] dan [[Semenanjung Malaysia]] hingga [[Sumatra]] dan pulau-pulau di sekitarnya
#'''''L. p. nisoria''''' ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1830), tersebar di [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Lombok]], dan [[Sumbawa]]
# '''''L. p. nisoria''''' ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], 1830), tersebar di [[Jawa]], [[Bali]], [[Lombok]], dan [[Sumbawa]]
#'''''L. p. baweana''''' (Hoogerwerf, 1963), [[endemik]] di [[Pulau Bawean]] ([[Laut Jawa]])
# '''''L. p. baweana''''' (Hoogerwerf, 1963), [[endemik]] di [[Pulau Bawean]] ([[Laut Jawa]])
#'''''L. p. holmesi''''' (Restall, 1992), endemik di bagian tenggara [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]])
# '''''L. p. holmesi''''' (Restall, 1992), endemik di bagian tenggara [[Borneo]] ([[Kalimantan]])
#'''''L. p. sumbae''''' (Mayr, 1944), endemik di Pulau [[Sumba]]
# '''''L. p. sumbae''''' (Mayr, 1944), endemik di Pulau [[Sumba]]
#'''''L. p. blasii''''' (Stresemann, 1912), tersebar di [[Flores]], [[Timor]], [[Kepulauan Tanimbar]], dan pulau-pulau kecil di [[Nusa Tenggara]]
# '''''L. p. blasii''''' (Stresemann, 1912), tersebar di [[Flores]], [[Timor]], [[Kepulauan Tanimbar]], dan pulau-pulau kecil di [[Nusa Tenggara]]
#'''''L. p. particeps''''' (Riley, 1920), endemik di Pulau [[Sulawesi]]
# '''''L. p. particeps''''' (Riley, 1920), endemik di Pulau [[Sulawesi]]




<!--Populations within their wide distribution range show variations in plumage color and size, and about 11 subspecies are recognized. These include the nominate form found in the plains of South Asia, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The name ''lineoventer'' was formerly used for the Indian population. Other populations include ''subundulata'' from the eastern Himalayas, ''yunnanensis'' of southern China, ''topela'' of Thailand, ''cabanisi'' of the Philippines and ''fretensis'' of Singapor and Sumatra. Island populations include ''nisoria'' (Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa), ''particeps'' (Sulawesi), ''baweana'' (Bawean Island), ''sumbae'' (Sumba) and ''blasii'' (Flores, Timor and Tanimbar).
<!--Populations within their wide distribution range show variations in plumage color and size, and about 11 subspecies are recognized. These include the nominate form found in the plains of South Asia, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. The name ''lineoventer'' was formerly used for the Indian population. Other populations include ''subundulata'' from the eastern Himalayas, ''yunnanensis'' of southern China, ''topela'' of Thailand, ''cabanisi'' of the Philippines and ''fretensis'' of Singapor and Sumatra. Island populations include ''nisoria'' (Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa), ''particeps'' (Sulawesi), ''baweana'' (Bawean Island), ''sumbae'' (Sumba) and ''blasii'' (Flores, Timor and Tanimbar).
Baris 72: Baris 70:
== Behaviour and ecology==
== Behaviour and ecology==
===Sociality===
===Sociality===
Scaly-breasted Munia are known to form large flocks of as many as 100 birds. Individuals communicate with calls that include a short whistle, variations of ''kitty-kitty-kitty'', and a sharp chipping alarm note. They sometimes flick their tails, vertically or horizontally, and wings while hopping about. The tail flicking motion may have derived in the course of evolution from some locomotory intention movement. The current simplified and exaggerated form indicates that the origina tail flicking movement has undergone some [[ritualization]]. As a social signal, tail flicking gives the intention of moving and helps keep the flock together.
Scaly-breasted Munia are known to form large flocks of as many as 100 birds. Individuals communicate with calls that include a short whistle, variations of ''kitty-kitty-kitty'', and a sharp chipping alarm note. They sometimes flick their tails, vertically or horizontally, and wings while hopping about. The tail flicking motion may have derived in the course of evolution from some locomotory intention movement. The current simplified and exaggerated form indicates that the origina tail flicking movement has undergone some [[ritualization]]. As a social signal, tail flicking gives the intention of moving and helps keep the flock together.


When [[Communal roosting|roosting]], Scaly-breasted Munia sit side-by-side in close contact with each other. The outermost bird is rarely content to remain at this position and will constantly wedge itself towards the center. Birds in a flock will sometimes preen each other, with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin. [[Allopreening]] is usually limited to the face and neck. The flocking drive is more than the drive of sleeping together, feeding together, and preening each other since even just after satisfying these activities, the birds still make vigorous attempts to stay together.<ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref>
When [[Communal roosting|roosting]], Scaly-breasted Munia sit side-by-side in close contact with each other. The outermost bird is rarely content to remain at this position and will constantly wedge itself towards the center. Birds in a flock will sometimes preen each other, with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin. [[Allopreening]] is usually limited to the face and neck. The flocking drive is more than the drive of sleeping together, feeding together, and preening each other since even just after satisfying these activities, the birds still make vigorous attempts to stay together.<ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref>


Hostile behavior in Scaly-breasted Munia is rare compared to many other birds. The Scaly-breasted Munia exhibits unritualized intention movements and ambivalent postures, which is not due to relative weakness of hostility since they quarrel frequently, energetically, and at length. Instead, the distinctive feature of the Scaly-breasted Munia is probably correlated with its gregarious nature. The strong tendency of these birds to keep together most of the time obviates the need for hostile patterns. <ref name=behaviour/>
Hostile behavior in Scaly-breasted Munia is rare compared to many other birds. The Scaly-breasted Munia exhibits unritualized intention movements and ambivalent postures, which is not due to relative weakness of hostility since they quarrel frequently, energetically, and at length. Instead, the distinctive feature of the Scaly-breasted Munia is probably correlated with its gregarious nature. The strong tendency of these birds to keep together most of the time obviates the need for hostile patterns.<ref name=behaviour/>


===Food and foraging ===
===Food and foraging ===
[[Berkas:Scaly breasted Munia I IMG 3530.jpg|thumb|right|Feeding on rice grain]]
[[Berkas:Scaly breasted Munia I IMG 3530.jpg|thumb|right|Feeding on rice grain]]
The Scaly-breasted Munia feeds mainly on seeds but also eats small berries of ''[[Lantana]]'' and other plants.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Mehta, P |year=1997| title=Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' feeding on scat? |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume= 37| issue=1|page=16|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW37_1#page/n17/mode/1up}}</ref> Like some other [[Munia]]s, they may also feed on algae.
The Scaly-breasted Munia feeds mainly on seeds but also eats small berries of ''[[Lantana]]'' and other plants.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Mehta, P |year=1997| title=Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' feeding on scat? |journal=[[Newsletter for Birdwatchers]] | volume= 37| issue=1|page=16|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/NLBW37_1#page/n17/mode/1up}}</ref> Like some other [[Munia]]s, they may also feed on algae.


The ease of maintaining these birds in [[Captivity (animal)|captivity]] has made them popular for studying behavior and physiology. Feeding behavior can be predicted by the [[optimal foraging theory]], where animals minimize costs and maximize food intake when foraging. This theory accounts for the strategies that Scaly-breasted Munia adopt to increase feeding efficacy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=DW|title=A comprehensive guide to optimal foraging theory|year=2007|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Foraging}}</ref>
The ease of maintaining these birds in [[Captivity (animal)|captivity]] has made them popular for studying behavior and physiology. Feeding behavior can be predicted by the [[optimal foraging theory]], where animals minimize costs and maximize food intake when foraging. This theory accounts for the strategies that Scaly-breasted Munia adopt to increase feeding efficacy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stephens|first=DW|title=A comprehensive guide to optimal foraging theory|year=2007|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Foraging}}</ref>


====Flock size tradeoffs====
====Flock size tradeoffs====
Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on [[predator]] vigilance and increasing feeding efficiency. Time spent on vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The “many-eyes” hypothesis predicts a reduction in [[vigilance]] levels in larger groups that can cause higher feeding rates if the time that is saved is used for foraging.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> The birds also collected seeds more quickly in larger groups, which reflects a decrease in vigilance in larger groups, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus on searching for food.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> Moreover, advantages of group membership include increased mean food intake rates and reduced variance in foraging success. These foraging advantages rely on the occurrence of joining. Joining is feeding from food discovered or captured by others and results in information sharing and producer-scrounger models.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Another aspect of group living is an increase in the competition for resources, which may also contribute to lower antipredatory vigilance due to increased foraging time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Although, other studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on [[predator]] vigilance and increasing feeding efficiency. Time spent on vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The “many-eyes” hypothesis predicts a reduction in [[vigilance]] levels in larger groups that can cause higher feeding rates if the time that is saved is used for foraging.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> The birds also collected seeds more quickly in larger groups, which reflects a decrease in vigilance in larger groups, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus on searching for food.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> Moreover, advantages of group membership include increased mean food intake rates and reduced variance in foraging success. These foraging advantages rely on the occurrence of joining. Joining is feeding from food discovered or captured by others and results in information sharing and producer-scrounger models.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Another aspect of group living is an increase in the competition for resources, which may also contribute to lower antipredatory vigilance due to increased foraging time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Although, other studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Foraging models====
====Foraging models====
When foraging, Scaly-breasted Munia work together in a group. Group foragers search for their food individually, but they can also search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others’ discoveries have been modeled in two ways that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two search modes: the information sharing and the producer-scrounger models. The behavior patterns of Scaly-breasted Munia have been studied to determine whether they fit the producer-scrounger model or the information sharing model. The information sharing model assumes that individuals can search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer-scrounger model assumes incompatible search modes. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> [[Analysis of covariance]] shows that the frequencies of hopping with the head pointing up and down were statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird's joining and finding, respectively. When the expected [[Evolutionarily stable strategy|stable frequency]] of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the seed distribution, the birds' relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly. When the seed distribution made use of scrounger tactic that were unprofitable, the frequency of hopping with the head up dropped to zero. Consequently, in the Scaly-breasted Munia, finding and joining behaviour conforms more closely to the assumptions of a producer-scrounger model.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref>
When foraging, Scaly-breasted Munia work together in a group. Group foragers search for their food individually, but they can also search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others’ discoveries have been modeled in two ways that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two search modes: the information sharing and the producer-scrounger models. The behavior patterns of Scaly-breasted Munia have been studied to determine whether they fit the producer-scrounger model or the information sharing model. The information sharing model assumes that individuals can search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer-scrounger model assumes incompatible search modes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> [[Analysis of covariance]] shows that the frequencies of hopping with the head pointing up and down were statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird's joining and finding, respectively. When the expected [[Evolutionarily stable strategy|stable frequency]] of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the seed distribution, the birds' relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly. When the seed distribution made use of scrounger tactic that were unprofitable, the frequency of hopping with the head up dropped to zero. Consequently, in the Scaly-breasted Munia, finding and joining behaviour conforms more closely to the assumptions of a producer-scrounger model.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref>
Furthermore, studies have shown that Scaly-breasted Munia increase their joining frequency and even their allocation to the scrounger tactic as food is more clumped, lending more support to the applicability of the producer-scrounger model to ground feeding granivorous birds. Moreover, as group size increases, the foragers increase their scrounging, resulting in increased intervals between patch discoveries and decreased finding rate. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Furthermore, studies have shown that Scaly-breasted Munia increase their joining frequency and even their allocation to the scrounger tactic as food is more clumped, lending more support to the applicability of the producer-scrounger model to ground feeding granivorous birds. Moreover, as group size increases, the foragers increase their scrounging, resulting in increased intervals between patch discoveries and decreased finding rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Vigilance====
====Vigilance====
Most social foragers must search for food while avoiding predators. Group-foraging Scaly-breasted Munia engage in a producer–scrounger game search for their own food by hopping with the head down and search for others' food discoveries by hopping with the head up. It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also, by virtue of their head position, be concurrently alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance. If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance, then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities, and hence more joining. However, the scrounger tactic and antipredatory vigilance are two incompatible functions of scanning behaviour based off two findings. The rates of head up recorded in stationary and eating birds increased with increased distance to cover, confirming that the head up behavior functions as antipredatory vigilance. Neither the rates nor the proportion of hops involving scans varied with distance, so scanning while hopping does not contribute to antipredatory vigilance. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Most social foragers must search for food while avoiding predators. Group-foraging Scaly-breasted Munia engage in a producer–scrounger game search for their own food by hopping with the head down and search for others' food discoveries by hopping with the head up. It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also, by virtue of their head position, be concurrently alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance. If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance, then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities, and hence more joining. However, the scrounger tactic and antipredatory vigilance are two incompatible functions of scanning behaviour based off two findings. The rates of head up recorded in stationary and eating birds increased with increased distance to cover, confirming that the head up behavior functions as antipredatory vigilance. Neither the rates nor the proportion of hops involving scans varied with distance, so scanning while hopping does not contribute to antipredatory vigilance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Specialized foraging====
====Specialized foraging====
Scaly-breasted Munias have variable competitive behaviors that allow them to exploit scarce resources. Within this variation there are two foraging alternatives: producers that make the food available and scroungers that steal the food found by the producers, that have been studied extensively with the Scaly-breasted Munia. Studies in which variation occurs in the population even if there is no difference in competitive ability between individuals show that a stable equilibrium can be maintained. When individuals are free to choose between producer and scrounger, a [[frequency dependent selection]] results in a stable mixture of producers and scroungers, where each behaviour enjoys the same payoff. Studies have shown that if most of the population were producers, then scroungers would do best because there is plenty of food to steal. On the other hand, if most were scroungers then there would be intense competition for stolen food and a producer would do best.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology|year=2012|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Competing for Resources|pages=130-131}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Barnard|first=C.J.|coauthors=R.M. Sibly|title=Producers and scroungers: A general model and its application to captive flocks of house sparrows|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=1981|month=May|volume=29|issue=2|pages=543-550|doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80117-0}}</ref>
Scaly-breasted Munias have variable competitive behaviors that allow them to exploit scarce resources. Within this variation there are two foraging alternatives: producers that make the food available and scroungers that steal the food found by the producers, that have been studied extensively with the Scaly-breasted Munia. Studies in which variation occurs in the population even if there is no difference in competitive ability between individuals show that a stable equilibrium can be maintained. When individuals are free to choose between producer and scrounger, a [[frequency dependent selection]] results in a stable mixture of producers and scroungers, where each behaviour enjoys the same payoff. Studies have shown that if most of the population were producers, then scroungers would do best because there is plenty of food to steal. On the other hand, if most were scroungers then there would be intense competition for stolen food and a producer would do best.<ref>{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Nicholas|title=An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9|year=2012|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Competing for Resources|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontobe0000davi_j0v9/page/130 130]-131}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Barnard|first=C.J.|coauthors=R.M. Sibly|title=Producers and scroungers: A general model and its application to captive flocks of house sparrows|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=1981|month=May|volume=29|issue=2|pages=543-550|doi=10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80117-0}}</ref>


Three hypotheses might account for consistent foraging specializations across individuals: food source variation, [[phenotypic]] differences, and frequency dependent-choice. The food source variation hypothesis predicts that individuals will specialize when the use of two skills is more costly than specialist foraging. The phenotypic differences hypothesis proposes that individuals differ in their ability to use each foraging skill and specialize on the most profitable one. The pattern of specialization is expected to be stable although the number of individuals that use a given skill depends on the phenotypic composition of the flock. The frequency dependent choice hypothesis also proposes that individuals specialize on the most profitable skill, but the profitability of each alternative decreases as the number of phenotypically identical foragers gradually specialize on each skill when initially given two equally profitable alternatives. At equilibrium, individual payoffs should be independent of the pattern of specialization. Individuals in flocks of spice finches adjusted their use of the two skills and two birds in each flock specialized on a different skill resulting in a variant of both the food source variation hypothesis and frequency dependent choice hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beauchamp|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.; Ennis, N.|title=Experimental evidence for the maintenance of foraging specializations by frequency-dependent choice in flocks of spice finches|journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution|date=1 April 1997|volume=9|issue=2|pages=105–117|doi=10.1080/08927014.1997.9522890 }}</ref>
Three hypotheses might account for consistent foraging specializations across individuals: food source variation, [[phenotypic]] differences, and frequency dependent-choice. The food source variation hypothesis predicts that individuals will specialize when the use of two skills is more costly than specialist foraging. The phenotypic differences hypothesis proposes that individuals differ in their ability to use each foraging skill and specialize on the most profitable one. The pattern of specialization is expected to be stable although the number of individuals that use a given skill depends on the phenotypic composition of the flock. The frequency dependent choice hypothesis also proposes that individuals specialize on the most profitable skill, but the profitability of each alternative decreases as the number of phenotypically identical foragers gradually specialize on each skill when initially given two equally profitable alternatives. At equilibrium, individual payoffs should be independent of the pattern of specialization. Individuals in flocks of spice finches adjusted their use of the two skills and two birds in each flock specialized on a different skill resulting in a variant of both the food source variation hypothesis and frequency dependent choice hypothesis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Beauchamp|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.; Ennis, N.|title=Experimental evidence for the maintenance of foraging specializations by frequency-dependent choice in flocks of spice finches|journal=Ethology Ecology & Evolution|date=1 April 1997|volume=9|issue=2|pages=105–117|doi=10.1080/08927014.1997.9522890 }}</ref>
Baris 105: Baris 103:


====Prey crypsis====
====Prey crypsis====
Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join, prey [[crypsis]] imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging. Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Barrette|first=Maryse|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2006|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1183–1189|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.10.008|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Moreover, the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cyptic backgrounds. The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed. Thus, the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Courant|first=Sabrina|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Conspecific presence makes exploiting cryptic prey more difficult in wild-caught nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2008|volume=75|issue=3|pages=1101–1108|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.023|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join, prey [[crypsis]] imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging. Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barrette|first=Maryse|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2006|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1183–1189|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.10.008|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Moreover, the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cyptic backgrounds. The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed. Thus, the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Courant|first=Sabrina|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Conspecific presence makes exploiting cryptic prey more difficult in wild-caught nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2008|volume=75|issue=3|pages=1101–1108|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.023|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Resource Defence====
====Resource Defence====
Recent models of economic defence in a group-foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Broom|first=Mark|coauthors=Ruxton, Graeme D.|title=Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=1 January 1998|volume=9|issue=4|pages=397–403|doi=10.1093/beheco/9.4.397|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Sirot|first=E.|title=An evolutionarily stable strategy for aggressiveness in feeding groups|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=1999|volume=11|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1093/beheco/11.4.351|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=F.|title=Resource defense in a group-foraging context|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=2002|volume=14|issue=1|pages=2–9|doi=10.1093/beheco/14.1.2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Studies with Scaly-breasted Munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled, and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not. Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable. Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled. When food location was signaled, increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Recent models of economic defence in a group-foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Broom|first=Mark|coauthors=Ruxton, Graeme D.|title=Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=1 January 1998|volume=9|issue=4|pages=397–403|doi=10.1093/beheco/9.4.397|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Sirot|first=E.|title=An evolutionarily stable strategy for aggressiveness in feeding groups|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=1999|volume=11|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1093/beheco/11.4.351|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=F.|title=Resource defense in a group-foraging context|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=2002|volume=14|issue=1|pages=2–9|doi=10.1093/beheco/14.1.2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Studies with Scaly-breasted Munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled, and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not. Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable. Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled. When food location was signaled, increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


===Breeding===
===Breeding===
The breeding season is during the summer rainy season (mainly June to August in India) but can range over different times. Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger [[gonadal]] growth.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Role of humidity in the seasonal reproduction of male spotted munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| author=Sikdar M; A Kar and P Prakash |year= 1992| doi= 10.1002/jez.1402640112 |journal= Journal of Experimental Zoology| volume=264| issue=1| pages= 82–84}}</ref> The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable and is audible only at close range. This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in slurred whistle.<ref name=behaviour/> When singing the male sits in what is called the ''slope'' posture -- erect with the head feathers raised. There are two types of slope posture, a pre-copulatory one and an ordinary one. The pre-copulatory behavior of Scaly-breasted Munia follows a regular sequence of activities. The first pattern is playing with nest-material and either the male or female can begin this activity. As soon as a bird has satisfactorily arranged the nest material in its bill, it begins to fly around in a zig-zag. Once one bird lands close beside the other, the male bends towards the female and wipe its bill. Then the male begins the pre-copulatory jingle, which differs from an ordinary one in moving its entire body and not just the head. The female then begins tail quivering and the rest of her body remains motionless until mounted.
The breeding season is during the summer rainy season (mainly June to August in India) but can range over different times. Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger [[gonadal]] growth.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Role of humidity in the seasonal reproduction of male spotted munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| author=Sikdar M; A Kar and P Prakash |year= 1992| doi= 10.1002/jez.1402640112 |journal= Journal of Experimental Zoology| volume=264| issue=1| pages= 82–84}}</ref> The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable and is audible only at close range. This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in slurred whistle.<ref name=behaviour/> When singing the male sits in what is called the ''slope'' posture -- erect with the head feathers raised. There are two types of slope posture, a pre-copulatory one and an ordinary one. The pre-copulatory behavior of Scaly-breasted Munia follows a regular sequence of activities. The first pattern is playing with nest-material and either the male or female can begin this activity. As soon as a bird has satisfactorily arranged the nest material in its bill, it begins to fly around in a zig-zag. Once one bird lands close beside the other, the male bends towards the female and wipe its bill. Then the male begins the pre-copulatory jingle, which differs from an ordinary one in moving its entire body and not just the head. The female then begins tail quivering and the rest of her body remains motionless until mounted.


The nest is a large domed structure made of loose grass, bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house. A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be ''[[Toddalia asiatica]]'', ''[[Gymnosporia]] montana'' and ''[[Acacia chundra]]'', especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover. The nest opening is located along the most frequent wind direction.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Gokula V |year= 2001| title= Nesting ecology of the Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (South India)|journal= Acta Ornithologica| volume= 36|issue=1|pages= 1–5}}</ref> In northern India, they preferred isolated ''Acacia nilotica'' in non-urban areas but ''Thuja orientalis'' and ''Polyalthia longifolia'' in urban areas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sharma RC; Bhatt D; Sharma RK|year=2004| title= Breeding success of the tropical Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata in urbanized and forest habitats| journal= Ornithological Science|volume=3| issue=2| pages= 113–117 | url= http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/3/2/3_113/_article|doi=10.2326/osj.3.113}}</ref>
The nest is a large domed structure made of loose grass, bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house. A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be ''[[Toddalia asiatica]]'', ''[[Gymnosporia]] montana'' and ''[[Acacia chundra]]'', especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover. The nest opening is located along the most frequent wind direction.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Gokula V |year= 2001| title= Nesting ecology of the Spotted Munia ''Lonchura punctulata'' in Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (South India)|journal= Acta Ornithologica| volume= 36|issue=1|pages= 1–5}}</ref> In northern India, they preferred isolated ''Acacia nilotica'' in non-urban areas but ''Thuja orientalis'' and ''Polyalthia longifolia'' in urban areas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Sharma RC; Bhatt D; Sharma RK|year=2004| title= Breeding success of the tropical Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata in urbanized and forest habitats| journal= Ornithological Science|volume=3| issue=2| pages= 113–117 | url= http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/osj/3/2/3_113/_article|doi=10.2326/osj.3.113}}</ref>


Scaly-breasted Munia clutches usually contain 4 to 6 eggs, but can contain up to 10. Both sexes help build the nest and incubate the eggs. The eggs hatch after about 10 to 16 days.<ref name=hbk/><ref>{{cite journal|author= Lamba, BS |year= 1974| title= Nest construction technique of the Spotted Munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 71| issue=3| pages= 613–616}}</ref>-->
Scaly-breasted Munia clutches usually contain 4 to 6 eggs, but can contain up to 10. Both sexes help build the nest and incubate the eggs. The eggs hatch after about 10 to 16 days.<ref name=hbk/><ref>{{cite journal|author= Lamba, BS |year= 1974| title= Nest construction technique of the Spotted Munia, ''Lonchura punctulata''| journal= J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. |volume= 71| issue=3| pages= 613–616}}</ref>-->


==Galeri==
== Galeri ==
<gallery>
<gallery>
File:Lonchura punctulata MHNT 228 La Réunion.jpg | <center> Bentuk dan ukuran telur
File:Lonchura punctulata MHNT 228 La Réunion.jpg | <center> Bentuk dan ukuran telur
Baris 124: Baris 122:
File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - Flickr - Lip Kee (1).jpg | ''L. p. fretensis'' di Pulau Ubin, [[Singapura]]
File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) - Flickr - Lip Kee (1).jpg | ''L. p. fretensis'' di Pulau Ubin, [[Singapura]]
File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) feeding on Pennisetum pedicellatum W IMG 1337.jpg | Individu remaja ''L. p. punctulata'' di Hyderabad, [[India]]
File:Scaly-breasted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) feeding on Pennisetum pedicellatum W IMG 1337.jpg | Individu remaja ''L. p. punctulata'' di Hyderabad, [[India]]
Berkas: Lonch punctu 071126-1775 tdp.jpg|Mencari makanan dalam kelompok. Bogor.
Berkas: Lonch punctu 071126-1775 tdp.jpg|Mencari makanan dalam kelompok. Bogor.
</gallery>
</gallery>


Baris 133: Baris 131:
{{commons|Lonchura punctulata}}
{{commons|Lonchura punctulata}}
* {{en}} [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/53349/all ''Lonchura punctulata'' pada IUCN Red List Database], diakses pada 29/11/2007
* {{en}} [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php/53349/all ''Lonchura punctulata'' pada IUCN Red List Database], diakses pada 29/11/2007
* {{en}} [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=8709&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* {{en}} [http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=8709&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929165821/http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=8709&m=0 |date=2007-09-29 }}
* {{fr}} [http://www.kelnouvel.com/faune/thumbnails.php?album=14 Damier commun (Lonchura punctulata) Faune de La Réunion]
* {{fr}} [http://www.kelnouvel.com/faune/thumbnails.php?album=14 Damier commun (Lonchura punctulata) Faune de La Réunion]{{Pranala mati|date=Februari 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q36197}}


[[Kategori:Bondol]]
[[Kategori:Bondol]]
[[Kategori:Burung Indonesia]]
[[Kategori:Burung Indonesia]]
[[Kategori:Lonchura]]
[[Kategori:Lonchura]]
[[Kategori:Estrildidae]]

{{Link GA|en}}

Revisi terkini sejak 10 September 2023 04.48

Bondol Peking
Individu dewasa subspesies punctulata di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, India
Individu remaja subspesies punctulata di Kolkata, India
Klasifikasi ilmiah
Kerajaan:
Animalia
Filum:
Chordata
Kelas:
Aves
Ordo:
Passeriformes
Famili:
Estrildidae
Genus:
Lonchura
Spesies:
L. punctulata
Nama binomial
Lonchura punctulata
(L., 1753)

Bondol peking atau pipit peking (Lonchura punctulata) adalah sejenis burung kecil pemakan padi dan biji-bijian. Nama punctulata berarti berbintik-bintik, menunjuk kepada warna bulu-bulu di dadanya.

Orang Jawa menyebutnya emprit peking, prit peking; orang Sunda menamainya piit peking atau manuk peking, meniru bunyi suaranya. Di Malaysia burung ini disebut pipit pinang, dan dalam bahasa Inggris dikenal sebagai Scaly-breasted Munia—lagi-lagi terkait dengan bintik di dadanya yang mirip gambaran sisik.

Pemerian[sunting | sunting sumber]

Burung dewasa, Bogor.

Burung yang berukuran kecil, dari paruh hingga ujung ekor sekitar 11 cm. Burung dewasa berwarna cokelat di leher dan sisi atas tubuhnya, dengan coretan-coretan agak samar berwarna muda dan tangkai bulu putih. Tenggorokan cokelat kemerahan. Sisi bawah putih, dengan lukisan serupa sisik berwarna coklat pada dada dan sisi tubuh.[2] Perut bagian bawah sampai pantat putih. Burung muda dengan dada dan perut kuning tua sampai agak coklat kotor, tanpa sisik.[3] Jantan tidak berbeda dengan betina dalam penampakannya.

Iris mata coklat gelap; paruh khas pipit berwarna abu-abu kebiruan; kaki hitam keabu-abuan.[2]

Tempat hidup dan kebiasaan[sunting | sunting sumber]

Burung yang muda, Bogor.

Bondol peking sering ditemui di lingkungan perdesaan dan kota, terutama di dekat persawahan atau tegalan. Makanan utama burung ini adalah aneka biji rumput-rumputan termasuk padi.[3] Daerah jelajah bondol peking terutama di padang rumput terbuka pada lahan pertanian, sawah, kebun dan semak sekunder.[4]

Hidup berpasangan atau dalam kelompok kecil, bondol peking sering teramati bergerombol memakan bulir biji-bijian di semak rerumputan atau bahkan turun ke atas tanah. Kelompok ini umumnya lincah dan bergerak bersama-sama, sambil terus berbunyi-bunyi saling memanggil.

Bunyi dua suku, ki-dii, ki-dii..; panggilan ki-ii.. atau ckii, ckii..; dan suara tanda bahaya tret.. tret.. .[3]

Burung ini tidak segan untuk bercampur dengan jenis bondol lainnya,[2] seperti dengan bondol jawa (L. leucogastroides) atau yang lain. Kelompok bondol ini pada awalnya mungkin hanya terdiri dari beberapa ekor saja, akan tetapi di musim panen padi dapat membesar hingga mencapai ratusan ekor. Terlihat menyolok di sore hari pada saat terbang dan hinggap bersama-sama di pohon-pohon tempat tidurnya. Kelompok yang besar semacam ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian yang besar kepada para petani.

Bondol peking kerap menghuni kebun, pekarangan dan tepi jalan. Seperti tecermin dari namanya di Malaysia, bondol ini sering memilih pohon pinang atau palma lainnya, pohon atau semak yang tinggi, untuk tempatnya bersarang. Sarang berbentuk bola atau botol dibangun dari rerumputan, diletakkan tersembunyi di antara daun-daun dan ranting.[3] Telurnya berwarna putih, 4-6(-10) butir, masing-masing berukuran sekitar 15 x 11 mm. Berbiak di sepanjang tahun.[5]

Bondol ini hidup mulai dari ketinggian dekat muka laut hingga sekitar 1.800 m dpl.[2], bahkan hingga 2.200 m di Lombok dan 2.300 m di Timor.[6]

Subspesies dan penyebaran[sunting | sunting sumber]

Bondol peking tersebar di Asia Selatan dan Asia Tenggara dengan 12 subspesies sebagai berikut:[7]

  1. L. p. punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758), tersebar dari Nepal hingga Sikkim, India dan Sri Lanka
  2. L. p. subundulata (Godwin-Austen, 1874), tersebar di timur laut India (Assam) hingga Bhutan dan bagian barat Myanmar
  3. L. p. yunnanensis (Parkes, 1958), tersebar di timur laut Myanmar dan barat daya China
  4. L. p. topela (Swinhoe, 1863), tersebar di selatan China hingga utara Thailand, Indochina, Hainan, dan Taiwan
  5. L. p. cabanisi (Sharpe, 1890), tersebar di Filipina (Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Cebu, Calauit dan Palawan)
  6. L. p. fretensis (Kloss, 1931), tersebar di selatan Thailand dan Semenanjung Malaysia hingga Sumatra dan pulau-pulau di sekitarnya
  7. L. p. nisoria (Temminck, 1830), tersebar di Jawa, Bali, Lombok, dan Sumbawa
  8. L. p. baweana (Hoogerwerf, 1963), endemik di Pulau Bawean (Laut Jawa)
  9. L. p. holmesi (Restall, 1992), endemik di bagian tenggara Borneo (Kalimantan)
  10. L. p. sumbae (Mayr, 1944), endemik di Pulau Sumba
  11. L. p. blasii (Stresemann, 1912), tersebar di Flores, Timor, Kepulauan Tanimbar, dan pulau-pulau kecil di Nusa Tenggara
  12. L. p. particeps (Riley, 1920), endemik di Pulau Sulawesi


Galeri[sunting | sunting sumber]

Referensi[sunting | sunting sumber]

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Lonchura punctulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Diakses tanggal 10 Juni 2014. 
  2. ^ a b c d MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen. 2000. Burung-burung di Sumatra, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan: 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor:LIPI dan BirdLife IP.
  3. ^ a b c d MacKinnon, J. 1993. Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali: 379. Yogyakarta:Gadjah Mada University Press.
  4. ^ Budiman, M. Asyief Khasan (2017). Burung-Burung di Kawasan Konservasi Pulai Gading JOB Pertamina - Talisman Jambi Merang Kabupaten Musi Banyuasin Sumatera Selatan. Jakarta Selatan: PT Indocarbon Nusantara. hlm. 106. ISBN 978-602-50308-0-2. 
  5. ^ Hoogerwerf, A. 1949. De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java): 112-3. Buitenzorg:Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.
  6. ^ Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop. 2000. Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea: 185. Bogor:BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.
  7. ^ Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson (2013). The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 

Pranala luar[sunting | sunting sumber]

Wikimedia Commons memiliki media mengenai Lonchura punctulata.
Diperoleh dari "https://wiki-indonesia.club/w/index.php?title=Bondol_peking&oldid=24168463"