Geosentrisme: Perbedaan antara revisi
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[[Berkas:Bartolomeu Velho 1568.jpg|jmpl|ka|300px|'''Figure of the heavenly bodies''' (Gambar benda-benda langit) — suatu illustrasi sistem geosentrik Ptolemeus karya kosmografer dan kartografer Portugis [[Bartolomeu Velho]], 1568 (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris)]] |
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'''Geosentrisme''' atau disebut '''Teori Geosentrik''', '''Model Geosentrik''' (bahasa Inggris: '''geocentric model''' atau '''geocentrism''', '''Ptolemaic system''') adalah istilah [[astronomi]] yang menggambarkan alam semesta dengan [[bumi]] sebagai pusatnya dan pusat pergerakan semua benda-benda langit. Model ini menjadi sistem kosmologi predominan pada budaya kuno misalnya |
'''Geosentrisme''' atau disebut '''Teori Geosentrik''', '''Model Geosentrik''' (bahasa Inggris: '''geocentric model''' atau '''geocentrism''', '''Ptolemaic system''') adalah istilah [[astronomi]] yang menggambarkan alam semesta dengan [[bumi]] sebagai pusatnya dan pusat pergerakan semua benda-benda langit. Model ini menjadi sistem kosmologi predominan pada budaya kuno misalnya [[Yunani kuno]], yang meliputi sistem-sistem terkenal yang dikemukakan oleh [[Aristoteles]] dan [[Claudius Ptolemaeus]].<ref name="Lawson2004"/> |
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Dua pengamatan umum mendukung pandangan bahwa Bumi adalah pusat dari alam semesta. Pengamatan pertama adalah bintang-bintang, matahari dan planet-planet |
Dua pengamatan umum mendukung pandangan bahwa Bumi adalah pusat dari alam semesta. Pengamatan pertama adalah bintang-bintang, matahari dan planet-planet tampak berputar mengitari bumi setiap hari, membuat bumi adalah pusat sistem ini. Lebih lanjut, setiap bintang berada pada suatu bulatan stelar atau selestial ("''stellar sphere''" atau "''celestial sphere''"), di mana bumi adalah pusatnya, yang berkeliling setiap hari, di seputar garis yang menghubungkan kutub utara dan selatan sebagai aksisnya. Bintang-bintang yang terdekat dengan [[khatulistiwa]] tampak naik dan turun paling jauh, tetapi setiap bintang kembali ke titik terbitnya setiap hari.{{sfn|Kuhn|1957|pp=5-20}} Observasi umum kedua yang mendukung model geosentrik adalah bumi tampaknya tidak bergerak dari sudut pandang pengamat yang berada di bumi, bahwa bumi itu solid, stabil dan tetap di tempat. Dengan kata lain, benar-benar dalam posisi diam. |
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Model geosentrik biasanya dikombinasi dengan suatu Bumi yang bulat oleh filsuf Romawi kuno dan abad pertengahan. Ini tidak sama dengan pandangan model [[Bumi datar]] yang disiratkan dalam sejumlah [[mitologi]], sebagaimana juga dalah kosmologi kitab-kitab suci dan Latin kuno.{{refn|group=n|Alam semesta Mesir secara isi sama dengan alam semesta Babel, yaitu digambarkan seperti kotak persegi panjang dengan orientasi utara-selatan dan dengn permukaan sedikit cembung, di mana Mesir adalah pusatnya. Pandangan astronomi Ibrani kuno yang serupa dapat dilihat dari tulisan-tulisan kitab suci, misalnya teori penciptaan semesta dan berbagai [[mazmur]] yang menyebut "cakrawala", bintang-bintang, matahari dan bumi. Orang Ibrani memandang bumi seakan-akan sebagai permukaan datar yang terdiri dari bagian padat dan cair, dan langit sebagai alam cahaya di mana benda-benda langit bergerak. Bumi ditopang oleh batu-batu penjuru dan tidak dapat digerakkan selain oleh [[Yahweh]] (misalnya dalam kaitan dengan gempa bumi). Menurut orang Ibrani, matahari dan bulan berjarak dekat satu sama lain<ref>{{cite book |
Model geosentrik biasanya dikombinasi dengan suatu Bumi yang bulat oleh filsuf Romawi kuno dan abad pertengahan. Ini tidak sama dengan pandangan model [[Bumi datar]] yang disiratkan dalam sejumlah [[mitologi]], sebagaimana juga dalah kosmologi kitab-kitab suci dan Latin kuno.{{refn|group=n|Alam semesta Mesir secara isi sama dengan alam semesta Babel, yaitu digambarkan seperti kotak persegi panjang dengan orientasi utara-selatan dan dengn permukaan sedikit cembung, di mana Mesir adalah pusatnya. Pandangan astronomi Ibrani kuno yang serupa dapat dilihat dari tulisan-tulisan kitab suci, misalnya teori penciptaan semesta dan berbagai [[mazmur]] yang menyebut "cakrawala", bintang-bintang, matahari dan bumi. Orang Ibrani memandang bumi seakan-akan sebagai permukaan datar yang terdiri dari bagian padat dan cair, dan langit sebagai alam cahaya di mana benda-benda langit bergerak. Bumi ditopang oleh batu-batu penjuru dan tidak dapat digerakkan selain oleh [[Yahweh]] (misalnya dalam kaitan dengan gempa bumi). Menurut orang Ibrani, matahari dan bulan berjarak dekat satu sama lain<ref>{{cite book|chapter= Cosmology|title= Encyclopedia Americana|publisher= Grolier|edition= Online|year= 2012|first= Giorgio|last= Abetti}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|Gambaran alam semesta dalam teks-teks Talmud adalah bumi di tengah ciptaan dengan langit sebagai bulatan yang dibentangkan di atasnya. Bumi biasanya digambarkan seperti sebuah piring yang dikelilingi oleh air. Yang menarik spekulasi kosmologi dan metafisika tidak ditanamkan dalam publik maupun dilestarikan dalam tulisan. Namun, dianggap lebih sebagai "rahasia-rahasia [[Taurat]] yang tidak seharusnya diturunkan semua orang dan kalangan" (Ketubot 112a). Meskipun studi penciptaan Allah tidak dilarang, spekulasi tentang "apa yang ada di atas, di bawah, yang ada sebelumnya dan yang kemudian" (Mishnah Hagigah: 2) dibatasi hanya untuk elite intelektual.<ref>{{cite book|chapter= Topic Overview: Judaism|title= Encyclopedia of Science and Religion|editor-first=J. Wentzel Vrede|editor-last= van Huyssteen|volume= 2|location= New York|publisher= Macmillan Reference USA|year= 2003|pages= 477–83|first= Hava|last= Tirosh-Samuelson}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|Sebagaimana Midrash dan Talmud, Targum tidak berpandangan adanya suatu bulatan bumi, melainkan suatu piringan bumi datar, yang dikitari matahari dalam jalur setengah lingkaran yang ditempuh rata-rata dalam 12 jam.<ref>{{cite journal |title= The distribution of land and sea on the Earth's surface according to Hebrew sources |first= Solomon |last= Gandz |journal= Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research |volume= 22 |year= 1953 |pages= 23–53}}</ref>}}<!-- The ancient Jewish [[Celestial cartography|uranography]] pictured a flat Earth over which was put a dome-shaped rigid canopy, named firmament (רקיע- rāqîa').{{refn|group=n|"firmament - The division made by God, according to the P account of creation, to restrain the cosmic water and form the sky (Gen. 1: 6-8). Hebrew cosmology pictured a flat earth, over which was a dome-shaped firmament, supported above the earth by mountains, and surrounded by waters. Holes or sluices (windows, Gen. 7: 11) allowed the water to fall as rain. The firmament was the heavens in which God set the sun (Ps. 19: 4) and the stars (Gen. 1: 14) on the fourth day of the creation. There was more water under the earth (Gen. 1: 7) and during the Flood the two great oceans joined up and covered the earth; sheol was at the bottom of the earth (Isa. 14: 9; Num. 16: 30)."<ref>{{cite book |chapter= firmament |title= Dictionary of the Bible |first= W. R. F. |last= Browning |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 1997 |edition= Oxford Reference Online}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|The cosmographical structure assumed by this text is the ancient, traditional flat earth model that was common throughout the Near East and that persisted in Jewish tradition because of its place in the religiously authoritative biblical materials.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Early History Of Heaven |url= https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryheav00wrig_049 |first= J. Edward |last= Wright |publisher= Oxford University Press |year= 2000 |page= [https://archive.org/details/earlyhistoryheav00wrig_049/page/n173 155] |ref={{Harvid|Wright|2000}}}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|“The term "firmament" (רקיע- rāqîa') denotes the atmosphere between the heavenly realm and the earth (Gen. 1:6-7, 20) where the celestial bodies move (Gen. 1:14-17). It can also be used as a synonym for "heaven" (Gen. 1:8; Ps. 19:2). This "firmament is part of the heavenly structure whether it is the equivalent of "heaven/sky" or is what separates it from the earth. […] The ancient Israelites also used more descriptive terms for how God created the celestial realm, and based on the collection of these more specific and illustrative terms, I would propose that they had two basic ideas of the composition of the heavenly realm. First is the idea that the heavenly realm was imagined as a vast cosmic canopy. The verb used to describe metaphorically how God stretched out this canopy over earth is הטנ (nātāh) "stretch out," or "spread." "I made the earth, and created humankind upon it; it was my hands that stretched out the heavens, and I commanded all their host (Isa. 45:12)." In the Bible this verb is used to describe the stretching out (pitching) of a tent. Since the texts that mention the stretching out of the sky are typically drawing on creation imagery, it seems that the figure intends to suggest that the heavens are Yahweh's cosmic tent. One can imagine ancient Israelites gazing up to the stars and comparing the canopy of the sky to the roofs of the tents under which they lived. In fact, if one were to look up at the ceiling of a dark tent with small holes in the roof during the daytime, the roof, with the sunlight shining through the holes, would look very much like the night sky with all its stars. The second image of the material composition of the heavenly realm involves a firm substance. The term רקיע (răqîa'), typically translated "firmament," indicates the expanse above the earth. The root רקע means "stamp out" or "forge." The idea of a solid, forged surface fits well with Ezekiel 1 where God's throne rests upon the רקיע (răqîa'). According to Genesis 1, the רקיע(rāqîa') is the sphere of the celestial bodies (Gen. 1:6-8, 14-17; cf. ben Sira 43:8). It may be that some imagined the עיקר to be a firm substance on which the celestial bodies rode during their daily journeys across the sky.”<ref>{{harvnb|Wright|2000|pp=55–6}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|In the course of the Second Temple Period Jews, and eventually Christians, began to describe the universe in new terms. The model of the universe inherited form the Hebrew Bible and the Ancient Near East of a flat earth completely surrounded by water with a heavenly realm of the gods arching above from horizon to horizon became obsolete. In the past the heavenly realm was for gods only. It was the place where all events on earth were determined by the gods, and their decisions were irrevocable. The gulf between the gods and humans could not have been greater. The evolution of Jewish cosmography in the course of the Second Temple Period followed developments in Hellenistic astronomy.<ref>{{harvnb|Wright|2000|p=201}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|What is described in Genesis 1:1 to 2:3 was the commonly accepted structure of the universe from at least late in the second millennium BCE to the fourth or third century BCE. It represents a coherent model for the experiences of the people of Mesopotamia through that period. It reflects a world-view that made sense of water coming from the sky and the ground as well as the regular apparent movements of the stars, sun, moon, and planets. There is a clear understanding of the restrictions on breeding between different species of animals and of the way in which human beings had gained control over what were, by then, domestic animals. There is also recognition of the ability of humans to change the environment in which they lived. This same understanding occurred also in the great creation stories of Mesopotamia; these stories formed the basis for the Jewish theological reflections of the Hebrew Scriptures concerning the creation of the world. The Jewish priests and theologians who constructed the narrative took accepted ideas about the structure of the world and reflected theologically on them in the light of their experience and faith. There was never any clash between Jewish and Babylonian people about the structure of the world, but only about who was responsible for it and its ultimate theological meaning. The envisaged structure is simple: Earth was seen as being situated in the middle of a great volume of water, with water both above and below Earth. A great dome was thought to be set above Earth (like an inverted glass bowl), maintaining the water above Earth in its place. Earth was pictured as resting on foundations that go down into the deep. These foundations secured the stability of the land as something that is not floating on the water and so could not be tossed about by wind and wave. The waters surrounding Earth were thought to have been gathered together in their place. The stars, sun, moon, and planets moved in their allotted paths across the great dome above Earth, with their movements defining the months, seasons, and year.<ref>{{cite book |chapter= Biblical Geology |title= Encyclopedia of Geology |editor1-first= Richard C. |editor1-last= Selley |editor2-first= L. Robin M. |editor2-last= Cocks |editor3-first= Ian R. |editor3-last= Plimer |volume= 1 |location= Amsterdam |publisher= Elsevier |year= 2005 |page= 253 |via= Gale Virtual Reference Library |accessdate= 2012-09-15}}</ref>}}{{refn|group=n|From Myth to Cosmos: The earliest speculations about the origin and nature of the world took the form of religious myths. Almost all ancient cultures developed cosmological stories to explain the basic features of the cosmos: Earth and its inhabitants, sky, sea, sun, moon, and stars. For example, for the Babylonians, the creation of the universe was seen as born from a primeval pair of human-like gods. In early Egyptian cosmology, eclipses were explained as the moon being swallowed temporarily by a sow or as the sun being attacked by a serpent. For the early Hebrews, whose account is preserved in the biblical book of Genesis, a single God created the universe in stages within the relatively recent past. Such pre-scientific cosmologies tended to assume a flat Earth, a finite past, ongoing active interference by deities or spirits in the cosmic order, and stars and planets (visible to the naked eye only as points of light) that were different in nature from Earth.<ref>{{cite book |last= Applebaum |first= Wilbur |chapter= Astronomy and Cosmology: Cosmology |title= Scientific Thought: In Context |editor1-first= K. Lee |editor1-last=Lerner |editor2-first= Brenda Wilmoth |editor2-last= Lerner |volume= 1 |location= Detroit |publisher= Gale |year= 2009 |pages= 20–31 |via= Gale Virtual Reference Library |accessdate= 2012-09-15}}</ref>}} |
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However, the ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were circular and not elliptical, a view that was not challenged in [[Western culture]] until the 17th century through the synthesis of theories by [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. |
However, the ancient Greeks believed that the motions of the planets were circular and not elliptical, a view that was not challenged in [[Western culture]] until the 17th century through the synthesis of theories by [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. |
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The astronomical predictions of Ptolemy's geocentric model were used to prepare astrological charts for over 1500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the [[early modern]] age, but from the late 16th century onward was gradually [[Superseded scientific theories#Superseded astronomical and cosmological theories|superseded]] by the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. However, the transition between these two theories met much resistance, not only from Christian theologians, who were reluctant to reject a theory that was in agreement with Bible passages (e.g. "Sun, stand you still upon Gibeon", Joshua 10:12 - King James 2000 Bible), but also from those who saw geocentrism as an accepted consensus that could not be subverted by a new, unknown theory. |
The astronomical predictions of Ptolemy's geocentric model were used to prepare astrological charts for over 1500 years. The geocentric model held sway into the [[early modern]] age, but from the late 16th century onward was gradually [[Superseded scientific theories#Superseded astronomical and cosmological theories|superseded]] by the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. However, the transition between these two theories met much resistance, not only from Christian theologians, who were reluctant to reject a theory that was in agreement with Bible passages (e.g. "Sun, stand you still upon Gibeon", Joshua 10:12 - King James 2000 Bible), but also from those who saw geocentrism as an accepted consensus that could not be subverted by a new, unknown theory. |
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== Yunani kuno == |
== Yunani kuno == |
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[[Berkas:Persectives of Anaximander's universe.png|jmpl|ka|350px|Illustrasi model alam semesta dari Anaximander. Sebelah kiri: siang hari pada musim panas; sebelah kanan: malam hari pada musim dingin.]] |
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Teori atau model Geosentrik memasuki [[astronomi]] dan [[filsafat]] Yunani sejak dini; dapat ditelusuri pada peninggalan filsafat sebelum zaman [[Sokrates]]. Pada abad ke-6 SM, [[Anaximander]] mengemukakan suatu kosmologi dengan bumi berbentuk seperti potongan suatu tiang (sebuah tabung), berada di awang-awang di pusat segala sesuatu. Matahari, Bulan, and planet-planet adalah lubang-lubang dalam roda-roda yang tidak kelihatan yang mengelilingi bumi; melalui lubang-lubang ini manusia dapat melihat api yang tersembunyi. Pada waktu yang sama, para pengikut [[Pythagoras]], yang disebut kelompok [[Pythagorean]], berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah suatu bola (menurut pengamatan gerhana-gerhana), tetapi bukan sebagai pusat, melainkan bergerak mengelilingi suatu api yang tidak |
Teori atau model Geosentrik memasuki [[astronomi]] dan [[filsafat]] Yunani sejak dini; dapat ditelusuri pada peninggalan filsafat sebelum zaman [[Sokrates]]. Pada abad ke-6 SM, [[Anaximander]] mengemukakan suatu kosmologi dengan bumi berbentuk seperti potongan suatu tiang (sebuah tabung), berada di awang-awang di pusat segala sesuatu. Matahari, Bulan, and planet-planet adalah lubang-lubang dalam roda-roda yang tidak kelihatan yang mengelilingi bumi; melalui lubang-lubang ini manusia dapat melihat api yang tersembunyi. Pada waktu yang sama, para pengikut [[Pythagoras]], yang disebut kelompok [[Pythagorean]], berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah suatu bola (menurut pengamatan gerhana-gerhana), tetapi bukan sebagai pusat, melainkan bergerak mengelilingi suatu api yang tidak tampak. Kemudian pandangan-pandangan ini digabungkan, sehingga kalangan terpelajar Yunani sejak dari abad ke-4 SM berpikir bahwa bumi adalah bola yang menjadi pusat alam semesta.<ref name="Fraser2006"/> |
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In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers, [[Plato]] and his student [[Aristotle]], wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on [[Celestial spheres|spheres or circles]], arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, |
In the 4th century BC, two influential Greek philosophers, [[Plato]] and his student [[Aristotle]], wrote works based on the geocentric model. According to Plato, the Earth was a sphere, stationary at the center of the universe. The stars and planets were carried around the Earth on [[Celestial spheres|spheres or circles]], arranged in the order (outwards from the center): Moon, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Mars, Yupiter, Saturn, fixed stars, with the fixed stars located on the celestial sphere. In his "[[Myth of Er]]", a section of the ''[[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]'', Plato describes the cosmos as the [[Spindle of Necessity]], attended by the [[Siren (mythology)|Siren]]s and turned by the three [[Moirai|Fates]]. [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]], who worked with Plato, developed a less mythical, more mathematical explanation of the planets' motion based on Plato's [[dictum]] stating that all [[phenomena]] in the heavens can be explained with uniform circular motion. Aristotle elaborated on Eudoxus' system. |
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In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–56 transparent concentric spheres which rotate around the Earth. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the rotation of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called [[Aether (classical element)|aether]]. Aristotle believed that the moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots ([[Macula (planetary geology)|macula]]) and the ability to go through [[lunar phases]]. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, where the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They, themselves, were also entirely composed of aether. |
In the fully developed Aristotelian system, the spherical Earth is at the center of the universe, and all other heavenly bodies are attached to 47–56 transparent concentric spheres which rotate around the Earth. (The number is so high because several spheres are needed for each planet.) These spheres, known as crystalline spheres, all moved at different uniform speeds to create the rotation of bodies around the Earth. They were composed of an incorruptible substance called [[Aether (classical element)|aether]]. Aristotle believed that the moon was in the innermost sphere and therefore touches the realm of Earth, causing the dark spots ([[Macula (planetary geology)|macula]]) and the ability to go through [[lunar phases]]. He further described his system by explaining the natural tendencies of the terrestrial elements: earth, water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether. His system held that earth was the heaviest element, with the strongest movement towards the center, thus water formed a layer surrounding the sphere of earth. The tendency of air and fire, on the other hand, was to move upwards, away from the center, with fire being lighter than air. Beyond the layer of fire, where the solid spheres of aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They, themselves, were also entirely composed of aether. |
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Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to stellar [[parallax]]. In short, if the earth was moving, the shapes of the [[constellation]]s should change considerably over the course of a year. If they did not appear to move, the stars are either much further away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or in reality they are not moving at all. Because the stars were actually much further away than Greek astronomers postulated (making movement extremely subtle), stellar parallax was not detected until the 19th century. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. The lack of any observable parallax was considered a fatal flaw in any non-geocentric theory. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. In reality, that is because the loss of light caused by Venus' phases compensates for the increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth. Objections to heliocentrism utilized the natural tendency of terrestrial bodies to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the earth, and barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture. |
Adherence to the geocentric model stemmed largely from several important observations. First of all, if the Earth did move, then one ought to be able to observe the shifting of the fixed stars due to stellar [[parallax]]. In short, if the earth was moving, the shapes of the [[constellation]]s should change considerably over the course of a year. If they did not appear to move, the stars are either much further away than the Sun and the planets than previously conceived, making their motion undetectable, or in reality they are not moving at all. Because the stars were actually much further away than Greek astronomers postulated (making movement extremely subtle), stellar parallax was not detected until the 19th century. Therefore, the Greeks chose the simpler of the two explanations. The lack of any observable parallax was considered a fatal flaw in any non-geocentric theory. Another observation used in favor of the geocentric model at the time was the apparent consistency of Venus' luminosity, which implies that it is usually about the same distance from Earth, which in turn is more consistent with geocentrism than heliocentrism. In reality, that is because the loss of light caused by Venus' phases compensates for the increase in apparent size caused by its varying distance from Earth. Objections to heliocentrism utilized the natural tendency of terrestrial bodies to come to rest as near as possible to the center of the earth, and barring the opportunity to fall closer the center, not to move unless forced by an outside object, or transformed to a different element by heat or moisture. |
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Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance.<ref name= |
Atmospheric explanations for many phenomena were preferred because the Eudoxan–Aristotelian model based on perfectly concentric spheres was not intended to explain changes in the brightness of the planets due to a change in distance.<ref name="Hetherington2006">{{cite book |last= Hetherington |first= Norriss S. |title= Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective |url= https://archive.org/details/planetarymotions00heth |year= 2006 |page= [https://archive.org/details/planetarymotions00heth/page/n44 28]}}</ref> Eventually, perfectly concentric spheres were abandoned as it wasn't possible to develop a sufficiently accurate model under that ideal. However, while providing for similar explanations, the later [[deferent and epicycle]] model proved to be flexible enough to accommodate observations for many centuries. |
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== Model Ptolemaik == |
== Model Ptolemaik == |
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Meskipun prinsip dasar geosentrisme Yunani sudah tersusun pada zaman [[Aristoteles]], detail sistem ini belum menjadi standar. '''Sistem Ptolemaik''', yang diutarakan oleh |
Meskipun prinsip dasar geosentrisme Yunani sudah tersusun pada zaman [[Aristoteles]], detail sistem ini belum menjadi standar. '''Sistem Ptolemaik''', yang diutarakan oleh astronomor Helenistik Mesir [[Claudius Ptolemaeus]] pada abad ke- 2 M akhirnya berhasil menjadi standar. Karya astronomi utamanya, ''[[Almagest]]'', merupakan puncak karya-karya selama berabad-abad-abad oleh para astronom Yunani kuno, Helenistik dan Babilonia; karya itu diterima selama lebih dari satu milenium sebagai model kosmologi yang benar oleh para astronom [[Eropa]] dan [[Islam]]. Karena begitu kuat pengaruhnya, sistem Ptolemaik kadang kala dianggap sama dengan '''model geosentrik'''. |
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Ptolemy berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah pusat alam semesta berdasarkan pengamatan sederhana yaitu setengah jumlah bintang-bintang terletak di atas horizon dan setengahnya di bawah horizon pada waktu manapun (bintang-bintang pada bulatan orbitnya), dan anggapan bahwa bintang–bintang semuanya terletak pada suatu jarak tertentu dari pusat semesta. Jika bumi terletak cukup jauh dari pusat semesta, maka pembagian bintang-bintang yang tampak dan tidak tampak tidaklah akan sama. l.{{refn|group=n|Argumen ini ditulis pada iBuku I, Bab 5, ''Almagest''.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowe|1990|pp=60–2}}</ref>}} |
Ptolemy berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah pusat alam semesta berdasarkan pengamatan sederhana yaitu setengah jumlah bintang-bintang terletak di atas horizon dan setengahnya di bawah horizon pada waktu manapun (bintang-bintang pada bulatan orbitnya), dan anggapan bahwa bintang–bintang semuanya terletak pada suatu jarak tertentu dari pusat semesta. Jika bumi terletak cukup jauh dari pusat semesta, maka pembagian bintang-bintang yang tampak dan tidak tampak tidaklah akan sama. l.{{refn|group=n|Argumen ini ditulis pada iBuku I, Bab 5, ''Almagest''.<ref>{{harvnb|Crowe|1990|pp=60–2}}</ref>}} |
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=== Sistem Ptolemaik === |
=== Sistem Ptolemaik === |
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[[Berkas:Ptolemaic elements.svg|250px|ka|jmpl|Elemen-elemen dasar astronomi Ptolemaik, menunjukkan sebuah planet pada suatu [[epicycle]] dengan sebuah deferen eksentrik dan sebuah titik [[equant]].]] |
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[[Berkas:1550 SACROBOSCO Tractatus de Sphaera - (16) Ex Libris rare - Mario Taddei.JPG|ka|jmpl|Halaman-halaman dari ''Annotazione'' pada karya Sacrobosco ''Tractatus de Sphaera'' (1550), menggambarkan Sistem Ptolemaik.]] |
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Dalam Sistem Ptolemaik, setiap planet digerakkan oleh suatu sistem yang memuat dua bola atau lebih: satu disebut "deferent" yang lain "epicycle" . |
Dalam Sistem Ptolemaik, setiap planet digerakkan oleh suatu sistem yang memuat dua bola atau lebih: satu disebut "deferent" yang lain "epicycle" . |
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Baris 40: | Baris 41: | ||
Sekalipun model geosentrik digantikan oleh model heliosentrik. Namun, model deferent dan epicycle tetap dipakai karena menghasilkan prediksi yang akurat dan lebih sesuai dengan pengamatan dibanding sistem-sistem lain. ''Epicycle'' Venus dan Mercurius selalu berpusat pada suatu garis antara Bumi dan Matahari (Merkurius lebih dekat ke Bumi), yang menjelaskan mengapa kedua planet itu selalu dekat di langit. Model ini digantikan oleh model eliptik Kepler hanya ketika metode pengamatan (yang dikembangkan oleh [[Tycho Brahe]] dan lain-lain) menjadi cukup akurat untuk meragukan model epicycle. |
Sekalipun model geosentrik digantikan oleh model heliosentrik. Namun, model deferent dan epicycle tetap dipakai karena menghasilkan prediksi yang akurat dan lebih sesuai dengan pengamatan dibanding sistem-sistem lain. ''Epicycle'' Venus dan Mercurius selalu berpusat pada suatu garis antara Bumi dan Matahari (Merkurius lebih dekat ke Bumi), yang menjelaskan mengapa kedua planet itu selalu dekat di langit. Model ini digantikan oleh model eliptik Kepler hanya ketika metode pengamatan (yang dikembangkan oleh [[Tycho Brahe]] dan lain-lain) menjadi cukup akurat untuk meragukan model epicycle. |
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Urutan lingkaran-lingkaran orbit dari bumi ke luar adalah:<ref name= |
Urutan lingkaran-lingkaran orbit dari bumi ke luar adalah:<ref name="Goldstein1967"/> |
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#[[Bulan]] |
# [[Bulan]] |
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#[[Merkurius]] |
# [[Merkurius]] |
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#[[Venus]] |
# [[Venus]] |
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#[[Matahari]] |
# [[Matahari]] |
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#[[Mars]] |
# [[Mars]] |
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#[[ |
# [[Yupiter]] |
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#[[Saturnus]] |
# [[Saturnus]] |
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#Bintang-bintang tetap |
# Bintang-bintang tetap |
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#''[[Primum Mobile]]'' ("Yang pertama bergerak"). |
# ''[[Primum Mobile]]'' ("Yang pertama bergerak"). |
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Urutan ini tidak diciptakan atau merupakan hasil karya Ptolemaeus, melainkan diselaraskan dengan kosmologi agamawi "Tujuh Langit" yang umum ditemui pada tradisi agamawi Eurasia utama. |
Urutan ini tidak diciptakan atau merupakan hasil karya Ptolemaeus, melainkan diselaraskan dengan kosmologi agamawi "Tujuh Langit" yang umum ditemui pada tradisi agamawi Eurasia utama. |
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{{Main|Maragheh observatory|Astronom dalam Islam abad pertengahan|Kosmologi Islam}} |
{{Main|Maragheh observatory|Astronom dalam Islam abad pertengahan|Kosmologi Islam}} |
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Dikarenakan dominansi ilmiah sistem Ptolemaik dalam astronomi Islam, para astronom Muslim menerima bulat model geosentrik.{{refn|group=n|"Semua astronom Islam dari Thabit ibn Qurra pada abad ke-9 sampai Ibn al-Shatir pada abad ke-14, dan semua filsuf alamiah dari al-Kindi sampai Averroes dan seterusnya, diketahui telah |
Dikarenakan dominansi ilmiah sistem Ptolemaik dalam astronomi Islam, para astronom Muslim menerima bulat model geosentrik.{{refn|group=n|"Semua astronom Islam dari Thabit ibn Qurra pada abad ke-9 sampai Ibn al-Shatir pada abad ke-14, dan semua filsuf alamiah dari al-Kindi sampai Averroes dan seterusnya, diketahui telah menerima ... gambaran dunia menurut budaya Yunani yang terdiri dari dua bulatan, di mana salah satunya, bulatan selestial ... secara bulat membungkus yang lain."<ref>{{cite journal |first= A. I. |last= Sabra |title= Configuring the universe: Aporetic, problem solving, and kinematic modeling as themes of Arabic astronomy |journal= Perspectives on Science |volume= 6 |issue= 3 |year= 1998 |pages= 317–8}}</ref>}} |
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Pada abad ke-12, [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī|Arzachel]] meninggalkan ide Yunani kuno "pergerakan melingkar uniform" (''[[uniform circular motion]]'') dengan membuat hipotesis bahwa planet [[Merkurius]] bergerak dalam orbit eliptik,<ref name="Rufus1939">{{Cite journal |title= The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_popular-astronomy_1939-05_47_5/page/233 |last= Rufus |first= W. C. |journal= Popular Astronomy |volume= 47 |issue= 5 |date=May 1939 |pages= 233–8}}</ref><ref name="Hartner1955">{{cite journal |first= Willy |last= Hartner |title= The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice |url= https://archive.org/details/sim_vistas-in-astronomy_1955_1/page/118 |journal= Vistas in Astronomy |volume= 1 |year= 1955 |pages= 118–22}}</ref> sedangkan [[Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji|Alpetragius]] mengusulkan model planetari yang meninggalkan [[equant]], mekanisme epicycle dan eksentrik,<ref name="Goldstein1972"/> meskipun ini menghasilkan suatu sistem yang lebih kurang akurat secara matematik.<ref name="Gale">{{Cite book|chapter= Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School|title= Science and Its Times|publisher= [[Thomson Gale]]|year= 2006}}</ref> [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1149–1209), sehubungan dengan konsepsi fisika dan dunia fisika dalam karyanya ''Matalib'', menolak pandangan Aristotelian dan Avicennian bahwa Bumi berada di pusat alam semesta, melainkan berpendapat bahwa ada "ribuan-ribuan dunia (''alfa alfi 'awalim'') di luar dunia ini sedemikian sehingga setiap dunia ini lebih besar dan masif dari dunia ini serta serupa dengan dunia ini." Untuk mendukung argumen teologinya, ia mengutip dari [[Al Quran]], "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," menekankan istilah "Worlds" (''dunia-dunia'').<ref name="Setia2004"/> |
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The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]] and continuing with astronomers from the [[Umayyad Mosque|Damascus mosque]] and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatory]]. Like their [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the [[equant]] problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an [[epicycle]] was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.<ref name="Saliba1994">{{cite book |last= Saliba |first= George |authorlink= George Saliba |year= 1994 |title= A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam |url= https://archive.org/details/historyofarabica0000sali |pages= [https://archive.org/details/historyofarabica0000sali/page/233 233]–234, 240 |publisher= [[New York University Press]] |isbn= 0814780237}}</ref> The most important of the Maragha astronomers included [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (d. 1266), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201–1274), [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), [[Ali Qushji]] (c. 1474), [[Al-Birjandi]] (d. 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).<ref name="Dallal1999">{{cite book |first= Ahmad |last= Dallal |year= 1999 |chapter= Science, Medicine and Technology |title= The Oxford History of Islam |url= https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john |page= [https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofi00john/page/171 171] |editor-first= John |editor-last= Esposito |editor-link= John Esposito |location= New York |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> [[Ibn al-Shatir]], the Damascene astronomer (1304–1375 AD) working at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], wrote a major book entitled ''Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usul'' (''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'') on a theory which departs largely from the Ptolemaic system known at that time. In his book, "Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab astronomer of the fourteenth century," E. S. Kennedy wrote "what is of most interest, however, is that Ibn al-Shatir's lunar theory, except for trivial differences in parameters, is identical with that of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] (1473–1543 AD)." The discovery that the models of Ibn al-Shatir are mathematically identical to those of Copernicus suggests the possible transmission of these models to Europe.<ref name="Guessoun2008">{{cite journal |last= Guessoum |first= N. |date=June 2008 |title= Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: Does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots? |journal= The Observatory |volume= 128 |pages= 231–9}}</ref> At the Maragha and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatories]], the [[Earth's rotation]] was discussed by al-Tusi and [[Ali Qushji]] (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.<ref name="Ragep2001a">{{Cite journal |last= Ragep |first= F. Jamil |year= 2001 |title= Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context |journal= Science in Context |volume= 14 |issue= 1-2 |pages= 145–163 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> |
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In the 12th century, [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī|Arzachel]] departed from the ancient Greek idea of [[uniform circular motion]]s by hypothesizing that the planet [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] moves in an [[elliptic orbit]],<ref name= "Rufus1939"/><ref name= "Hartner1955"/> while [[Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji|Alpetragius]] proposed a planetary model that abandoned the [[equant]], [[Deferent and epicycle|epicycle and eccentric]] mechanisms,<ref name= "Goldstein1972"/> though this resulted in a system that was mathematically less accurate.<ref name= "Gale"/> [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1149–1209), in dealing with his [[Physics in medieval Islam|conception of physics]] and the physical world in his ''Matalib'', rejects the [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and [[Avicennism|Avicennian]] notion of the Earth's centrality within the universe, but instead argues that there are "a thousand thousand worlds (''alfa alfi 'awalim'') beyond this world such that each one of those worlds be bigger and more massive than this world as well as having the like of what this world has." To support his [[Islamic theology|theological argument]], he cites the [[Qur'an]]ic verse, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," emphasizing the term "Worlds."<ref name= "Setia2004"/> |
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<ref name="Ragep2001b">{{Cite journal |last= Ragep |first= F. Jamil |year= 2001 |title= Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science |journal= Osiris |series= 2nd Series |volume= 16 |issue= Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions |pages= 49–64, 66–71 |doi=10.1086/649338}}</ref> |
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However, the Maragha school never made the [[paradigm shift]] to heliocentrism.<ref name="Huff2003"/> The influence of the Maragha school on [[Copernicus]] remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.<ref name="Huff2003">{{cite book |last= Huff |first= Toby E. |title= The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West |year= 2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9780521529945 |page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=DA3fkX5wQMUC&pg=PA58 58]}}</ref><ref name="KirmaniSingh2005">{{cite book |last1= Kirmani |first1= M. Zaki |last2= Singh |first2= Nagendra Kr |title= Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H |year= 2005 |publisher= Global Vision | isbn=9788182200586}}</ref> |
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The "Maragha Revolution" refers to the Maragha school's revolution against Ptolemaic astronomy. The "Maragha school" was an astronomical tradition beginning in the [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]] and continuing with astronomers from the [[Umayyad Mosque|Damascus mosque]] and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatory]]. Like their [[Al-Andalus|Andalusian]] predecessors, the Maragha astronomers attempted to solve the [[equant]] problem (the circle around whose circumference a planet or the center of an [[epicycle]] was conceived to move uniformly) and produce alternative configurations to the Ptolemaic model without abandoning geocentrism. They were more successful than their Andalusian predecessors in producing non-Ptolemaic configurations which eliminated the equant and eccentrics, were more accurate than the Ptolemaic model in numerically predicting planetary positions, and were in better agreement with empirical observations.<ref name= "Saliba1994"/> The most important of the Maragha astronomers included [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]] (d. 1266), [[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī]] (1201–1274), [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi]] (1236–1311), [[Ibn al-Shatir]] (1304–1375), [[Ali Qushji]] (c. 1474), [[Al-Birjandi]] (d. 1525), and Shams al-Din al-Khafri (d. 1550).<ref name= "Dallal1999"/> [[Ibn al-Shatir]], the Damascene astronomer (1304–1375 AD) working at the [[Umayyad Mosque]], wrote a major book entitled ''Kitab Nihayat al-Sul fi Tashih al-Usul'' (''A Final Inquiry Concerning the Rectification of Planetary Theory'') on a theory which departs largely from the Ptolemaic system known at that time. In his book, "Ibn al-Shatir, an Arab astronomer of the fourteenth century," E. S. Kennedy wrote "what is of most interest, however, is that Ibn al-Shatir's lunar theory, except for trivial differences in parameters, is identical with that of [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] (1473–1543 AD)." The discovery that the models of Ibn al-Shatir are mathematically identical to those of Copernicus suggests the possible transmission of these models to Europe.<ref name= "Guessoun2008"/> At the Maragha and [[Ulugh Beg Observatory|Samarkand observatories]], the [[Earth's rotation]] was discussed by al-Tusi and [[Ali Qushji]] (b. 1403); the arguments and evidence they used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion.<ref name= "Ragep2001a"/><ref name= "Ragep2001b"/> |
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However, the Maragha school never made the [[paradigm shift]] to heliocentrism.<ref name="Huff2003"/> The influence of the Maragha school on [[Copernicus]] remains speculative, since there is no documentary evidence to prove it. The possibility that Copernicus independently developed the Tusi couple remains open, since no researcher has yet demonstrated that he knew about Tusi's work or that of the Maragha school.<ref name="Huff2003" /><ref name="KirmaniSingh2005"/> |
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== Geosentrisme dan sistem-sistem saingan == |
== Geosentrisme dan sistem-sistem saingan == |
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[[Berkas:Geocentrism.jpg|ka|jmpl|Lukisan dari suatu naskah dari [[Islandia]] bertarikh sekitar tahun 1750 menggambarkan model geosentrik.]] |
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Tidak semua orang Yunani setuju dengan model geosentrik. Sistem Pythagorean yang sudah disinggung sebelumnya meyakini bahwa Bumi merupakan salah satu dari beberapa planet yang bergerak mengelilingi suatu api di tengah-tengah.<ref name="JohansenRosenmeier1998"/> [[Hicetas]] dan [[Ecphantus]], dua penganut Pythagorean dari abad ke-5 SM, dan [[Heraclides Ponticus]] dari abad ke-4 SM, percaya bahwa Bumi berputar mengelilingi aksisnya, tetapi tetap berada di tengah alam semesta.<ref name="Sarton1953"/> Sistem semacam itu masih tergolong geosentrik. Pandangan ini dibangkitkan kembali pada [[Abad Pertengahan]] oleh [[Jean Buridan]]. Heraclides Ponticus suatu ketika dianggap berpandangan bahwa baik Venus maupun Merkurius mengelilingi Matahari, bukan Bumi, tetapi anggapan ini tidak lagi diterima.<ref name="Eastwood1992"/> [[Martianus Capella]] secara definitif menempatkan Merkurius dan Venus pada suatu orbit mengitari Matahari.<ref name="Lindberg2010"/> [[Aristarchus dari Samos]] adalah yang paling radikal, dengan menulis dalam karyanya (yang tidak lagi terlestarikan) mengenai [[heliosentrisme]], bahwa Matahari adalah pusat alam semesta, sedangkan Bumi dan planet-planet lain mengitarinya.<ref>{{harvnb|Lawson|2004|page= 19}}</ref> Teorinya tidak populer pada masanya, dan ia mempunyai satu pengikut yang bernama, [[Seleucus of Seleucia]].<ref name="Russell1945"/> |
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Tidak semua orang Yunani setuju dengan model geosentrik. Sistem Pythagorean yang sudah disinggung sebelumnya meyakini bahwa Bumi merupakan salah satu dari beberapa planet yang bergerak mengelilingi suatu api di tengah-tengah.<ref name= "JohansenRosenmeier1998"/> [[Hicetas]] dan [[Ecphantus]], dua penganut Pythagorean dari abad ke-5 SM, dan [[Heraclides Ponticus]] dari abad ke-4 SM, percaya bahwa Bumi berputra mengelilingi aksisnya, tetapi tetap berada di tengah alam semesta.<ref name= "Sarton1953"/> Sistem semacam itu masih tergolong geosentrik. Pandangan ini dibangkitkan kembali pada [[Abad Pertengahan]] oleh [[Jean Buridan]]. Heraclides Ponticus suatu ketika dianggap berpandangan bahwa baik Venus maupun Merkurius mengelilingi Matahari, bukan Bumi, tetapi anggapan ini tidak lagi diterima.<ref name= "Eastwood1992"/> [[Martianus Capella]] secara definitif menempatkan Merkurius dan Venus pada suatu orbit mengitari Matahari.<ref name="Lindberg2010"/> [[Aristarchus dari Samos]] adalah yang paling radikal, dengan menulis dalam karyanya (yang tidak lagi terlestarikan) mengenai [[heliosentrisme]], bahwa Matahari adalah pusat alam semesta, sedangkan Bumi dan planet-planet lain mengitarinya.<ref>{{harvnb|Lawson|2004|page= 19}}</ref> Teorinya tidak populer pada masanya, dan ia mempunyai satu pengikut yang bernama, [[Seleucus of Seleucia]].<ref name= "Russell1945"/> |
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=== Sistem Kopernikan === |
=== Sistem Kopernikan === |
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{{Main|Copernican heliocentrism}} |
{{Main|Copernican heliocentrism}} |
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In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of [[Copernicus|Copernicus']] ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres''), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both [[natural philosophy]] and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until [[Johannes Kepler]] postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion#First Law|first law of planetary motion]]). |
In 1543, the geocentric system met its first serious challenge with the publication of [[Copernicus|Copernicus']] ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres''), which posited that the Earth and the other planets instead revolved around the Sun. The geocentric system was still held for many years afterwards, as at the time the Copernican system did not offer better predictions than the geocentric system, and it posed problems for both [[natural philosophy]] and scripture. The Copernican system was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, because it still used circular orbits. This was not altered until [[Johannes Kepler]] postulated that they were elliptical (Kepler's [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion#First Law|first law of planetary motion]]). |
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Dengan penemuan [[teleskop]] pada tahun 1609, pengamatan yang dilakukan oleh [[Galileo Galilei]] (antara lain bahwa [[Yupiter]] memiliki sejumlah bulan) mempertanyakan sejumlah prinsip geosentrisme tetapi tidak secara serius mengancamnya. Karena ia mengamati adanya "titik-titik" gelap pada Bulan, kawah-kawah, ia berkomentar bahwa Bulan bukanlah benda langit sempurna sebagaimana anggapan sebelumnya. Ini pertama kalinya orang dapat melihat cacat pada suatu benda langit yang dianggap terbuat dari [[aether]] yang sempurna. Sedemikian, karena cacatnya bulan sekarang dapat dikaitkan dengan apa yang dilihat di Bumi, orang dapat berargumen bahwa keduanya tidak unik, melainkan terbuat dari bahan yang serupa. Galileo juga dapat melihat bulan-bulan yang mengitari Yupiter, yang didedikasikannya kepada [[Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Cosimo II de' Medici]], dan menyatakan bahwa bulan-bulan itu mengorbit Yupiter, bukan Bumi.<ref name="Finocchiaro2008">{{cite book|last= Finocchiaro|first= Maurice A.|title= The Essential Galileo|url= https://archive.org/details/essentialgalileo00gali|location= Indianapolis, IL|publisher= Hackett|year= 2008|page= [https://archive.org/details/essentialgalileo00gali/page/n59 49]}}</ref> Ini merupakan klaim signifikan karena jika benar, berarti tidak semua benda langit mengitari Bumi, menghancurkan kepercayaan teologi dan ilmiah yang dianut sebelumnya. Namun, teori-teori Galileo yang menantang geosentrisme alam semesta dibungkam oleh pihak gereja dan sikap skeptik umum terhadap sistem yang tidak menempatkan Bumi di pusat semesta, mempertahankan pikiran dan sistem Ptolemaeus dan Aristoteles. |
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[[Berkas:Phases-of-Venus.svg|jmpl|Fase-fase planet Venus]] |
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With the invention of the [[telescope]] in 1609, observations made by [[Galileo Galilei]] (such as that [[Jupiter]] has moons) called into question some of the tenets of geocentrism but did not seriously threaten it. Because he observed dark "spots" on the moon, craters, he remarked that the moon was not a perfect celestial body as had been previously conceived. This was the first time someone could see imperfections on a celestial body that was supposed to be composed of perfect [[aether (classical element)|aether]]. As such, because the moon's imperfections could now be related to those seen on Earth, one could argue that neither was unique: rather, they were both just celestial bodies made from earthlike material. Galileo could also see the moons of Jupiter, which he dedicated to [[Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Cosimo II de' Medici]], and stated that they orbited around Jupiter, not Earth.<ref name= "Finocchiaro2008"/> This was a significant claim because if true, it would mean that not everything revolved around Earth, shattering previously held theological and scientific belief. As such, Galileo's theories challenging the geocentrism of our universe were silenced by the Church and general skepticism towards any system that did not place Earth at its center, preserving the thoughts and systems of Ptolemy and Aristotle. |
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Pada bulan Desember 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] menggunakan teleskopnya untuk mengamati semua fase planet [[Venus]], sebagaimana fase-fase Bulan. Ia berpikir bahwa pengamatan ini tidak kompatibel dengan sistem Ptolemaik, tetapi merupakan konsekuensi alamiah dari sistem heliosentrik system. |
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Ptolemaeus menempatkan [[deferent]] dan [[epicycle]] Venus seluruhnya di dalam bulatan Matahari (antara Matahari dan Merkurius), tetapi ini hanya sekadar penempatan; dapat saja tempat Venus dan Merkurius ditukar, selama mereka selalu berada pada satu garis yang menghubungkan Bumi ke Matahari, seperti penempatan pusat epicycle Venus dekat dengan Matahari. Dalam kasus ini, jika Matahari menjadi sumber semua cahaya, di bawah sistem Ptolemaik: |
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[[File:Phases-of-Venus.svg|thumb|Phases of Venus]] |
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{{quote|Jika Venus berada di antara Bumi dan Matahari, fase Venus seharusnya selalu berbentuk sabit atau seluruhnya gelap. |
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In December 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] used his telescope to observe that [[Venus]] showed all [[Phases of Venus|phase]]s, just [[lunar phase|like the Moon]]. He thought that while this observation was incompatible with the Ptolemaic system, it was a natural consequence of the heliocentric system. |
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Jika Venus berada di balik Matahari, fase Venus seharusnya selalu hampir penuh (''[[gibbous]]'') atau purnama.}} |
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However, Ptolemy placed Venus' [[deferent]] and [[epicycle]] entirely inside the sphere of the Sun (between the Sun and Mercury), but this was arbitrary; he could just as easily have swapped Venus and Mercury and put them on the other side of the Sun, or made any other arrangement of Venus and Mercury, as long as they were always near a line running from the Earth through the Sun, such as placing the center of the Venus epicycle near the Sun. In this case, if the Sun is the source of all the light, under the Ptolemaic system: |
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Namun Galileo melihat Venus mulanya kecil dan purnama, kemudian besar dan bayangannya berbentuk sabit. |
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{{quote|If Venus is between Earth and the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be [[crescent]] or all dark. |
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[[Berkas:Tychonian system.svg|jmpl|ka|250px|Gambaran Sistem Tychonik: benda-benda langit pada orbit berwarna biru (bulan dan matahari) mengitari bumi. Benda-benda pada orbit jingga (Merkurius, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, dan Saturnus) mengitari matahari. Semua dikelilingi oleh suatu bulatan bintang-bintang yang juga berputar.]] |
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If Venus is beyond the Sun, the phase of Venus must always be [[gibbous]] or full.}} |
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But Galileo saw Venus at first small and full, and later large and crescent. |
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[[Image:Tychonian system.svg|thumb|right|250px|Gambaran Sistem Tychonik: benda-benda langit pada orbit berwarna biru (bulan dan matahari) mengitari bumi. Benda-benda pada orbit jingga (Merkurius, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, dan Saturnus) mengitari matahari. Semua dikelilingi oleh suatu bulatan bintang-bintang yang juga berputar.]] |
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Ini menunjukkan bahwa dengan kosmologi Ptolemaik, epicycle Venus tidak dapat sepenuhnya di dalam maupun di luar orbit matahari. Akibatnya, pada sistem Ptolemaik pandangan bahwa epicycle Venus sepenuhnya di dalam matahari ditinggalkan, dan kemudian pada abad ke-17 kompetisi antara kosmologi astronomi berfokus pada variasi [[sistem Tychonik]] yang dikemukakan oleh [[Tycho Brahe]], di mana Bumi masih menjadi pusat alam semesta, dikitari oleh matahari, tetapi semua planet lain berputar mengelilingi matahari sebagi suatu himpunan epicycle masif), atau variasi-variasi Sistem Kopernikan. |
Ini menunjukkan bahwa dengan kosmologi Ptolemaik, epicycle Venus tidak dapat sepenuhnya di dalam maupun di luar orbit matahari. Akibatnya, pada sistem Ptolemaik pandangan bahwa epicycle Venus sepenuhnya di dalam matahari ditinggalkan, dan kemudian pada abad ke-17 kompetisi antara kosmologi astronomi berfokus pada variasi [[sistem Tychonik]] yang dikemukakan oleh [[Tycho Brahe]], di mana Bumi masih menjadi pusat alam semesta, dikitari oleh matahari, tetapi semua planet lain berputar mengelilingi matahari sebagi suatu himpunan epicycle masif), atau variasi-variasi Sistem Kopernikan. |
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== Gravitasi == |
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[[Johannes Kepler]],setelah menganalisis pengamatan akurat [[Tycho Brahe]], menyusun ketiga hukum gerakan planetarinya ([[Hukum Gerakan Planet Kepler|Hukum Gerakan Planet Kepler (''Kepler's laws of planetary motion'')]] pada tahun 1609 dan 1619, berdasarkan pandangan heliosentrik di mana gerakan planet-planet dalam jalur [[eliptik]]. Menggunakan hukum-hukum ini, Kepler merupakan astronom pertama yang dengan sukses meramalkan pergerakan planet Venus (untuk tahun 1631). Transisi dari orbit lingkaran ke jalur planetari eliptik secara dramatis mengubah keakuratan pengamatan dan peramalan selestial. Karena model heliosentrik Copernicus tidak lebih akurat dari sistem Ptolemaeus, pengamatan-pengamatan matematik diperlukan untuk meyakinkan mereka yang masih berpegang pada model geosentrik. Namun, pengamatan yang dibuat oleh Kepler, menggunakan data dari Brahe, menjadi problem yang tidak mudah dipecahkan oleh para penganut geosentrisme. |
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In 1687, [[Isaac Newton]] devised his [[law of universal gravitation]], which introduced gravitation as the force that both kept the Earth and planets moving through the heavens and also kept the air from flying away, allowing scientists to quickly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the solar system. In his ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'', Newton explained his system of how gravity, previously considered to be an occult force, conducted the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our solar system in its working order. His descriptions of centripetal force<ref name="Densmore2004">{{cite book |title= Selections from Newton's Principia |editor-first= Dana |editor-last= Densmore |publisher= Green Lion Press |year= 2004 |page= 12}}</ref> were a breakthrough in scientific thought which used the newly developed [[differential calculus]], and finally replaced the previous schools of scientific thought, i.e. those of Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual. |
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== Gravitation == |
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[[Johannes Kepler]], after analysing [[Tycho Brahe]]'s famously accurate observations, constructed his [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|three laws]] in 1609 and 1619, based on a heliocentric view where the planets move in [[elliptical]] paths. Using these laws, he was the first astronomer to successfully predict a [[Astronomical transit|transit]] of Venus (for the year 1631). The transition from circular orbits to elliptical planetary paths dramatically changed the accuracy of celestial observations and predictions. Because the heliocentric model by Copernicus was no more accurate than Ptolemy's system, new mathematical observations were needed to persuade those who still held on to the geocentric model. However, the observations made by Kepler, using Brahe's data, became a problem not easily overturned for geocentrists. |
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Pada tahun 1838, astronom [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] dengan sukses mengukur [[paralaks]] bintang [[61 Cygni]], membuktikan bahwa Ptolemaeus keliru dalam berpendapat bahwa gerakan paralaks tidak ada. Ini akhirnya menguatkan pernyataan Copernicus dengan pengamatan ilmiah yang akurat dan dapat diandalkan, serta menunjukkan betapa jauhnya bintang-bintang dari bumi. |
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In 1687, [[Isaac Newton]] devised his [[law of universal gravitation]], which introduced gravitation as the force that both kept the Earth and planets moving through the heavens and also kept the air from flying away, allowing scientists to quickly construct a plausible heliocentric model for the solar system. In his ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]'', Newton explained his system of how gravity, previously considered to be an occult force, conducted the movements of celestial bodies, and kept our solar system in its working order. His descriptions of centripetal force<ref name= "Densmore2004"/> were a breakthrough in scientific thought which used the newly developed [[differential calculus]], and finally replaced the previous schools of scientific thought, i.e. those of Aristotle and Ptolemy. However, the process was gradual. |
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Kerangka geosentrik berguna untuk aktivitas sehari-hari dan kebanyakan eksperimen laboratorium, namun kurang cocok untuk mekanika tata surya dan perjalanan di ruang angkasa. Meskipun kerangka heliosentrik berguna untuk hal-hal tersebut, astronomi galaksi maupun di luar galaksi menjadi lebih mudah jika matahari dianggap tidak diam ataupun menjadi pusat alam semesta, melainkan berputar mengelilingi pusat galaksi kita, dan galaksi kita selanjutnya juga tidak diam dalam hubungan dengan latar belakang kosmik. |
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In 1838, astronomer [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]] successfully measured the [[parallax]] of the star [[61 Cygni]], disproving Ptolemy's assertion that parallax motion did not exist. This finally substantiated the suppositions made by Copernicus with accurate, dependable scientific observations, and displayed truly how far away stars were from Earth. |
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A geocentric frame is useful for many everyday activities and most laboratory experiments, but is a less appropriate choice for solar-system mechanics and space travel. While a [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric frame]] is most useful in those cases, galactic and extra-galactic astronomy is easier if the sun is treated as neither stationary nor the center of the universe, but rotating around the center of our galaxy, and in turn our galaxy is also not at rest in the [[Cosmic Microwave Background#Velocity relative to CMB anisotropy|cosmic background]]. |
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== Penganut geosentrisme agamawi dan kontemporari == |
== Penganut geosentrisme agamawi dan kontemporari == |
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[[ |
[[Berkas:Orlando-Ferguson-flat-earth-map edit.jpg|ka|jmpl|300px|''Map of the Square and Stationary Earth'' (Peta Bumi bujursangkar dan stasioner/tidak bergerak), karya Orlando Ferguson (1893)]] |
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Model Ptolemaik mengenai tata surya masih terus dianut sampai ke awal zaman modern. Sejak akhir abad ke-16 dan seterusnya perlahan-lahan digantikan sebagai penggambaran konsensus oleh model heliosentrisme. Geosentrisme sebagai suatu kepercayaan agamawi terpisah, tidak pernah padam. Di Amerika Serikat antara tahun 1870-1920, misalnya, berbagai anggota [[Gereja Lutheran – Sinode Missouri]] menerbitkan artikel-artikel yang menyerang sistem astronomi Kopernikan, dan geosentrisme banyak diajarkan di dalam sinode dalam periode tersebut.<ref name="Babinski1995">{{cite journal |editor-last= Babinski |editor-first= E. T. |journal= Cretinism of Evilution |issue= 2 |title= Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down' |url= http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/2/part3.html |publisher= [[TalkOrigins Archive]] |year= 1995 |accessdate= 2013-12-01 |archive-date= 2018-02-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180209235618/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/2/part3.html |dead-url= no }}</ref> Namun, pada tahun 1902 ''Theological Quarterly'', A. L. Graebner menyatakan bahwa sinode itu tidak mempunyai posisi doktrinal terhadap geosentrisme, heliosentrisme, atau model ilmiah lainnya, kecuali kalau itu bertolak belakang dengan [[Alkitab]]. Ia menyatakan pula bahwa deklarasi apapun yang dikemukakan para penganut geosentrisme di dalam sinode bukan merupakan pendapat badan gereja secara keseluruhan.<ref name="Graebner1902">{{cite journal |title= Science and the church |journal= Theological Quarterly |first= A. L. |last= Graebner |pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=cxsRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 37–45] |year= 1902 |publisher= Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing |location= St. Louis, MO |volume= 6}}</ref> |
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The [[Ptolemaic model|Ptolemaic model of the solar system]] held sway into the early [[modern age]]; from the late 16th century onward it was gradually replaced as the consensus description by the [[heliocentric model]]. Geocentrism as a separate religious belief, however, never completely died out. In the [[United States]] between 1870 and 1920, for example, various members of the [[Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod]] published articles disparaging [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican astronomy]], and geocentrism was widely taught within the synod during that period.<ref name= "Babinski1995"/> However, in the 1902 ''Theological Quarterly'', A. L. Graebner claimed that the synod had no doctrinal position on geocentrism, heliocentrism, or any scientific model, unless it were to contradict Scripture. He stated that any possible declarations of geocentrists within the synod did not set the position of the church body as a whole.<ref name= "Graebner1902"/> |
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Artikel-artikel yang mendukung geosentrisme sebagai pandangan Alkitab muncul pada sejumlah surat kabar sains penciptaan yang berhubungan dengan [[Creation Research Society]]. Umumnya menunjuk kepada beberapa nas [[Alkitab]], yang secara harfiah mengindikasikan pergerakan harian Matahari dan Bulan yang dapat diamati mengelilingi Bumi, bukan karena rotasi Bumi pada aksisnya, misalnya pada {{Alkitab|Yosua 10:12}} di mana Matahari dan Bulan dikatakan berhenti di langit, dan {{Alkitab|Mazmur 93:1}} di mana dunia digambarkan tidak bergerak.<ref name="Numbers1993">{{cite book|title= The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism|url= https://archive.org/details/creationistsevol0000numb|publisher= University of California Press|last= Numbers|first= Ronald L.|authorlink= Ronald L. Numbers|year= 1993|page= [https://archive.org/details/creationistsevol0000numb/page/237 237]|isbn= 0520083938}}</ref> Para pendukung kontemporer kepercayaan agamawi itu termasuk [[Robert Sungenis]] (presiden dari[[Bellarmine Theological Forum]] dan pengarang buku terbitan tahun 2006 ''Galileo Was Wrong'' (Galileo keliru)).<ref name="Sefton2006">{{cite news|url= http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_1kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XCYEAAAAIBAJ&dq=robert-sungenis&pg=6714%2C4991566|title= In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth|first= Dru|last= Sefton|newspaper= [[Times-News (Hendersonville, North Carolina)|Times-News]]|location= Hendersonville, NC|date= 2006-03-30|page= 5A|access-date= 2014-03-02|archive-date= 2021-04-27|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210427173438/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=_1kaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=XCYEAAAAIBAJ&dq=robert-sungenis&pg=6714%2C4991566|dead-url= no}}</ref> Orang-orang ini mengajarkan pandangan bahwa pembacaan langsung Alkitab memuat kisah akurat bagaimana alam semesta diciptakan dan membutuhkan pandangan geosentrik. Kebanyakan organisasi kreasionis kontemporer menolak pandangan ini.{{refn|group=n|Donald B. DeYoung, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."<ref>{{cite web |last= DeYoung |first= Donald B. |date= 1997-11-05 |title= Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book |url= http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp |accessdate= 2013-12-01 |publisher= Answers in Genesis |archive-date= 2011-08-05 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110805222535/http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp |dead-url= no }}</ref>}} |
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{{quote|Dari semuanya, Kopernikanisme merupakan kemenangan besar pertama sains atas agama, sehingga tidak dapat dihindari bahwa sejumlah orang berpikir semua yang salah dengan dunia ini bermula dari sana. (Steven Dutch dari [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]]) <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/Geocentrism.HTM |title=Geocentrism lives |access-date=2014-03-02 |archive-date=2017-10-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024101108/http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/Geocentrism.HTM |dead-url=no }}</ref>}} |
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[[Morris Berman]] mengutip bahwa hasil survei menyatakan saat ini sekitar 20% penduduk Amerika Serikat percaya bahwa matahari mengitari bumi (geosentrisme) bukan bumi mengitari matahari (heliosentrisme), sementara 9% mengatakan tidak tahu.<ref name="Berman2006">{{cite book|last= Berman|first= Morris|authorlink= Morris Berman|title= Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire|url= https://archive.org/details/darkagesamericaf00berm|year= 2006|publisher= W.W. Norton & Company|isbn= 9780393058666}}</ref> Beberapa poll yang dilakukan oleh [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] pada tahun 1990-an mendapati bahwa 16% orang Jermans, 18% orang Amerika dan 19% orang Inggris/Britania Raya percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="Crabtree1999">{{cite web |url= http://www.gallup.com/poll/3742/new-poll-gauges-americans-general-knowledge-levels.aspx |title= New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels |first= Steve |last= Crabtree |publisher= [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] |date= 1999-07-06 |access-date= 2014-03-02 |archive-date= 2014-03-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140327130003/http://www.gallup.com/poll/3742/New-Poll-Gauges-Americans-General-Knowledge-Levels.aspx |dead-url= no }}</ref> Suatu studi yang dilakukan pada tahun 2005 oleh Jon D. Miller dari [[Northwestern University]], seorang pakar pemahaman publik akan sains dan teknologi,<ref name="MillerBio">{{cite web |url= http://www.cmb.northwestern.edu/faculty/jon_miller.htm |title= Jon D. Miller |work= Northwestern University website |accessdate= 2007-07-19 |archive-date= 2009-02-04 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090204023220/http://www.cmb.northwestern.edu/faculty/jon_miller.htm |dead-url= no }}</ref> mendapati sekitar 20%, atau seperlima, orang dewasa Amerika percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="Dean2005">{{cite news|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/30/science/30profile.html?ex=1184990400&en=2fb126c3132f89ae&ei=5070|title= Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much|first= Cornelia|last= Dean|date= 2005-08-30|newspaper= New York Times|accessdate= 2007-07-19|archive-date= 2014-08-25|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140825022235/http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/30/science/30profile.html?ex=1184990400&en=2fb126c3132f89ae&ei=5070|dead-url= no}}</ref> Menurut poll tahun 2011 oleh [[VTSIOM]], 32% orang [[Russia]] percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.<ref name="RussianStudy2011">{{citation |url= http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=459&uid=111345 |title= 'СОЛНЦЕ - СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН |trans_title= 'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians |issue= Пресс-выпуск №1684 <nowiki>[</nowiki>Press release no. 1684<nowiki>]</nowiki> |date= 2011-02-08 |language= ru |publisher= ВЦИОМ <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[VTSIOM|All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> |postscript= . |accessdate= 2014-03-02 |archive-date= 2018-01-31 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180131184406/https://wciom.ru/index.php?id=459&uid=111345 |dead-url= yes }}</ref> |
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[[Albert Einstein]] berpendapat: |
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Articles arguing that geocentrism was the biblical perspective appeared in some early [[creation science]] newsletters associated with the [[Creation Research Society]] pointing to some passages in the [[Bible]], which, when taken literally, indicate that the daily apparent motions of the Sun and the Moon are due to their actual motions around the Earth rather than due to the rotation of the Earth about its axis for example, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 10:12 where the Sun and Moon are said to stop in the sky, and [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]] 93:1 where the world is described as immobile.<ref name= "Numbers1993"/> Contemporary advocates for such [[religious belief]]s include [[Robert Sungenis]] (president of [[Bellarmine Theological Forum]] and author of the 2006 book ''Galileo Was Wrong'').<ref name= "Sefton2006"/> These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview. Most contemporary [[creationist]] organizations reject such perspectives.{{refn|group=n|Donald B. DeYoung, for example, states that "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."<ref>{{cite web |last= DeYoung |first= Donald B. |date= 1997-11-05 |title= Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book |url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/Docs/399.asp |accessdate= 2013-12-01 |publisher= Answers in Genesis}}</ref>}} |
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:''Pergulatan, begitu keras di awal masa sains, antara pandangan Ptolemaeus dan Kopernikus, sebenarnya tidak berarti. Kedua sistem koordinat ini dapat digunakan dengan justifikasi setara. Kedua kalimat: "matahari diam dan bumi bergerak", atau "matahari bergerak dan bumi diam", hanya bermakna konvensi yang berbeda dari dua sistem koordinat yang berbeda.''<ref>[[Albert Einstein]]. "The Evolution of Physics: From Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta", halaman 212</ref> |
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[[Stephen Hawking]], dalam bukunya "The Grand Design", menyatakan pandangan yang tepat sama dengan Einstein: |
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{{quote|After all, Copernicanism was the first major victory of science over religion, so it's inevitable that some folks would think that everything that's wrong with the world began there. (Steven Dutch of the [[University of Wisconsin–Madison]] <ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/PSEUDOSC/Geocentrism.HTM Geocentrism lives]</ref>}} |
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:''Maka apakah yang sesungguhnya, sistem Ptolemaik atau Kopernikan? Meskipun tidak jarang orang mengatakan Kopernikus membuktikan Ptolemaeus salah, hal ini tidak benar.''<ref>[[Stephen Hawking]]. "The Grand Design", halaman 41.</ref> |
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[[Morris Berman]] quotes survey results that show currently some 20% of the U.S. population believe that the sun goes around the Earth (geocentricism) rather than the Earth goes around the sun (heliocentricism), while a further 9% claimed not to know.<ref name= "Berman2006"/> Polls conducted by [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] in the 1990s found that 16% of Germans, 18% of Americans and 19% of Britons hold that the Sun revolves around the Earth.<ref name= "Crabtree1999"/> A study conducted in 2005 by Jon D. Miller of [[Northwestern University]], an expert in the public understanding of science and technology,<ref name= "MillerBio"/> found that about 20%, or one in five, of American adults believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.<ref name= "Dean2005"/> According to 2011 [[VTSIOM]] poll, 32% of [[Russians]] believe that the Sun orbits the Earth.<ref name= "RussianStudy2011"/> |
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=== Posisi historis hierarki Katolik Roma === |
=== Posisi historis hierarki Katolik Roma === |
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[[Galileo affair]] yang terkenal menghadapkan model geosentrik dengan pernyataan [[Galileo]]. Mengenai basis teologi dari argumen semacam itu, dua orang Paus membahas pertanyaan apakah penggunaan bahasa fenomenologi (berdasarkan pengamatan) akan memaksa orang mengakui kesalahan Alkitab. Keduanya mengajarkan bahwa tidak demikian halnya.<!--[[Pope Leo XIII]] wrote: |
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:we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. . . . There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known." If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – `went by what sensibly appeared," or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to. ([[Providentissimus Deus]] 18). |
:we have to contend against those who, making an evil use of physical science, minutely scrutinize the Sacred Book in order to detect the writers in a mistake, and to take occasion to vilify its contents. . . . There can never, indeed, be any real discrepancy between the theologian and the physicist, as long as each confines himself within his own lines, and both are careful, as St. Augustine warns us, "not to make rash assertions, or to assert what is not known as known." If dissension should arise between them, here is the rule also laid down by St. Augustine, for the theologian: "Whatever they can really demonstrate to be true of physical nature, we must show to be capable of reconciliation with our Scriptures; and whatever they assert in their treatises which is contrary to these Scriptures of ours, that is to Catholic faith, we must either prove it as well as we can to be entirely false, or at all events we must, without the smallest hesitation, believe it to be so." To understand how just is the rule here formulated we must remember, first, that the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately, the Holy Ghost "Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things (that is to say, the essential nature of the things of the visible universe), things in no way profitable unto salvation." Hence they did not seek to penetrate the secrets of nature, but rather described and dealt with things in more or less figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even by the most eminent men of science. Ordinary speech primarily and properly describes what comes under the senses; and somewhat in the same way the sacred writers-as the Angelic Doctor also reminds us – `went by what sensibly appeared," or put down what God, speaking to men, signified, in the way men could understand and were accustomed to. ([[Providentissimus Deus]] 18). |
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Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the "[[Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina]]".<ref name="Finocchiaro1989"/> [[Pope Pius XII]] repeated his predecessor's teaching: |
Maurice Finocchiaro, author of a book on the Galileo affair, notes that this is "a view of the relationship between biblical interpretation and scientific investigation that corresponds to the one advanced by Galileo in the "[[Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina]]".<ref name="Finocchiaro1989">{{cite book |title= The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History |first= Maurice A. |last= Finocchiaro |location= Berkeley |publisher= University of California Press |year= 1989 |page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=k7D1CXFBl2gC&pg=PA307 307] |isbn= 9780520066625}}</ref> [[Pope Pius XII]] repeated his predecessor's teaching: |
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:The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared" as the Angelic Doctor says,[5] speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science." For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – [6] the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history,"[7] that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks ([[Divino Afflante Spiritu]] 3). |
:The first and greatest care of Leo XIII was to set forth the teaching on the truth of the Sacred Books and to defend it from attack. Hence with grave words did he proclaim that there is no error whatsoever if the sacred writer, speaking of things of the physical order "went by what sensibly appeared" as the Angelic Doctor says,[5] speaking either "in figurative language, or in terms which were commonly used at the time, and which in many instances are in daily use at this day, even among the most eminent men of science." For "the sacred writers, or to speak more accurately – the words are St. Augustine's – [6] the Holy Spirit, Who spoke by them, did not intend to teach men these things – that is the essential nature of the things of the universe – things in no way profitable to salvation"; which principle "will apply to cognate sciences, and especially to history,"[7] that is, by refuting, "in a somewhat similar way the fallacies of the adversaries and defending the historical truth of Sacred Scripture from their attacks ([[Divino Afflante Spiritu]] 3). |
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In 1664 [[Alexander VII]] republished the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' (''List of Prohibited Books'') and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a [[Papal Bull]] that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known [''quo rei ab initio gestae series innotescat'']."<ref name= |
In 1664 [[Alexander VII]] republished the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' (''List of Prohibited Books'') and attached the various decrees connected with those books, including those concerned with heliocentrism. He stated in a [[Papal Bull]] that his purpose in doing so was that "the succession of things done from the beginning might be made known [''quo rei ab initio gestae series innotescat'']."<ref name="Alexandri VII1664">{{cite book |title= Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=PSVCAAAAcAAJ |year= 1664 |publisher= Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae |location= Rome |language= Latin |page= v}}</ref> |
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The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited ''all'' books teaching the earth's motion, although the ''Dialogue'' and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer [[Joseph Settele]] was allowed to treat the earth's motion as an established fact. In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision. The 1835 edition of the Catholic Index of Prohibited Books for the first time omits the ''Dialogue'' from the list.<ref name="Finocchiaro1989"/> In a [[papal encyclical]] written in 1921 [[Pope Benedict XV]] stated that, "though this earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ."<ref name= |
The position of the curia evolved slowly over the centuries towards permitting the heliocentric view. In 1757, during the papacy of Benedict XIV, the Congregation of the Index withdrew the decree which prohibited ''all'' books teaching the earth's motion, although the ''Dialogue'' and a few other books continued to be explicitly included. In 1820, the Congregation of the Holy Office, with the pope's approval, decreed that Catholic astronomer [[Joseph Settele]] was allowed to treat the earth's motion as an established fact. In 1822, the Congregation of the Holy Office removed the prohibition on the publication of books treating of the earth's motion in accordance with modern astronomy and Pope Pius VII ratified the decision. The 1835 edition of the Catholic Index of Prohibited Books for the first time omits the ''Dialogue'' from the list.<ref name="Finocchiaro1989"/> In a [[papal encyclical]] written in 1921 [[Pope Benedict XV]] stated that, "though this earth on which we live may not be the center of the universe as at one time was thought, it was the scene of the original happiness of our first ancestors, witness of their unhappy fall, as too of the Redemption of mankind through the Passion and Death of Jesus Christ."<ref name="BenedictXV1921">{{cite web |url= http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xv/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xv_enc_30041921_in-praeclara-summorum_en.html |title= In Praeclara Summorum: Encyclical of Pope Benedict XV on Dante to Professors and Students of Literature and Learning in the Catholic World |date= 1921-04-30 |location= Rome |page= § 4 |nopp=y}}</ref> In 1965 the [[Second Vatican Council]] stated that, "Consequently, we cannot but deplore certain habits of mind, which are sometimes found too among Christians, which do not sufficiently attend to the rightful independence of science and which, from the arguments and controversies they spark, lead many minds to conclude that faith and science are mutually opposed."<ref name="PaulIV19665">{{cite web |url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html |title= Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World 'Gaudium Et Spes' Promulgated by His Holiness, Pope Paul IV on December 7, 1965 |page= § 36 |nopp=y}}</ref> The footnote on this statement is to Msgr. Pio Paschini's, ''Vita e opere di Galileo Galilei'', 2 volumes, Vatican Press (1964). And [[Pope John Paul II]] regretted the treatment which Galileo received, in a speech to the [[Pontifical Academy of Sciences]] in 1992. The Pope declared the incident to be based on a "tragic mutual miscomprehension". He further stated: |
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:Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. . . . The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of the earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.<ref name= |
:Cardinal Poupard has also reminded us that the sentence of 1633 was not irreformable, and that the debate which had not ceased to evolve thereafter, was closed in 1820 with the imprimatur given to the work of Canon Settele. . . . The error of the theologians of the time, when they maintained the centrality of the earth, was to think that our understanding of the physical world's structure was, in some way, imposed by the literal sense of Sacred Scripture. Let us recall the celebrated saying attributed to Baronius "Spiritui Sancto mentem fuisse nos docere quomodo ad coelum eatur, non quomodo coelum gradiatur". In fact, the Bible does not concern itself with the details of the physical world, the understanding of which is the competence of human experience and reasoning. There exist two realms of knowledge, one which has its source in Revelation and one which reason can discover by its own power. To the latter belong especially the experimental sciences and philosophy. The distinction between the two realms of knowledge ought not to be understood as opposition.<ref name="John PaulII1992">{{cite journal |title= Faith can never conflict with reason |url= http://www.its.caltech.edu/~nmcenter/sci-cp/sci-9211.html |journal= L'Osservatore Romano |volume= 44 |issue= 1264 |date= 1992-11-04 |author= Pope John Paul II}} (Published English translation).</ref> |
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=== Yudaisme Ortodoks === |
=== Yudaisme Ortodoks === |
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Sejumlah pemimpin [[Yudaisme Ortodoks]], terutama [[Lubavitcher Rebbe]], mempertahankan model geosentrik alam semesta berdasarkan ayat-ayat [[Alkitab]] dan penafsiran [[Maimonides]] sehingga ia mengajarkan bahwa bumi dikitari oleh matahari.<ref name="Nussbaum2007"/><ref name= |
Sejumlah pemimpin [[Yudaisme Ortodoks]], terutama [[Lubavitcher Rebbe]], mempertahankan model geosentrik alam semesta berdasarkan ayat-ayat [[Alkitab]] dan penafsiran [[Maimonides]] sehingga ia mengajarkan bahwa bumi dikitari oleh matahari.<ref name="Nussbaum2007"/><ref name="Nussbaum2002"/> [[Lubavitcher Rebbe]] juga menjelaskan bahwa geosentrisme dapat dipertahankan berdasarkan [[teori Relativitas]], di mana dinyatakan bahwa "ketika dua benda di udara bergerak relatif satu sama lain, ... ilmu alam mendeklarasikan dengan kepastian absolut bahwa dari segi sudut pandang ilmiah kedua kemungkinan itu valid, yaitu bumi mengitari matahari, atau matahari mengitari bumi."<ref name="SchneersohnGotfryd2003"/> |
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Meskipun geosentrisme penting untuk perhitungan kalender Maimonides,<ref name= |
Meskipun geosentrisme penting untuk perhitungan kalender Maimonides,<ref name="Mishneh Torah"/> mayoritas sarjana agamawi Yahudi, yang menerima keilahian Alkitab dan menerima banyak aturan-aturannya mengikat secara hukum, tidak percaya bahwa Alkitab maupun Maimonides memerintahkan untuk percaya pada geosentrisme.<ref name="Nussbaum2002" /><ref name="Rabinowitz1987"/> Namun, ada bukti bahwa kepercayaan geosentrisme meningkat di antara umat Yahudi Ortodoks.<ref name="Nussbaum2007" /><ref name="Nussbaum2002" /> |
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===Islam=== |
=== Islam === |
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Kasus-kasus prominent geosentrisme modern dalam Islam sangat terisolasi. Hanya sedikit individu yang mengajarkan suatu pandangan geosentrik alam semesta. Salah satunya adalah Grand Mufti Saudi Arabia tahun 1993-1999, [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz]] ( |
Kasus-kasus prominent geosentrisme modern dalam [[Islam]] sangat terisolasi. Hanya sedikit individu yang mengajarkan suatu pandangan geosentrik alam semesta. Salah satunya adalah Grand Mufti Saudi Arabia tahun 1993-1999, [[Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz]] (Bin Baz), yang mengajarkan pandangan ini antara tahun 1966-1985. |
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Menurut Bin Baz, ”Telah tersebar pada zaman ini di kalangan para penulis dan pengajar bahwasanya [[bumi]] itu berputar sedangkan matahari itu tetap, dan pendapat ini diikuti oleh banyak orang, maka banyak sekali pertanyaan. Seputar masalah ini… Maka saya katakan: "[[Al-Quran]] dan [[as-Sunnah]] serta kesepakatan para [[ulama]] dan realita yang ada menunjukan bahwa [[matahari]] itu beredar di garis edarnya sebagaimana yang ditetapkan oleh Allah Ta’ala sedangkan bumi tetap tidak bergerak, yang mana Allah menyiapkan sebagai tempat tinggal dan Allah memantapkan dengan gunung-gunung agar tidak bergerak bersama mereka.” |
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Syaikh [[al-Utsaimin]], ”Adapun pendapat kami tentang peredaran matahari mengelilingi bumi yang dengannya akan terjadi perubahan siang dan malam, maka kami berpegang dengan zhohir dari nash al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah bahwasanya matahari yang bergerak mengelilingi bumi yang dengannya terjadi pergeseran waktu siang dengan malam. Sehingga ada dalil yang qoth’I yang bisa dijadikan hujjah untuk bisa memalingkan dhohir nash al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah, dan manakah dalil itu?" |
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Menurut [[Muhammad Nashiruddin Al-Albani|Syaikh Albani]], "Dalam [[ilmu Geograf]]i bumi memang bulat dan berputar, akan tetapi dalam ilmu agama, ia lebih cenderung memilih pendapat bahwa bumi dalam keadaan tetap dan datar, dengan dalil yang tersirat (bukan dalil tegas), karena tidak ada dalil yang tegas bahwa bumi itu bulat. |
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== Planetarium == |
== Planetarium == |
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Model geosentrik (Ptolemaik) [[tata surya]] terus digunakan oleh para pembuat [[planetarium]] karena berdasarkan alasan teknis pergerakan tipe Ptolemaik untuk aparatus cahaya planet memiliki sejumlah kelebihan dibandingkan teori pergerakan Kopernikus.<ref name= |
Model geosentrik (Ptolemaik) [[tata surya]] terus digunakan oleh para pembuat [[planetarium]] karena berdasarkan alasan teknis pergerakan tipe Ptolemaik untuk aparatus cahaya planet memiliki sejumlah kelebihan dibandingkan teori pergerakan Kopernikus.<ref name="Hort1822"/> Sistem bulatan selestial yang digunakan untuk tujuan pengajaran dan [[navigasi]] juga didasarkan pada sistem geosentrik<ref name="Kaler2002"/> yang mengabaikan efek paralaks. Namun, efek ini dapat diabaikan pada skala akurasi yang diterapkan pada suatu planetarium. |
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== Geocentric models in fiction == |
== Geocentric models in fiction == |
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Baris 143: | Baris 158: | ||
== Lihat pula == |
== Lihat pula == |
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* [[Cakrawala]] |
* [[Cakrawala]] |
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*[[Celestial spheres]] |
* [[Celestial spheres]] |
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*[[Firmament]] |
* [[Firmament]] |
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*[[Religious cosmology]] |
* [[Religious cosmology]] |
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*[[Flat Earth]] |
* [[Flat Earth]] |
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== Catatan == |
== Catatan == |
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Baris 153: | Baris 168: | ||
== Referensi == |
== Referensi == |
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{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= |
{{reflist|colwidth=30em|refs= |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Lawson2004">{{cite book|last= Lawson|first= Russell M.|year= 2004|title= Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia|pages= [http://books.google.com/?id=1AY1ALzh9V0C&pg=PA30 29–30] |
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|publisher= [[ABC-CLIO]] |
|publisher= [[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn= 1851095349|ref={{Harvid|Lawson|2004}}}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Fraser2006">{{cite book|last= Fraser|first= Craig G.|title= The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective|url= https://archive.org/details/cosmoshistorical00fras_616|year= 2006|page= [https://archive.org/details/cosmoshistorical00fras_616/page/n26 14]}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Goldstein1967">{{cite journal|title= The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis|url= https://archive.org/details/sim_transactions-of-the-american-philosophical-society_1967-06_57_4/page/6|first= Bernard R.|last= Goldstein|page= 6|journal= Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|year= 1967|volume= 57|issue= pt. 4|jstor= 1006040}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Hetherington2006">{{cite book |last= Hetherington |first= Norriss S. |title= Planetary Motions: A Historical Perspective |year= 2006 |page= 28}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Goldstein1972">{{cite journal|first= Bernard R.|last= Goldstein|year= 1972|title= Theory and observation in medieval astronomy|journal= Isis|volume= 63|issue= 1|page= 41}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Setia2004">{{Cite journal|title= Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey|first= Adi|last= Setia|journal= Islam & Science|volume= 2|year= 2004}}</ref> |
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<ref name="JohansenRosenmeier1998">{{cite book|first1= K. F.|last1=Johansen|first2= H.|last2= Rosenmeier|title= A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine|url= https://archive.org/details/historyancientph00joha|year= 1998|page= [https://archive.org/details/historyancientph00joha/page/n57 43]}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Hartner1955">{{cite journal |first= Willy |last= Hartner |title= The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice |journal= Vistas in Astronomy |volume= 1 |year= 1955 |pages= 118–22}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Sarton1953">{{cite book|first= George|last= Sarton|title= Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece|year= 1953|page= 290}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Eastwood1992">{{Cite journal|volume= 23|page= 233|last= Eastwood|first= B. S.|title= Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations|journal= Journal for the History of Astronomy|date= 1992-11-01}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Lindberg2010">{{cite book|last= Lindberg|first= David C.|title= The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450|edition= 2nd|year= 2010|publisher= University of Chicago Press|isbn= 9780226482040|page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA197 197]}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Setia2004">{{Cite journal |title= Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey |first= Adi |last= Setia |journal= Islam & Science |volume= 2 |year= 2004}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Russell1945">{{cite book|last= Russell|first= Bertrand|authorlink= Bertrand Russell|title= [[A History of Western Philosophy]]|origyear= 1945|year= 2013|publisher= Routledge|page= 215|isbn= 9781134343676}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Nussbaum2007">{{Cite journal|url= http://www.skeptic.com/the_magazine/featured_articles/v12n03_orthodox_judaism_and_evolution.html|title= Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology|accessdate= 2008-12-18|last= Nussbaum|first= Alexander|date= 2007-12-19|journal= Skeptic Magazine|archive-date= 2010-07-04|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100704183723/http://www.skeptic.com/the_magazine/featured_articles/v12n03_orthodox_judaism_and_evolution.html|dead-url= no}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Dallal1999">{{cite book |first= Ahmad |last= Dallal |year= 1999 |chapter= Science, Medicine and Technology |title= The Oxford History of Islam |page= 171 |editor-first= John |editor-last= Esposito |editor-link= John Esposito |location= New York |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
<ref name="Nussbaum2002">{{cite journal|first= Alexander|last= Nussbaum|title= Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists|journal= Reports of the National Center for Science Education|date=January–April 2002|pages= 38–43}}</ref> |
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<ref name="SchneersohnGotfryd2003">{{cite book|last1= Schneersohn|first1= Menachem Mendel|authorlink1= Menachem Mendel Schneerson|last2= Gotfryd|first2= Arnie|title= Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine|pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA76 76ff.]; cf. xvi-xvii, [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA69 69], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA100 100–1], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA171 171–2], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA408 408ff.]|year= 2003|publisher= Shamir|isbn= 9789652930804}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Ragep2001a">{{Cite journal |last= Ragep |first= F. Jamil |year= 2001 |title= Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's motion in context |journal= Science in Context |volume= 14 |issue= 1-2 |pages= 145–163 |publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Mishneh Torah">{{cite book|title= Mishneh Torah|url= http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/947929/jewish/Chapter-Eleven.htm|chapter= Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11|page= Halacha 13–14|nopp= y|others= Translated by Touger, Eliyahu|publisher= Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center|access-date= 2014-03-02|archive-date= 2023-06-22|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230622200831/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/947929/jewish/Chapter-Eleven.htm|dead-url= no}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Ragep2001b">{{Cite journal |last= Ragep |first= F. Jamil |year= 2001 |title= Freeing astronomy from philosophy: An aspect of Islamic influence on science |journal= Osiris |series= 2nd Series |volume= 16 |issue= Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions |pages= 49–64, 66–71 |doi=10.1086/649338}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Rabinowitz1987">{{cite web|url= http://www.pages.nyu.edu/%7Eair1/GeoCentrism%20&%20EgoCentrism,%20Existentialist%20Despair%20&%20Significance.htm|first= Avi|last= Rabinowitz|year= 1987|title= EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism|work= Science & Religion|accessdate= 2013-12-01|archive-date= 2011-03-14|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110314150928/http://www.pages.nyu.edu/~air1/GeoCentrism|dead-url= yes}} Published in {{cite book|editor1-last= Branover|editor1-first= Herman|editor2-last= Attia|editor2-first= Ilana Coven|title= Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader|url= https://archive.org/details/scienceinlightof0000unse|year= 1994|publisher= Jason Aronson|isbn= 9781568210346}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Huff2003">{{cite book |last= Huff |first= Toby E. |title= The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West |year= 2003 |publisher= Cambridge University Press |isbn= 9780521529945 |page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=DA3fkX5wQMUC&pg=PA58 58]}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Hort1822">{{cite book|first= William Jillard|last= Hort|title= A General View of the Sciences and Arts|url= https://archive.org/details/ageneralviewsci01hortgoog|year= 1822|page= [https://archive.org/details/ageneralviewsci01hortgoog/page/n196 182]}}</ref> |
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<ref name="KirmaniSingh2005">{{cite book |last1= Kirmani |first1= M. Zaki |last2= Singh |first2= Nagendra Kr |title= Encyclopaedia of Islamic Science and Scientists: A-H |year= 2005 |publisher= Global Vision | isbn=9788182200586}}</ref> |
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<ref name= |
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<ref name= "Eastwood1992">{{Cite journal |volume= 23 |page= 233 |last= Eastwood |first= B. S. |title= Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations |journal= Journal for the History of Astronomy |date= 1992-11-01}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Lindberg2010">{{cite book |last= Lindberg |first= David C. |title= The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 |edition= 2nd |year= 2010 |publisher= University of Chicago Press |isbn= 9780226482040 |page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=dPUBAkIm2lUC&pg=PA197 197]}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Graebner1902">{{cite journal |title= Science and the church |journal= Theological Quarterly |first= A. L. |last= Graebner |pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=cxsRAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 37–45] |year= 1902 |publisher= Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing |location= St. Louis, MO |volume= 6}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Berman2006">{{cite book |last= Berman |first= Morris |authorlink= Morris Berman |title= Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire |year= 2006 |publisher= W.W. Norton & Company |isbn= 9780393058666}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Crabtree1999">{{cite web |url= http://www.gallup.com/poll/3742/new-poll-gauges-americans-general-knowledge-levels.aspx |title= New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels |first= Steve |last= Crabtree |publisher= [[The Gallup Organization|Gallup]] |date= 1999-07-06}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "MillerBio">{{cite web |url= http://www.cmb.northwestern.edu/faculty/jon_miller.htm |title= Jon D. Miller |work= Northwestern University website |accessdate= 2007-07-19}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Dean2005">{{cite news |url= http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/30/science/30profile.html?ex=1184990400&en=2fb126c3132f89ae&ei=5070 |title=Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much |first= Cornelia |last= Dean |date= 2005-08-30 |newspaper= New York Times |accessdate= 2007-07-19}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "RussianStudy2011">{{citation |url= http://wciom.ru/index.php?id=459&uid=111345 |title= 'СОЛНЦЕ - СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН |trans_title= 'Sun-earth', or rating scientific fallacies of Russians |issue= Пресс-выпуск №1684 <nowiki>[</nowiki>Press release no. 1684<nowiki>]</nowiki> |date= 2011-02-08 |language= ru |publisher= ВЦИОМ <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[VTSIOM|All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion]]<nowiki>]</nowiki> |postscript= .}}</ref> |
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<ref name="Finocchiaro1989">{{cite book |title= The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History |first= Maurice A. |last= Finocchiaro |location= Berkeley |publisher= University of California Press |year= 1989 |page= [http://books.google.com/books?id=k7D1CXFBl2gC&pg=PA307 307] |isbn= 9780520066625}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Alexandri VII1664">{{cite book |title= Index librorum prohibitorum Alexandri VII |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=PSVCAAAAcAAJ |year= 1664 |publisher= Ex typographia Reurendae Camerae Apostolicae |location= Rome |language= Latin |page= v}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "BenedictXV1921">{{cite web |url= http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xv/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xv_enc_30041921_in-praeclara-summorum_en.html |title= In Praeclara Summorum: Encyclical of Pope Benedict XV on Dante to Professors and Students of Literature and Learning in the Catholic World |date= 1921-04-30 |location= Rome |page= § 4 |nopp=y}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "PaulIV19665">{{cite web |url= http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_cons_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html |title= Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World 'Gaudium Et Spes' Promulgated by His Holiness, Pope Paul IV on December 7, 1965 |page= § 36 |nopp=y}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "John PaulII1992">{{cite journal |title= Faith can never conflict with reason |url= http://www.its.caltech.edu/~nmcenter/sci-cp/sci-9211.html |journal= L'Osservatore Romano |volume= 44 |issue= 1264 |date= 1992-11-04 |author= Pope John Paul II}} (Published English translation).</ref>--> |
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<ref name="Nussbaum2007">{{Cite journal |url= http://www.skeptic.com/the_magazine/featured_articles/v12n03_orthodox_judaism_and_evolution.html |title= Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology |accessdate= 2008-12-18 |last= Nussbaum |first= Alexander |date= 2007-12-19 |journal= Skeptic Magazine}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Nussbaum2002">{{cite journal |first= Alexander |last= Nussbaum |title= Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists |journal= Reports of the National Center for Science Education |date=January–April 2002 |pages= 38–43}}</ref> |
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<ref name="SchneersohnGotfryd2003">{{cite book |last1= Schneersohn |first1= Menachem Mendel |authorlink1= Menachem Mendel Schneerson |last2= Gotfryd |first2= Arnie |title= Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine |pages= [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA76 76ff.]; cf. xvi-xvii, [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA69 69], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA100 100–1], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA171 171–2], [http://books.google.com/books?id=FmabnhsgSVAC&pg=PA408 408ff.] |year= 2003 |publisher= Shamir |isbn= 9789652930804}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Mishneh Torah">{{cite book |title= Mishneh Torah |url= http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/947929/jewish/Chapter-Eleven.htm |chapter= Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11 |page= Halacha 13–14 |nopp=y |others= Translated by Touger, Eliyahu |publisher= Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Rabinowitz1987">{{cite web |url= http://www.pages.nyu.edu/%7Eair1/GeoCentrism%20&%20EgoCentrism,%20Existentialist%20Despair%20&%20Significance.htm |first= Avi |last= Rabinowitz |year= 1987 |title= EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism | work= Science & Religion | accessdate=2013-12-01}} Published in {{cite book |editor1-last= Branover |editor1-first= Herman |editor2-last=Attia |editor2-first= Ilana Coven |title= Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader |year= 1994 |publisher= Jason Aronson |isbn=9781568210346}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Hort1822">{{cite book |first= William Jillard |last= Hort |title= A General View of the Sciences and Arts |year= 1822 |page= 182}}</ref> |
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<ref name= "Kaler2002">{{cite book |last= Kaler |first= James B. |title= The Ever-changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere |year= 2002 |page= 25}}</ref> |
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}} |
}} |
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== Pustaka == |
== Pustaka == |
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* {{cite book |
* {{cite book|title = Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution|url = https://archive.org/details/theoriesofworldf0000crow|last = Crowe|first= Michael J.|publisher = Dover Publications|year = 1990|location = Mineola, NY|isbn = 0486261735|ref = {{Harvid|Crowe|1990}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|title= A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler|last= Dreyer|first= J.L.E.|publisher= Dover Publications|year= 1953|url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft|location= New York |
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|ref={{Harvid|Dreyer|1953}}|authorlink= John Louis Emil Dreyer}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|last= Evans|first= James|title= The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy|location= New York|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 1998|ref={{Harvid|Evans|1998}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|last= Heath|first= Thomas|authorlink= T. L. Heath|title= Aristarchus of Samos|url= https://archive.org/details/aristarchusofsam0000heat|location= Oxford|publisher= Clarendon Press|year= 1913|ref={{Harvid|Heath|1913}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|authorlink= Sir Fred Hoyle|last= Hoyle|first= Fred|title= Nicolaus Copernicus|url= https://archive.org/details/bwb_P8-BLU-347|year= 1973|ref={{Harvid|Hoyle|1973}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|authorlink= Arthur Koestler|last= Koestler|first= Arthur|title= The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe|origyear= 1959|publisher= Penguin Books|year= 1986|isbn= 014055212X|ref={{Harvid|Koestler|1959}}}} 1990 reprint: ISBN 0-14-019246-8. |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|authorlink= Thomas Samuel Kuhn|last= Kuhn|first= Thomas S.|title= The Copernican Revolution|url= https://archive.org/details/copernicanrevolu0008kuhn|location= Cambridge|publisher= Harvard University Press|year= 1957|isbn= 0674171039|ref={{Harvid|Kuhn|1957}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|title= From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy|last= Linton|first= Christopher M.|publisher= Cambridge University Press|year= 2004|location= Cambridge|isbn= 9780521827508|ref={{Harvid|Linton|2004}}}} |
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*{{cite book |
* {{cite book|editor-last= Walker|editor-first= Christopher|title= Astronomy Before the Telescope|url= https://archive.org/details/astronomybeforet0000unse_b2s7|location= London|publisher= British Museum Press|year= 1996|isbn= 0714117463|ref={{Harvid|Walker|1996}}}} |
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== Pranala luar == |
== Pranala luar == |
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* [http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~zhu/ast210/geocentric.html Another demonstration of the complexity of observed orbits when assuming a geocentric model of the solar system] |
* [http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~zhu/ast210/geocentric.html Another demonstration of the complexity of observed orbits when assuming a geocentric model of the solar system] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090330002544/http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~zhu/ast210/geocentric.html |date=2009-03-30 }} |
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* [http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Movies/#ptolemaic Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD] |
* [http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Movies/#ptolemaic Geocentric Perspective animation of the Solar System in 150AD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210508074738/http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Movies/#ptolemaic |date=2021-05-08 }} |
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* [http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/history/ptolemy.htm Ptolemy’s system of astronomy] |
* [http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/history/ptolemy.htm Ptolemy’s system of astronomy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015162256/http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/history/ptolemy.htm |date=2007-10-15 }} |
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* [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System] |
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html The Galileo Project – Ptolemaic System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408231957/http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html |date=2014-04-08 }} |
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{{Astronomi Yunani}} |
{{Astronomi Yunani}} |
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Geocentric Model}} |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Geocentric Model}} |
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Revisi terkini sejak 16 Agustus 2024 03.08
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Bartolomeu_Velho_1568.jpg/300px-Bartolomeu_Velho_1568.jpg)
Geosentrisme atau disebut Teori Geosentrik, Model Geosentrik (bahasa Inggris: geocentric model atau geocentrism, Ptolemaic system) adalah istilah astronomi yang menggambarkan alam semesta dengan bumi sebagai pusatnya dan pusat pergerakan semua benda-benda langit. Model ini menjadi sistem kosmologi predominan pada budaya kuno misalnya Yunani kuno, yang meliputi sistem-sistem terkenal yang dikemukakan oleh Aristoteles dan Claudius Ptolemaeus.[1]
Dua pengamatan umum mendukung pandangan bahwa Bumi adalah pusat dari alam semesta. Pengamatan pertama adalah bintang-bintang, matahari dan planet-planet tampak berputar mengitari bumi setiap hari, membuat bumi adalah pusat sistem ini. Lebih lanjut, setiap bintang berada pada suatu bulatan stelar atau selestial ("stellar sphere" atau "celestial sphere"), di mana bumi adalah pusatnya, yang berkeliling setiap hari, di seputar garis yang menghubungkan kutub utara dan selatan sebagai aksisnya. Bintang-bintang yang terdekat dengan khatulistiwa tampak naik dan turun paling jauh, tetapi setiap bintang kembali ke titik terbitnya setiap hari.[2] Observasi umum kedua yang mendukung model geosentrik adalah bumi tampaknya tidak bergerak dari sudut pandang pengamat yang berada di bumi, bahwa bumi itu solid, stabil dan tetap di tempat. Dengan kata lain, benar-benar dalam posisi diam.
Model geosentrik biasanya dikombinasi dengan suatu Bumi yang bulat oleh filsuf Romawi kuno dan abad pertengahan. Ini tidak sama dengan pandangan model Bumi datar yang disiratkan dalam sejumlah mitologi, sebagaimana juga dalah kosmologi kitab-kitab suci dan Latin kuno.[n 1][n 2][n 3]
Yunani kuno
[sunting | sunting sumber]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Persectives_of_Anaximander%27s_universe.png/350px-Persectives_of_Anaximander%27s_universe.png)
Teori atau model Geosentrik memasuki astronomi dan filsafat Yunani sejak dini; dapat ditelusuri pada peninggalan filsafat sebelum zaman Sokrates. Pada abad ke-6 SM, Anaximander mengemukakan suatu kosmologi dengan bumi berbentuk seperti potongan suatu tiang (sebuah tabung), berada di awang-awang di pusat segala sesuatu. Matahari, Bulan, and planet-planet adalah lubang-lubang dalam roda-roda yang tidak kelihatan yang mengelilingi bumi; melalui lubang-lubang ini manusia dapat melihat api yang tersembunyi. Pada waktu yang sama, para pengikut Pythagoras, yang disebut kelompok Pythagorean, berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah suatu bola (menurut pengamatan gerhana-gerhana), tetapi bukan sebagai pusat, melainkan bergerak mengelilingi suatu api yang tidak tampak. Kemudian pandangan-pandangan ini digabungkan, sehingga kalangan terpelajar Yunani sejak dari abad ke-4 SM berpikir bahwa bumi adalah bola yang menjadi pusat alam semesta.[6]
Model Ptolemaik
[sunting | sunting sumber]Meskipun prinsip dasar geosentrisme Yunani sudah tersusun pada zaman Aristoteles, detail sistem ini belum menjadi standar. Sistem Ptolemaik, yang diutarakan oleh astronomor Helenistik Mesir Claudius Ptolemaeus pada abad ke- 2 M akhirnya berhasil menjadi standar. Karya astronomi utamanya, Almagest, merupakan puncak karya-karya selama berabad-abad-abad oleh para astronom Yunani kuno, Helenistik dan Babilonia; karya itu diterima selama lebih dari satu milenium sebagai model kosmologi yang benar oleh para astronom Eropa dan Islam. Karena begitu kuat pengaruhnya, sistem Ptolemaik kadang kala dianggap sama dengan model geosentrik.
Ptolemy berpendapat bahwa bumi adalah pusat alam semesta berdasarkan pengamatan sederhana yaitu setengah jumlah bintang-bintang terletak di atas horizon dan setengahnya di bawah horizon pada waktu manapun (bintang-bintang pada bulatan orbitnya), dan anggapan bahwa bintang–bintang semuanya terletak pada suatu jarak tertentu dari pusat semesta. Jika bumi terletak cukup jauh dari pusat semesta, maka pembagian bintang-bintang yang tampak dan tidak tampak tidaklah akan sama. l.[n 4]
Sistem Ptolemaik
[sunting | sunting sumber]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Ptolemaic_elements.svg/250px-Ptolemaic_elements.svg.png)
Dalam Sistem Ptolemaik, setiap planet digerakkan oleh suatu sistem yang memuat dua bola atau lebih: satu disebut "deferent" yang lain "epicycle" .
Sekalipun model geosentrik digantikan oleh model heliosentrik. Namun, model deferent dan epicycle tetap dipakai karena menghasilkan prediksi yang akurat dan lebih sesuai dengan pengamatan dibanding sistem-sistem lain. Epicycle Venus dan Mercurius selalu berpusat pada suatu garis antara Bumi dan Matahari (Merkurius lebih dekat ke Bumi), yang menjelaskan mengapa kedua planet itu selalu dekat di langit. Model ini digantikan oleh model eliptik Kepler hanya ketika metode pengamatan (yang dikembangkan oleh Tycho Brahe dan lain-lain) menjadi cukup akurat untuk meragukan model epicycle.
Urutan lingkaran-lingkaran orbit dari bumi ke luar adalah:[8]
- Bulan
- Merkurius
- Venus
- Matahari
- Mars
- Yupiter
- Saturnus
- Bintang-bintang tetap
- Primum Mobile ("Yang pertama bergerak").
Urutan ini tidak diciptakan atau merupakan hasil karya Ptolemaeus, melainkan diselaraskan dengan kosmologi agamawi "Tujuh Langit" yang umum ditemui pada tradisi agamawi Eurasia utama.
Geosentrisme dan Astronomi Islam
[sunting | sunting sumber]Dikarenakan dominansi ilmiah sistem Ptolemaik dalam astronomi Islam, para astronom Muslim menerima bulat model geosentrik.[n 5]
Pada abad ke-12, Arzachel meninggalkan ide Yunani kuno "pergerakan melingkar uniform" (uniform circular motion) dengan membuat hipotesis bahwa planet Merkurius bergerak dalam orbit eliptik,[10][11] sedangkan Alpetragius mengusulkan model planetari yang meninggalkan equant, mekanisme epicycle dan eksentrik,[12] meskipun ini menghasilkan suatu sistem yang lebih kurang akurat secara matematik.[13] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209), sehubungan dengan konsepsi fisika dan dunia fisika dalam karyanya Matalib, menolak pandangan Aristotelian dan Avicennian bahwa Bumi berada di pusat alam semesta, melainkan berpendapat bahwa ada "ribuan-ribuan dunia (alfa alfi 'awalim) di luar dunia ini sedemikian sehingga setiap dunia ini lebih besar dan masif dari dunia ini serta serupa dengan dunia ini." Untuk mendukung argumen teologinya, ia mengutip dari Al Quran, "All praise belongs to God, Lord of the Worlds," menekankan istilah "Worlds" (dunia-dunia).[14]
Geosentrisme dan sistem-sistem saingan
[sunting | sunting sumber]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Geocentrism.jpg/220px-Geocentrism.jpg)
Tidak semua orang Yunani setuju dengan model geosentrik. Sistem Pythagorean yang sudah disinggung sebelumnya meyakini bahwa Bumi merupakan salah satu dari beberapa planet yang bergerak mengelilingi suatu api di tengah-tengah.[15] Hicetas dan Ecphantus, dua penganut Pythagorean dari abad ke-5 SM, dan Heraclides Ponticus dari abad ke-4 SM, percaya bahwa Bumi berputar mengelilingi aksisnya, tetapi tetap berada di tengah alam semesta.[16] Sistem semacam itu masih tergolong geosentrik. Pandangan ini dibangkitkan kembali pada Abad Pertengahan oleh Jean Buridan. Heraclides Ponticus suatu ketika dianggap berpandangan bahwa baik Venus maupun Merkurius mengelilingi Matahari, bukan Bumi, tetapi anggapan ini tidak lagi diterima.[17] Martianus Capella secara definitif menempatkan Merkurius dan Venus pada suatu orbit mengitari Matahari.[18] Aristarchus dari Samos adalah yang paling radikal, dengan menulis dalam karyanya (yang tidak lagi terlestarikan) mengenai heliosentrisme, bahwa Matahari adalah pusat alam semesta, sedangkan Bumi dan planet-planet lain mengitarinya.[19] Teorinya tidak populer pada masanya, dan ia mempunyai satu pengikut yang bernama, Seleucus of Seleucia.[20]
Sistem Kopernikan
[sunting | sunting sumber]Dengan penemuan teleskop pada tahun 1609, pengamatan yang dilakukan oleh Galileo Galilei (antara lain bahwa Yupiter memiliki sejumlah bulan) mempertanyakan sejumlah prinsip geosentrisme tetapi tidak secara serius mengancamnya. Karena ia mengamati adanya "titik-titik" gelap pada Bulan, kawah-kawah, ia berkomentar bahwa Bulan bukanlah benda langit sempurna sebagaimana anggapan sebelumnya. Ini pertama kalinya orang dapat melihat cacat pada suatu benda langit yang dianggap terbuat dari aether yang sempurna. Sedemikian, karena cacatnya bulan sekarang dapat dikaitkan dengan apa yang dilihat di Bumi, orang dapat berargumen bahwa keduanya tidak unik, melainkan terbuat dari bahan yang serupa. Galileo juga dapat melihat bulan-bulan yang mengitari Yupiter, yang didedikasikannya kepada Cosimo II de' Medici, dan menyatakan bahwa bulan-bulan itu mengorbit Yupiter, bukan Bumi.[21] Ini merupakan klaim signifikan karena jika benar, berarti tidak semua benda langit mengitari Bumi, menghancurkan kepercayaan teologi dan ilmiah yang dianut sebelumnya. Namun, teori-teori Galileo yang menantang geosentrisme alam semesta dibungkam oleh pihak gereja dan sikap skeptik umum terhadap sistem yang tidak menempatkan Bumi di pusat semesta, mempertahankan pikiran dan sistem Ptolemaeus dan Aristoteles.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Phases-of-Venus.svg/220px-Phases-of-Venus.svg.png)
Pada bulan Desember 1610, Galileo Galilei menggunakan teleskopnya untuk mengamati semua fase planet Venus, sebagaimana fase-fase Bulan. Ia berpikir bahwa pengamatan ini tidak kompatibel dengan sistem Ptolemaik, tetapi merupakan konsekuensi alamiah dari sistem heliosentrik system.
Ptolemaeus menempatkan deferent dan epicycle Venus seluruhnya di dalam bulatan Matahari (antara Matahari dan Merkurius), tetapi ini hanya sekadar penempatan; dapat saja tempat Venus dan Merkurius ditukar, selama mereka selalu berada pada satu garis yang menghubungkan Bumi ke Matahari, seperti penempatan pusat epicycle Venus dekat dengan Matahari. Dalam kasus ini, jika Matahari menjadi sumber semua cahaya, di bawah sistem Ptolemaik:
Jika Venus berada di antara Bumi dan Matahari, fase Venus seharusnya selalu berbentuk sabit atau seluruhnya gelap. Jika Venus berada di balik Matahari, fase Venus seharusnya selalu hampir penuh (gibbous) atau purnama.
Namun Galileo melihat Venus mulanya kecil dan purnama, kemudian besar dan bayangannya berbentuk sabit.
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Tychonian_system.svg/250px-Tychonian_system.svg.png)
Ini menunjukkan bahwa dengan kosmologi Ptolemaik, epicycle Venus tidak dapat sepenuhnya di dalam maupun di luar orbit matahari. Akibatnya, pada sistem Ptolemaik pandangan bahwa epicycle Venus sepenuhnya di dalam matahari ditinggalkan, dan kemudian pada abad ke-17 kompetisi antara kosmologi astronomi berfokus pada variasi sistem Tychonik yang dikemukakan oleh Tycho Brahe, di mana Bumi masih menjadi pusat alam semesta, dikitari oleh matahari, tetapi semua planet lain berputar mengelilingi matahari sebagi suatu himpunan epicycle masif), atau variasi-variasi Sistem Kopernikan.
Gravitasi
[sunting | sunting sumber]Johannes Kepler,setelah menganalisis pengamatan akurat Tycho Brahe, menyusun ketiga hukum gerakan planetarinya (Hukum Gerakan Planet Kepler (Kepler's laws of planetary motion) pada tahun 1609 dan 1619, berdasarkan pandangan heliosentrik di mana gerakan planet-planet dalam jalur eliptik. Menggunakan hukum-hukum ini, Kepler merupakan astronom pertama yang dengan sukses meramalkan pergerakan planet Venus (untuk tahun 1631). Transisi dari orbit lingkaran ke jalur planetari eliptik secara dramatis mengubah keakuratan pengamatan dan peramalan selestial. Karena model heliosentrik Copernicus tidak lebih akurat dari sistem Ptolemaeus, pengamatan-pengamatan matematik diperlukan untuk meyakinkan mereka yang masih berpegang pada model geosentrik. Namun, pengamatan yang dibuat oleh Kepler, menggunakan data dari Brahe, menjadi problem yang tidak mudah dipecahkan oleh para penganut geosentrisme.
Pada tahun 1838, astronom Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel dengan sukses mengukur paralaks bintang 61 Cygni, membuktikan bahwa Ptolemaeus keliru dalam berpendapat bahwa gerakan paralaks tidak ada. Ini akhirnya menguatkan pernyataan Copernicus dengan pengamatan ilmiah yang akurat dan dapat diandalkan, serta menunjukkan betapa jauhnya bintang-bintang dari bumi.
Kerangka geosentrik berguna untuk aktivitas sehari-hari dan kebanyakan eksperimen laboratorium, namun kurang cocok untuk mekanika tata surya dan perjalanan di ruang angkasa. Meskipun kerangka heliosentrik berguna untuk hal-hal tersebut, astronomi galaksi maupun di luar galaksi menjadi lebih mudah jika matahari dianggap tidak diam ataupun menjadi pusat alam semesta, melainkan berputar mengelilingi pusat galaksi kita, dan galaksi kita selanjutnya juga tidak diam dalam hubungan dengan latar belakang kosmik.
Penganut geosentrisme agamawi dan kontemporari
[sunting | sunting sumber]![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Orlando-Ferguson-flat-earth-map_edit.jpg/300px-Orlando-Ferguson-flat-earth-map_edit.jpg)
Model Ptolemaik mengenai tata surya masih terus dianut sampai ke awal zaman modern. Sejak akhir abad ke-16 dan seterusnya perlahan-lahan digantikan sebagai penggambaran konsensus oleh model heliosentrisme. Geosentrisme sebagai suatu kepercayaan agamawi terpisah, tidak pernah padam. Di Amerika Serikat antara tahun 1870-1920, misalnya, berbagai anggota Gereja Lutheran – Sinode Missouri menerbitkan artikel-artikel yang menyerang sistem astronomi Kopernikan, dan geosentrisme banyak diajarkan di dalam sinode dalam periode tersebut.[22] Namun, pada tahun 1902 Theological Quarterly, A. L. Graebner menyatakan bahwa sinode itu tidak mempunyai posisi doktrinal terhadap geosentrisme, heliosentrisme, atau model ilmiah lainnya, kecuali kalau itu bertolak belakang dengan Alkitab. Ia menyatakan pula bahwa deklarasi apapun yang dikemukakan para penganut geosentrisme di dalam sinode bukan merupakan pendapat badan gereja secara keseluruhan.[23]
Artikel-artikel yang mendukung geosentrisme sebagai pandangan Alkitab muncul pada sejumlah surat kabar sains penciptaan yang berhubungan dengan Creation Research Society. Umumnya menunjuk kepada beberapa nas Alkitab, yang secara harfiah mengindikasikan pergerakan harian Matahari dan Bulan yang dapat diamati mengelilingi Bumi, bukan karena rotasi Bumi pada aksisnya, misalnya pada Yosua 10:12 di mana Matahari dan Bulan dikatakan berhenti di langit, dan Mazmur 93:1 di mana dunia digambarkan tidak bergerak.[24] Para pendukung kontemporer kepercayaan agamawi itu termasuk Robert Sungenis (presiden dariBellarmine Theological Forum dan pengarang buku terbitan tahun 2006 Galileo Was Wrong (Galileo keliru)).[25] Orang-orang ini mengajarkan pandangan bahwa pembacaan langsung Alkitab memuat kisah akurat bagaimana alam semesta diciptakan dan membutuhkan pandangan geosentrik. Kebanyakan organisasi kreasionis kontemporer menolak pandangan ini.[n 6]
Dari semuanya, Kopernikanisme merupakan kemenangan besar pertama sains atas agama, sehingga tidak dapat dihindari bahwa sejumlah orang berpikir semua yang salah dengan dunia ini bermula dari sana. (Steven Dutch dari University of Wisconsin–Madison) [27]
Morris Berman mengutip bahwa hasil survei menyatakan saat ini sekitar 20% penduduk Amerika Serikat percaya bahwa matahari mengitari bumi (geosentrisme) bukan bumi mengitari matahari (heliosentrisme), sementara 9% mengatakan tidak tahu.[28] Beberapa poll yang dilakukan oleh Gallup pada tahun 1990-an mendapati bahwa 16% orang Jermans, 18% orang Amerika dan 19% orang Inggris/Britania Raya percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.[29] Suatu studi yang dilakukan pada tahun 2005 oleh Jon D. Miller dari Northwestern University, seorang pakar pemahaman publik akan sains dan teknologi,[30] mendapati sekitar 20%, atau seperlima, orang dewasa Amerika percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.[31] Menurut poll tahun 2011 oleh VTSIOM, 32% orang Russia percaya bahwa Matahari mengitari Bumi.[32]
Albert Einstein berpendapat:
- Pergulatan, begitu keras di awal masa sains, antara pandangan Ptolemaeus dan Kopernikus, sebenarnya tidak berarti. Kedua sistem koordinat ini dapat digunakan dengan justifikasi setara. Kedua kalimat: "matahari diam dan bumi bergerak", atau "matahari bergerak dan bumi diam", hanya bermakna konvensi yang berbeda dari dua sistem koordinat yang berbeda.[33]
Stephen Hawking, dalam bukunya "The Grand Design", menyatakan pandangan yang tepat sama dengan Einstein:
- Maka apakah yang sesungguhnya, sistem Ptolemaik atau Kopernikan? Meskipun tidak jarang orang mengatakan Kopernikus membuktikan Ptolemaeus salah, hal ini tidak benar.[34]
Posisi historis hierarki Katolik Roma
[sunting | sunting sumber]Galileo affair yang terkenal menghadapkan model geosentrik dengan pernyataan Galileo. Mengenai basis teologi dari argumen semacam itu, dua orang Paus membahas pertanyaan apakah penggunaan bahasa fenomenologi (berdasarkan pengamatan) akan memaksa orang mengakui kesalahan Alkitab. Keduanya mengajarkan bahwa tidak demikian halnya.
Yudaisme Ortodoks
[sunting | sunting sumber]Sejumlah pemimpin Yudaisme Ortodoks, terutama Lubavitcher Rebbe, mempertahankan model geosentrik alam semesta berdasarkan ayat-ayat Alkitab dan penafsiran Maimonides sehingga ia mengajarkan bahwa bumi dikitari oleh matahari.[35][36] Lubavitcher Rebbe juga menjelaskan bahwa geosentrisme dapat dipertahankan berdasarkan teori Relativitas, di mana dinyatakan bahwa "ketika dua benda di udara bergerak relatif satu sama lain, ... ilmu alam mendeklarasikan dengan kepastian absolut bahwa dari segi sudut pandang ilmiah kedua kemungkinan itu valid, yaitu bumi mengitari matahari, atau matahari mengitari bumi."[37]
Meskipun geosentrisme penting untuk perhitungan kalender Maimonides,[38] mayoritas sarjana agamawi Yahudi, yang menerima keilahian Alkitab dan menerima banyak aturan-aturannya mengikat secara hukum, tidak percaya bahwa Alkitab maupun Maimonides memerintahkan untuk percaya pada geosentrisme.[36][39] Namun, ada bukti bahwa kepercayaan geosentrisme meningkat di antara umat Yahudi Ortodoks.[35][36]
Islam
[sunting | sunting sumber]Kasus-kasus prominent geosentrisme modern dalam Islam sangat terisolasi. Hanya sedikit individu yang mengajarkan suatu pandangan geosentrik alam semesta. Salah satunya adalah Grand Mufti Saudi Arabia tahun 1993-1999, Abd al-Aziz ibn Abd Allah ibn Baaz (Bin Baz), yang mengajarkan pandangan ini antara tahun 1966-1985.
Menurut Bin Baz, ”Telah tersebar pada zaman ini di kalangan para penulis dan pengajar bahwasanya bumi itu berputar sedangkan matahari itu tetap, dan pendapat ini diikuti oleh banyak orang, maka banyak sekali pertanyaan. Seputar masalah ini… Maka saya katakan: "Al-Quran dan as-Sunnah serta kesepakatan para ulama dan realita yang ada menunjukan bahwa matahari itu beredar di garis edarnya sebagaimana yang ditetapkan oleh Allah Ta’ala sedangkan bumi tetap tidak bergerak, yang mana Allah menyiapkan sebagai tempat tinggal dan Allah memantapkan dengan gunung-gunung agar tidak bergerak bersama mereka.”
Syaikh al-Utsaimin, ”Adapun pendapat kami tentang peredaran matahari mengelilingi bumi yang dengannya akan terjadi perubahan siang dan malam, maka kami berpegang dengan zhohir dari nash al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah bahwasanya matahari yang bergerak mengelilingi bumi yang dengannya terjadi pergeseran waktu siang dengan malam. Sehingga ada dalil yang qoth’I yang bisa dijadikan hujjah untuk bisa memalingkan dhohir nash al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah, dan manakah dalil itu?"
Menurut Syaikh Albani, "Dalam ilmu Geografi bumi memang bulat dan berputar, akan tetapi dalam ilmu agama, ia lebih cenderung memilih pendapat bahwa bumi dalam keadaan tetap dan datar, dengan dalil yang tersirat (bukan dalil tegas), karena tidak ada dalil yang tegas bahwa bumi itu bulat.
Planetarium
[sunting | sunting sumber]Model geosentrik (Ptolemaik) tata surya terus digunakan oleh para pembuat planetarium karena berdasarkan alasan teknis pergerakan tipe Ptolemaik untuk aparatus cahaya planet memiliki sejumlah kelebihan dibandingkan teori pergerakan Kopernikus.[40] Sistem bulatan selestial yang digunakan untuk tujuan pengajaran dan navigasi juga didasarkan pada sistem geosentrik[41] yang mengabaikan efek paralaks. Namun, efek ini dapat diabaikan pada skala akurasi yang diterapkan pada suatu planetarium.
Lihat pula
[sunting | sunting sumber]Catatan
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ Alam semesta Mesir secara isi sama dengan alam semesta Babel, yaitu digambarkan seperti kotak persegi panjang dengan orientasi utara-selatan dan dengn permukaan sedikit cembung, di mana Mesir adalah pusatnya. Pandangan astronomi Ibrani kuno yang serupa dapat dilihat dari tulisan-tulisan kitab suci, misalnya teori penciptaan semesta dan berbagai mazmur yang menyebut "cakrawala", bintang-bintang, matahari dan bumi. Orang Ibrani memandang bumi seakan-akan sebagai permukaan datar yang terdiri dari bagian padat dan cair, dan langit sebagai alam cahaya di mana benda-benda langit bergerak. Bumi ditopang oleh batu-batu penjuru dan tidak dapat digerakkan selain oleh Yahweh (misalnya dalam kaitan dengan gempa bumi). Menurut orang Ibrani, matahari dan bulan berjarak dekat satu sama lain[3]
- ^ Gambaran alam semesta dalam teks-teks Talmud adalah bumi di tengah ciptaan dengan langit sebagai bulatan yang dibentangkan di atasnya. Bumi biasanya digambarkan seperti sebuah piring yang dikelilingi oleh air. Yang menarik spekulasi kosmologi dan metafisika tidak ditanamkan dalam publik maupun dilestarikan dalam tulisan. Namun, dianggap lebih sebagai "rahasia-rahasia Taurat yang tidak seharusnya diturunkan semua orang dan kalangan" (Ketubot 112a). Meskipun studi penciptaan Allah tidak dilarang, spekulasi tentang "apa yang ada di atas, di bawah, yang ada sebelumnya dan yang kemudian" (Mishnah Hagigah: 2) dibatasi hanya untuk elite intelektual.[4]
- ^ Sebagaimana Midrash dan Talmud, Targum tidak berpandangan adanya suatu bulatan bumi, melainkan suatu piringan bumi datar, yang dikitari matahari dalam jalur setengah lingkaran yang ditempuh rata-rata dalam 12 jam.[5]
- ^ Argumen ini ditulis pada iBuku I, Bab 5, Almagest.[7]
- ^ "Semua astronom Islam dari Thabit ibn Qurra pada abad ke-9 sampai Ibn al-Shatir pada abad ke-14, dan semua filsuf alamiah dari al-Kindi sampai Averroes dan seterusnya, diketahui telah menerima ... gambaran dunia menurut budaya Yunani yang terdiri dari dua bulatan, di mana salah satunya, bulatan selestial ... secara bulat membungkus yang lain."[9]
- ^ Donald B. DeYoung, misalnya, menyatakan bahwa "Similar terminology is often used today when we speak of the sun's rising and setting, even though the earth, not the sun, is doing the moving. Bible writers used the 'language of appearance,' just as people always have. Without it, the intended message would be awkward at best and probably not understood clearly. When the Bible touches on scientific subjects, it is entirely accurate."[26]
Referensi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ Lawson, Russell M. (2004). Science in the Ancient World: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. hlm. 29–30. ISBN 1851095349.
- ^ Kuhn 1957, hlm. 5-20.
- ^ Abetti, Giorgio (2012). "Cosmology". Encyclopedia Americana (edisi ke-Online). Grolier.
- ^ Tirosh-Samuelson, Hava (2003). "Topic Overview: Judaism". Dalam van Huyssteen, J. Wentzel Vrede. Encyclopedia of Science and Religion. 2. New York: Macmillan Reference USA. hlm. 477–83.
- ^ Gandz, Solomon (1953). "The distribution of land and sea on the Earth's surface according to Hebrew sources". Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research. 22: 23–53.
- ^ Fraser, Craig G. (2006). The Cosmos: A Historical Perspective. hlm. 14.
- ^ Crowe 1990, hlm. 60–2
- ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (1967). "The Arabic version of Ptolemy's planetary hypothesis". Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 57 (pt. 4): 6. JSTOR 1006040.
- ^ Sabra, A. I. (1998). "Configuring the universe: Aporetic, problem solving, and kinematic modeling as themes of Arabic astronomy". Perspectives on Science. 6 (3): 317–8.
- ^ Rufus, W. C. (May 1939). "The influence of Islamic astronomy in Europe and the far east". Popular Astronomy. 47 (5): 233–8.
- ^ Hartner, Willy (1955). "The Mercury horoscope of Marcantonio Michiel of Venice". Vistas in Astronomy. 1: 118–22.
- ^ Goldstein, Bernard R. (1972). "Theory and observation in medieval astronomy". Isis. 63 (1): 41.
- ^ "Ptolemaic Astronomy, Islamic Planetary Theory, and Copernicus's Debt to the Maragha School". Science and Its Times. Thomson Gale. 2006.
- ^ Setia, Adi (2004). "Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on physics and the nature of the physical world: A preliminary survey". Islam & Science. 2.
- ^ Johansen, K. F.; Rosenmeier, H. (1998). A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Beginnings to Augustine. hlm. 43.
- ^ Sarton, George (1953). Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece. hlm. 290.
- ^ Eastwood, B. S. (1992-11-01). "Heraclides and heliocentrism – Texts diagrams and interpretations". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 23: 233.
- ^ Lindberg, David C. (2010). The Beginnings of Western Science: The European Scientific Tradition in Philosophical, Religious, and Institutional Context, Prehistory to A.D. 1450 (edisi ke-2nd). University of Chicago Press. hlm. 197. ISBN 9780226482040.
- ^ Lawson 2004, hlm. 19
- ^ Russell, Bertrand (2013) [1945]. A History of Western Philosophy. Routledge. hlm. 215. ISBN 9781134343676.
- ^ Finocchiaro, Maurice A. (2008). The Essential Galileo. Indianapolis, IL: Hackett. hlm. 49.
- ^ Babinski, E. T., ed. (1995). "Excerpts from Frank Zindler's 'Report from the center of the universe' and 'Turtles all the way down'". Cretinism of Evilution. TalkOrigins Archive (2). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-02-09. Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01.
- ^ Graebner, A. L. (1902). "Science and the church". Theological Quarterly. St. Louis, MO: Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states, Concordia Publishing. 6: 37–45.
- ^ Numbers, Ronald L. (1993). The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism. University of California Press. hlm. 237. ISBN 0520083938.
- ^ Sefton, Dru (2006-03-30). "In this world view, the sun revolves around the earth". Times-News. Hendersonville, NC. hlm. 5A. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2021-04-27. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-02.
- ^ DeYoung, Donald B. (1997-11-05). "Astronomy and the Bible: Selected questions and answers excerpted from the book". Answers in Genesis. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2011-08-05. Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01.
- ^ "Geocentrism lives". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-10-24. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-02.
- ^ Berman, Morris (2006). Dark Ages America: The Final Phase of Empire. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393058666.
- ^ Crabtree, Steve (1999-07-06). "New Poll Gauges Americans' General Knowledge Levels". Gallup. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2014-03-27. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-02.
- ^ "Jon D. Miller". Northwestern University website. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2009-02-04. Diakses tanggal 2007-07-19.
- ^ Dean, Cornelia (2005-08-30). "Scientific savvy? In U.S., not much". New York Times. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2014-08-25. Diakses tanggal 2007-07-19.
- ^ 'СОЛНЦЕ - СПУТНИК ЗЕМЛИ', ИЛИ РЕЙТИНГ НАУЧНЫХ ЗАБЛУЖДЕНИЙ РОССИЯН (dalam bahasa Rusia) (Пресс-выпуск №1684 [Press release no. 1684]), ВЦИОМ [All-Russian Center for the Study of Public Opinion], 2011-02-08, diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-01-31, diakses tanggal 2014-03-02.
- ^ Albert Einstein. "The Evolution of Physics: From Early Concepts to Relativity and Quanta", halaman 212
- ^ Stephen Hawking. "The Grand Design", halaman 41.
- ^ a b Nussbaum, Alexander (2007-12-19). "Orthodox Jews & science: An empirical study of their attitudes toward evolution, the fossil record, and modern geology". Skeptic Magazine. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-07-04. Diakses tanggal 2008-12-18.
- ^ a b c Nussbaum, Alexander (January–April 2002). "Creationism and geocentrism among Orthodox Jewish scientists". Reports of the National Center for Science Education: 38–43.
- ^ Schneersohn, Menachem Mendel; Gotfryd, Arnie (2003). Mind over Matter: The Lubavitcher Rebbe on Science, Technology and Medicine. Shamir. hlm. 76ff.; cf. xvi-xvii, 69, 100–1, 171–2, 408ff. ISBN 9789652930804.
- ^ "Sefer Zemanim: Kiddush HaChodesh: Chapter 11". Mishneh Torah. Translated by Touger, Eliyahu. Chabad-Lubavitch Media Center. Halacha 13–14. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2023-06-22. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-02.
- ^ Rabinowitz, Avi (1987). "EgoCentrism and GeoCentrism; Human Significance and Existential Despair; Bible and Science; Fundamentalism and Skepticalism". Science & Religion. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2011-03-14. Diakses tanggal 2013-12-01. Published in Branover, Herman; Attia, Ilana Coven, ed. (1994). Science in the Light of Torah: A B'Or Ha'Torah Reader. Jason Aronson. ISBN 9781568210346.
- ^ Hort, William Jillard (1822). A General View of the Sciences and Arts. hlm. 182.
- ^ Kaler, James B. (2002). The Ever-changing Sky: A Guide to the Celestial Sphere. hlm. 25.
Pustaka
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Crowe, Michael J. (1990). Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. ISBN 0486261735.
- Dreyer, J.L.E. (1953). A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler. New York: Dover Publications.
- Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Heath, Thomas (1913). Aristarchus of Samos. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Hoyle, Fred (1973). Nicolaus Copernicus.
- Koestler, Arthur (1986) [1959]. The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe. Penguin Books. ISBN 014055212X. 1990 reprint: ISBN 0-14-019246-8.
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