Supervulkan: Perbedaan antara revisi
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[[Berkas:Supervolcano World Map.png|jmpl|ka|500px|Peta supervulkan yang dikenal di seluruh dunia: |
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'''Supervolcano''' adalah letusan vulkanik dengan [[ejecta]] lebih besar dari 1.000 kilometer kubik, yang lebih besar dari peristiwa vulkanik manapun dalam sejarah.<ref>http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/about/faq/faqsupervolcano.php#supervolcano</ref> Supervolcano dapat terjadi ketika [[magma]] di [[Bumi]] naik ke kerak tetapi tidak mampu melewati kerak. Meningkatnya tekanan membuat kerak tidak dapat menahan tekanan. Supervolcano juga dapat membentuk batas lempeng konvergen (contohnya [[Danau Toba|Toba]]). Istilah supervolcano relatif baru bagi ilmu pengetahuan. |
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{{legend|#ED1C24|[[Skala kekuatan ledakan vulkanis|Skala ledakan vulkanis (VEI) 8]]}} |
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{{legend|#FF7E00|[[Skala kekuatan ledakan vulkanis|Skala ledakan vulkanis (VEI) 7]]}}]] |
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'''Supervulkan''', sering pula disebut '''gunung berapi super''' atau '''gunung berapi raksasa''' adalah [[gunung berapi]] yang mampu menghasilkan letusan vulkanis dengan [[ejekta]] lebih besar dari 1.000 kilometer kubik, yang lebih besar dari peristiwa vulkanis manapun dalam sejarah.<ref>http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/about/faq/faqsupervolcano.php#supervolcano</ref> Supervulkan dapat terjadi ketika [[magma]] di [[Bumi]] naik ke kerak tetapi tidak mampu melewati kerak. Meningkatnya tekanan membuat kerak tidak dapat menahan tekanan. Supervulkan juga dapat membentuk batas lempeng konvergen (contohnya [[Danau Toba|Toba]]). Istilah supervulkan relatif baru bagi ilmu pengetahuan. |
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[[Discovery Channel]] telah mendokumentasikan tujuh |
[[Discovery Channel]] telah mendokumentasikan tujuh supervulkan:<ref>{{cite web|last1=O'Hanlon|first1=Larry|title=Supervolcano: Yellowstone's Super Sisters|url=http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/others/others.html|publisher=[[Discovery Channel]]|date=|accessdate=30 September 2009}}</ref> [[Kaldera Yellowstone]], [[Kaldera Long Valley|Long Valley]], dan [[Kaldera Valles|Valles]] di [[Amerika Serikat]]; [[Danau Toba]], [[Sumatera Utara]], [[Indonesia]]; [[Gunung berapi taupo|Gunung Taupo]], [[Selandia Baru]]; [[Kaldera Aira]], [[Kyūshū]], [[Jepang]]; dan ''[[Siberian Traps]]'', [[Rusia]]. Meskipun jumlah supervulkan dapat dihitung dengan jari, tetapi letusan supervulkan dapat menyebabkan perubahan iklim yang drastis (seperti menyebabkan [[Zaman Es Kecil|zaman es kecil]]) yang dapat mengancam spesies di dunia. |
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== Letusan besar yang masif == |
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{{Lihat pula|Daftar letusan gunung terbesar}} |
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Letusan gunung berapi diklasifikasikan menggunakan [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (Index Ledakan Gunung berapi), atau VEI. Ini adalah [[skala logaritmik]], yang berarti bahwa peningkatan satu nilai VEI setara dengan peningkatan sepuluh kali lipat volume material yang meletus. Letusan VEI 7 dan VEI 8 sangat kuat sehingga sering membentuk kaldera melingkar daripada [[Kerucut gunung berapi|kerucut]] kerena penarikan magma ke bawah menyebabkan massa batuan di atasnya runtuh ke [[ruang magma]] yang kosong di bawahnya. |
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=== Supervulkan yang diketahui === |
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Berdasarkan stastik yang tidak lengkap, sedikitnya 60 letusan VEI 8 telah diidentifikasi.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bryan|first=Scott E.|last2=Peate|first2=Ingrid Ukstins|last3=Peate|first3=David W.|last4=Self|first4=Stephen|last5=Jerram|first5=Dougal A.|last6=Mawby|first6=Michael R.|last7=Marsh|first7=J.S. (Goonie)|last8=Miller|first8=Jodie A.|date=2010-10|title=The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825210000814|journal=Earth-Science Reviews|language=en|volume=102|issue=3-4|pages=207–229|doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001}}</ref><ref>BG, Mason (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bull Volcanol. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497</ref> Di bawah ini adalah daftar dari letusan super (supererupsi) yang diketahui. |
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{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" style="whitespace:no-wrap" |
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|+ Letusan [[Volcanic Explosivity Index|VEI]] 8 telah terjadi di lokasi berikut ini. |
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!Nama |
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!Wilayah |
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!Lokasi |
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!class=unsortable|Catatan |
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!Tahun yang lalu (perkiraan) |
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!Volume massal ejekta (perkiraan) |
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!class=unsortable|Referensi |
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|- |
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| [[Teori bencana Toba|Letusan Toba termuda]] |
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| [[Danau Toba|Kaldera Toba]], [[Sumatera Utara]] |
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| [[Sumatra]], Indonesia |
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| Menghasilkan 2200–4400 juta ton [[H2SO4|H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>]] |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 75,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| {{sort|7,600|2,000–13,200 km<sup>3</sup>}} |
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|<ref name=sci>{{cite journal|journal= Science|doi=10.1126/science.1141564 |year=2007|title= Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption|last1= Petraglia|first1= M.|last2= Korisettar|first2= R.|last3= Boivin|first3= N.|last4= Clarkson|first4= C.|last5= Ditchfield|first5= P.|last6= Jones|first6= S.|last7= Koshy|first7= J.|last8= Lahr|first8= M. M.|last9= Oppenheimer|first9= C.|last10=Pyle |first10=D. |last11=Roberts |first11=R. |last12=Schwenninger |first12=J.-L. |last13=Arnold |first13=L. |last14=White |first14=K. |volume= 317|issue= 5834|pages= 114–116|pmid= 17615356|bibcode = 2007Sci...317..114P |s2cid=20380351 |display-authors=8 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/era/2117 }}</ref><ref name="Knight, M.D. 1986, p. 10,355">{{cite journal|author=Knight, M.D., Walker, G.P.L., Ellwood, B.B., and Diehl, J.F.|year=1986|title= Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism, and magnetic fabric of the Toba Tuffs: Constraints on their sources and eruptive styles|journal= Journal of Geophysical Research|volume= 91|issue=B10|pages= 10355–10382|doi=10.1029/JB091iB10p10355|bibcode=1986JGR....9110355K}}</ref><ref name="Ninkovich, D. 1978, pp. 286–298">{{cite journal|author=Ninkovich, D., Sparks, R.S.J., and Ledbetter, M.T.|year= 1978|title= The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, Sumatra: An example of using deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool|bibcode=1978BVol...41..286N|doi=10.1007/BF02597228|journal= Bulletin Volcanologique|volume= 41|pages=286–298|issue=3|s2cid= 128626019}}</ref><ref name="geo.mtu.edu">{{cite journal|author1=Rose, W.I.|author2=Chesner, C.A.|name-list-style=amp|year=1987|url=http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/RoseTobaFallGeology.pdf|title=Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption, 75 ka|journal=Geology|volume=15|pages=913–917|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2|issue=10|issn=0091-7613|bibcode=1987Geo....15..913R|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100617032134/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/~raman/papers/RoseTobaFallGeology.pdf|archive-date=17 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="Williams, M.A.J. 1982, pp. 139–162">{{cite journal|author1=Williams, M.A.J. |author2=Royce, K. |name-list-style=amp |year= 1982|doi=10.1016/0031-0182(82)90001-3|title=Quaternary geology of the middle son valley, North Central India: Implications for prehistoric archaeology|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=38|issue=3–4|page=139 |bibcode=1982PPP....38..139W }}</ref><ref name="usgs.gov">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-a-supervolcano?qt-news_science_products=0#qt-news_science_products|title = What is a supervolcano? What is a supereruption?}}</ref><ref name="geology.com"/><ref name="Costa">{{cite journal |doi=10.3389/feart.2014.00016 |author1=Antonio Costa |author2=Victoria C. Smith |author3=Giovanni Macedonio |author4=Naomi E. Matthews |date=2014 |title=The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=2 |page=16 |bibcode=2014FrEaS...2...16C |doi-access=free }}</ref> |
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| [[Formasi Sungai Pendaratan Datar]] |
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| Grup Tetagouche |
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| [[New Brunswick]], Kanada |
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| Mungkin supererupsi terbesar yang diketahui. Keberadaannya sebagai letusan tunggal diperdebatkan, dan bisa menjadi peristiwa 2,000+ km³ berganda yang muncul kurang dari satu juta tahun. |
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| style="text-align:right;" | 466,000,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;" | {{sort|7,000|2,000–12,000 km<sup>3</sup>}} |
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|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dnr-mrn.gnb.ca/Lexicon/Lexicon/Lexicon_View.aspx?UnitId=137|title=Lexique du substrat rocheux|website=dnr-mrn.gnb.ca|access-date=2019-12-22}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/doc/StJohns2012_GAC-MAC_Abstracts.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212184601/http://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/doc/StJohns2012_GAC-MAC_Abstracts.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Pegunungan Wah Wah|Wah Wah Springs]] |
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| Kompleks Kaldera Indian Peak–Caliente |
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| [[Utah]], Amerika Serikat |
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| Letusan terbesar dari Kompleks Kaldera Indian Peak-Caliente, bertahan sebagai [[Tuf]] Wah Wah Springs; termasuk aliran piroklastik dengan tebal lebih dari {{Convert|13000|ft|m|order=flip|sp=us}}. |
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| style="text-align:right;" | 30,600,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;" | {{sort|5,700|5,500–5,900 km<sup>3</sup>}} |
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|<ref name="geology.com">{{Cite web|url=https://geology.com/stories/13/volcanic-explosivity-index/|title = Volcanic Explosivity Index: Measuring the size of an eruption}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tingey|first1=David G.|last2=Hart|first2=Garret L.|last3=Gromme|first3=Sherman|last4=Deino|first4=Alan L.|last5=Christiansen|first5=Eric H.|last6=Best|first6=Myron G.|date=2013-08-01|title=The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions|journal=Geosphere|language=en|volume=9|issue=4|pages=864–950|doi=10.1130/GES00902.1|bibcode=2013Geosp...9..864B|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Kaldera La Garita]] |
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| [[Lapangan vulkanik San Juan]] |
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| [[Colorado]], Amerika Serikat |
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| [[Tuf Fish Canyon|Letusan Fish Canyon]] |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 27,800,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 5,000 km<sup>3</sup> |
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|<ref>{{cite web|title=La Garita Caldera |url=http://staff.aist.go.jp/s-takarada/CEV/newsletter/lagarita.html |last=Ort |first=Michael |publisher=[[Northern Arizona University]] |date=22 September 1997 |access-date=5 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519165154/http://staff.aist.go.jp/s-takarada/CEV/newsletter/lagarita.html |archive-date=19 May 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Lipman">{{cite journal |last=Lipman |first=Peter W. |title=Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster, Southwestern Colorado |series=USGS Investigations Series I-2799 |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2799/ |date=2007-11-02 |access-date=6 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831221119/http://pubs.usgs.gov/imap/i2799/ |archive-date=31 August 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> |
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|Supererupsi Pendaratan Grey |
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|Titik panas Yellowstone |
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|Amerika Serikat |
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|Didepositkan sebagai Ignimbrit Pendaratan Grey |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 8,720,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 2,800 km<sup>3</sup> |
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|<ref name=Strangesounds> |
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{{cite web |
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| url = https://strangesounds.org/2020/06/discovery-two-new-yellowstone-super-eruptions-hotspot-waning.html#:~:text=The%20Grey%E2%80%99s%20Landing%20Super-eruption%20The%20ca.%208.72%20Ma,and%20hottest%20documented%20eruption%20from%20the%20Yellowstone%20hotspot | title = Discovery of Two Ancient Yellowstone Super-Eruptions, Including the Volcanic Province's Largest and Most Cataclysmic Event, Indicates the Yellowstone Hotspot Is Waning| date = 5 June 2020}}</ref> |
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|[[La Pacana]] |
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|[[Sabuk Vulkanik Andes|Zona Vulkanik Pusat Andes]] |
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|Chili |
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|Bertanggung jawab atas Ignimbrit Antana |
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|style="text-align:right;"|4,000,000 |
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|style="text-align:right;"|2,500 km<sup>3</sup> |
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|<ref name="Lindsay2001">{{Cite journal|last=Lindsay|first=J. M.|date=2001-03-01|title=Magmatic Evolution of the La Pacana Caldera System, Central Andes, Chile: Compositional Variation of Two Cogenetic, Large-Volume Felsic Ignimbrites|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=42|issue=3|pages=459–486|doi=10.1093/petrology/42.3.459|issn=0022-3530|bibcode=2001JPet...42..459L|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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| [[Tuf Huckleberry Ridge|Letusan Huckleberry Ridge]] |
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| [[Titik panas Yellowstone]] |
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|[[Idaho]], Amerika Serikat |
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| [[Tuf]] Huckleberry Ridge; terdiri dari tiga letusan yang berbeda dipisahkan oleh tahun hingga dekade |
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| style="text-align:right;" | 2,100,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;" |{{sort|2,475|2,450–2,500 km<sup>3</sup>}} |
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| <ref name="usgs.gov" /><ref name="largeeruptions" /> |
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| [[Gunung Taupō|Taupō-nui-a-Tia]] |
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| [[Zona Vulkanik Taupō]] |
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| [[Pulau Utara]], Selandia Baru |
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| Ignimbrit Whakamaru/Gunung Curl Tephra |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 340,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 2,000 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref>{{Cite journal|last=Froggatt |first=P. C. |author2=Nelson, C. S. |author3=Carter, L. |author4=Griggs, G. |author5= Black, K. P. |date=13 February 1986|title=An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand |journal=Nature |volume=319 |pages=578–582 |doi=10.1038/319578a0 |quote=The minimum total volume of tephra is 1,200 km<sup>3</sup> but probably nearer 2,000 km<sup>3</sup>, ... |issue=6054|bibcode = 1986Natur.319..578F |s2cid=4332421 }}</ref> |
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|- |
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|[[Lapangan Vulkanik Heise]] |
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| [[Titik panas Yellowstone]] |
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| [[Idaho]], Amerika Serikat |
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| Tuf Kilgore |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 4,500,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,800 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref name="Morgan">{{cite journal|doi=10.1130/B25519.1 |author1=Lisa A. Morgan |author2=William C. McIntosh |s2cid=53648675 |name-list-style=amp |title=Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA|journal=GSA Bulletin|year=2005|volume=117|issue=3–4|pages=288–306|bibcode = 2005GSAB..117..288M }}</ref> |
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|- |
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| Supererupsi McMullen |
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| [[Titik panas Yellowstone]] |
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|[[Idaho]] Selatan, Amerika Serikat |
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| Ignimbrit McMullen |
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| style="text-align:right;" | 8,990,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;" |1,700;km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref name=Strangesounds/> |
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|- |
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|[[Lapangan Vulkanik Heise]] |
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| [[Titik panas Yellowstone]] |
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| [[Idaho]], Amerika Serikat |
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| Tuf Blacktail <!-- Creek --> |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 6,000,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,500 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref name="Morgan" /> |
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| [[Cerro Guacha]] |
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| [[Kompleks vulkanik Altiplano-Puna]] |
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| [[Provinsi Sur Lípez|Sur Lípez]], Bolivia |
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| Ignimbrit Guacha, dua letusan yang lebih kecil diidentifikasi |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 5,700,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,300 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref>{{cite journal|last1=Salisbury|first1=M. J.|last2=Jicha|first2=B. R.|last3=de Silva|first3=S. L.|last4=Singer|first4=B. S.|last5=Jimenez|first5=N. C.|last6=Ort|first6=M. H.|title=40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin|date=21 December 2010|volume=123|issue=5–6|pages=821–840|doi=10.1130/B30280.1|bibcode=2011GSAB..123..821S|df=dmy-all}}</ref> |
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|- |
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| Kaldera Mangakino |
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| [[Zona Vulkanik Taupō]] |
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| [[Pulau Utara]], Selandia Baru |
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| Letusan Kidnappers |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,080,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,200 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref>[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012AGUFM.V31C2797C Rejuvenation and Repeated Eruption of a 1.0 Ma Supervolcanic System at Mangakino Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand] American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2012, abstract #V31C-2797. Retrieved 10 September 2017.</ref> |
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| [[Letusan Oruanui]] |
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| [[Zona vulkanik Taupō|Zona Vulkanik Taupō]] |
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| [[Pulau Utara]], Selandia Baru |
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| [[Gunung Taupō]] ([[Danau Taupō]]) |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 26,500 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,170 km<sup>3</sup> |
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|<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wilson|first=C. J. N|date=2001-12-01|title=The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: an introduction and overview|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377027301002396|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|language=en|volume=112|issue=1|pages=133–174|doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6|bibcode=2001JVGR..112..133W|issn=0377-0273}}</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Cerro Galán]] |
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| [[Sabuk Vulkanik Andes|Zona Vulkanik Pusat Andes]] |
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| [[Provinsi Catamarca|Catamarca]], Argentina |
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|Terdiri dari tiga letusan yang berbeda, dipisahkan oleh 30-40 ribu tahun |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 2,500,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,050 km<sup>3</sup> |
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|<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kay|first1=Suzanne Mahlburg|last2=Coira|first2=Beatriz|last3=Wörner|first3=Gerhard|last4=Kay|first4=Robert W.|last5=Singer|first5=Bradley S.|date=2011-12-01|title=Geochemical, isotopic and single crystal 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on the evolution of the Cerro Galán ignimbrites|journal=Bulletin of Volcanology|language=en|volume=73|issue=10|pages=1487–1511|doi=10.1007/s00445-010-0410-7|bibcode=2011BVol...73.1487K|issn=1432-0819|doi-access=free}}</ref> |
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|- |
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| [[Letusan Lava Creek]] |
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| [[Yellowstone hotspot|Titik panas Yellowstone]] |
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| [[Idaho]], [[Montana]], dan [[Wyoming]], Amerika Serikat |
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| [[Tuf Lava Creek]]; terdiri dari dua letusan berbeda yang dipisahkan oleh tahun |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 640,000 |
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| style="text-align:right;"| 1,000 km<sup>3</sup> |
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| <ref name="usgs.gov"/><ref name="geology.com"/><ref name="largeeruptions">[http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm Global Volcanism Program | Volcanoes of the World | Large Holocene Eruptions] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213010407/http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm |date=13 February 2010 }}. Volcano.si.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.</ref> |
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== Lihat pula == |
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* [[Resiko bencana global]] – Peristiwa yang secara hipotetis dapat membahayakan manusia secara global |
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* [[Garis waktu vulkanisme di Bumi]] – Daftar artikel Wikipedia |
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* [[Teori bencana Toba]] – Letusan super 75,000 tahun yang lalu yang mungkin menyebabkan musim dingin vulkanik global |
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* [[Musim dingin vulkanik]] – Peristiwa anomali suhu yang disebabkan oleh letusan gunung berapi |
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== Referensi == |
== Referensi == |
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| Baris 8: | Baris 167: | ||
== Pranala luar == |
== Pranala luar == |
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* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes.shtml Overview and Transcript of the original BBC program] |
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/1999/supervolcanoes.shtml Overview and Transcript of the original BBC program] |
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* [http://www.solcomhouse.com/yellowstone.htm Yellowstone Supervolcano and Map of Supervolcanoes Around The World] |
* [http://www.solcomhouse.com/yellowstone.htm Yellowstone Supervolcano and Map of Supervolcanoes Around The World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140805044437/http://www.solcomhouse.com/yellowstone.htm |date=2014-08-05 }} |
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* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3024/ USGS Fact Sheet - Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions - What's in Yellowstone's Future?] |
* [http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2005/3024/ USGS Fact Sheet - Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions - What's in Yellowstone's Future?] |
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* [http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/supervolcano.html Discovery Channel's site on "Supervolcano"] |
* [http://dsc.discovery.com/convergence/supervolcano/supervolcano.html Discovery Channel's site on "Supervolcano"] |
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| Baris 15: | Baris 174: | ||
* [http://www.armageddononline.org Armageddon Online - Latest news covering super volcano activity since 1999 ] |
* [http://www.armageddononline.org Armageddon Online - Latest news covering super volcano activity since 1999 ] |
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Revisi terkini sejak 14 Juni 2024 22.14
Supervulkan, sering pula disebut gunung berapi super atau gunung berapi raksasa adalah gunung berapi yang mampu menghasilkan letusan vulkanis dengan ejekta lebih besar dari 1.000 kilometer kubik, yang lebih besar dari peristiwa vulkanis manapun dalam sejarah.[1] Supervulkan dapat terjadi ketika magma di Bumi naik ke kerak tetapi tidak mampu melewati kerak. Meningkatnya tekanan membuat kerak tidak dapat menahan tekanan. Supervulkan juga dapat membentuk batas lempeng konvergen (contohnya Toba). Istilah supervulkan relatif baru bagi ilmu pengetahuan.
Discovery Channel telah mendokumentasikan tujuh supervulkan:[2] Kaldera Yellowstone, Long Valley, dan Valles di Amerika Serikat; Danau Toba, Sumatera Utara, Indonesia; Gunung Taupo, Selandia Baru; Kaldera Aira, Kyūshū, Jepang; dan Siberian Traps, Rusia. Meskipun jumlah supervulkan dapat dihitung dengan jari, tetapi letusan supervulkan dapat menyebabkan perubahan iklim yang drastis (seperti menyebabkan zaman es kecil) yang dapat mengancam spesies di dunia.
Letusan besar yang masif
[sunting | sunting sumber]Letusan gunung berapi diklasifikasikan menggunakan Volcanic Explosivity Index (Index Ledakan Gunung berapi), atau VEI. Ini adalah skala logaritmik, yang berarti bahwa peningkatan satu nilai VEI setara dengan peningkatan sepuluh kali lipat volume material yang meletus. Letusan VEI 7 dan VEI 8 sangat kuat sehingga sering membentuk kaldera melingkar daripada kerucut kerena penarikan magma ke bawah menyebabkan massa batuan di atasnya runtuh ke ruang magma yang kosong di bawahnya.
Supervulkan yang diketahui
[sunting | sunting sumber]Berdasarkan stastik yang tidak lengkap, sedikitnya 60 letusan VEI 8 telah diidentifikasi.[3][4] Di bawah ini adalah daftar dari letusan super (supererupsi) yang diketahui.
| Nama | Wilayah | Lokasi | Catatan | Tahun yang lalu (perkiraan) | Volume massal ejekta (perkiraan) | Referensi |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Letusan Toba termuda | Kaldera Toba, Sumatera Utara | Sumatra, Indonesia | Menghasilkan 2200–4400 juta ton H2SO4 | 75,000 | 2,000–13,200 km3 | [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12] |
| Formasi Sungai Pendaratan Datar | Grup Tetagouche | New Brunswick, Kanada | Mungkin supererupsi terbesar yang diketahui. Keberadaannya sebagai letusan tunggal diperdebatkan, dan bisa menjadi peristiwa 2,000+ km³ berganda yang muncul kurang dari satu juta tahun. | 466,000,000 | 2,000–12,000 km3 | [13][14] |
| Wah Wah Springs | Kompleks Kaldera Indian Peak–Caliente | Utah, Amerika Serikat | Letusan terbesar dari Kompleks Kaldera Indian Peak-Caliente, bertahan sebagai Tuf Wah Wah Springs; termasuk aliran piroklastik dengan tebal lebih dari 4.000 meter (13.000 ft). | 30,600,000 | 5,500–5,900 km3 | [11][15] |
| Kaldera La Garita | Lapangan vulkanik San Juan | Colorado, Amerika Serikat | Letusan Fish Canyon | 27,800,000 | 5,000 km3 | [16][17] |
| Supererupsi Pendaratan Grey | Titik panas Yellowstone | Amerika Serikat | Didepositkan sebagai Ignimbrit Pendaratan Grey | 8,720,000 | 2,800 km3 | [18] |
| La Pacana | Zona Vulkanik Pusat Andes | Chili | Bertanggung jawab atas Ignimbrit Antana | 4,000,000 | 2,500 km3 | [19] |
| Letusan Huckleberry Ridge | Titik panas Yellowstone | Idaho, Amerika Serikat | Tuf Huckleberry Ridge; terdiri dari tiga letusan yang berbeda dipisahkan oleh tahun hingga dekade | 2,100,000 | 2,450–2,500 km3 | [10][20] |
| Taupō-nui-a-Tia | Zona Vulkanik Taupō | Pulau Utara, Selandia Baru | Ignimbrit Whakamaru/Gunung Curl Tephra | 340,000 | 2,000 km3 | [21] |
| Lapangan Vulkanik Heise | Titik panas Yellowstone | Idaho, Amerika Serikat | Tuf Kilgore | 4,500,000 | 1,800 km3 | [22] |
| Supererupsi McMullen | Titik panas Yellowstone | Idaho Selatan, Amerika Serikat | Ignimbrit McMullen | 8,990,000 | 1,700;km3 | [18] |
| Lapangan Vulkanik Heise | Titik panas Yellowstone | Idaho, Amerika Serikat | Tuf Blacktail | 6,000,000 | 1,500 km3 | [22] |
| Cerro Guacha | Kompleks vulkanik Altiplano-Puna | Sur Lípez, Bolivia | Ignimbrit Guacha, dua letusan yang lebih kecil diidentifikasi | 5,700,000 | 1,300 km3 | [23] |
| Kaldera Mangakino | Zona Vulkanik Taupō | Pulau Utara, Selandia Baru | Letusan Kidnappers | 1,080,000 | 1,200 km3 | [24] |
| Letusan Oruanui | Zona Vulkanik Taupō | Pulau Utara, Selandia Baru | Gunung Taupō (Danau Taupō) | 26,500 | 1,170 km3 | [25] |
| Cerro Galán | Zona Vulkanik Pusat Andes | Catamarca, Argentina | Terdiri dari tiga letusan yang berbeda, dipisahkan oleh 30-40 ribu tahun | 2,500,000 | 1,050 km3 | [26] |
| Letusan Lava Creek | Titik panas Yellowstone | Idaho, Montana, dan Wyoming, Amerika Serikat | Tuf Lava Creek; terdiri dari dua letusan berbeda yang dipisahkan oleh tahun | 640,000 | 1,000 km3 | [10][11][20] |
Lihat pula
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Resiko bencana global – Peristiwa yang secara hipotetis dapat membahayakan manusia secara global
- Garis waktu vulkanisme di Bumi – Daftar artikel Wikipedia
- Teori bencana Toba – Letusan super 75,000 tahun yang lalu yang mungkin menyebabkan musim dingin vulkanik global
- Musim dingin vulkanik – Peristiwa anomali suhu yang disebabkan oleh letusan gunung berapi
Referensi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/about/faq/faqsupervolcano.php#supervolcano
- ^ O'Hanlon, Larry. "Supervolcano: Yellowstone's Super Sisters". Discovery Channel. Diakses tanggal 30 September 2009.
- ^ Bryan, Scott E.; Peate, Ingrid Ukstins; Peate, David W.; Self, Stephen; Jerram, Dougal A.; Mawby, Michael R.; Marsh, J.S. (Goonie); Miller, Jodie A. (2010-10). "The largest volcanic eruptions on Earth". Earth-Science Reviews (dalam bahasa Inggris). 102 (3-4): 207–229. doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.001.
- ^ BG, Mason (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bull Volcanol. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9. S2CID 129680497
- ^ Petraglia, M.; Korisettar, R.; Boivin, N.; Clarkson, C.; Ditchfield, P.; Jones, S.; Koshy, J.; Lahr, M. M.; et al. (2007). "Middle Paleolithic Assemblages from the Indian Subcontinent Before and After the Toba Super-Eruption". Science. 317 (5834): 114–116. Bibcode:2007Sci...317..114P. doi:10.1126/science.1141564. PMID 17615356.
- ^ Knight, M.D., Walker, G.P.L., Ellwood, B.B., and Diehl, J.F. (1986). "Stratigraphy, paleomagnetism, and magnetic fabric of the Toba Tuffs: Constraints on their sources and eruptive styles". Journal of Geophysical Research. 91 (B10): 10355–10382. Bibcode:1986JGR....9110355K. doi:10.1029/JB091iB10p10355.
- ^ Ninkovich, D., Sparks, R.S.J., and Ledbetter, M.T. (1978). "The exceptional magnitude and intensity of the Toba eruption, Sumatra: An example of using deep-sea tephra layers as a geological tool". Bulletin Volcanologique. 41 (3): 286–298. Bibcode:1978BVol...41..286N. doi:10.1007/BF02597228.
- ^ Rose, W.I.; Chesner, C.A. (1987). "Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption, 75 ka" (PDF). Geology. 15 (10): 913–917. Bibcode:1987Geo....15..913R. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<913:DOAITG>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 17 June 2010.
- ^ Williams, M.A.J.; Royce, K. (1982). "Quaternary geology of the middle son valley, North Central India: Implications for prehistoric archaeology". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 38 (3–4): 139. Bibcode:1982PPP....38..139W. doi:10.1016/0031-0182(82)90001-3.
- ^ a b c "What is a supervolcano? What is a supereruption?".
- ^ a b c "Volcanic Explosivity Index: Measuring the size of an eruption".
- ^ Antonio Costa; Victoria C. Smith; Giovanni Macedonio; Naomi E. Matthews (2014). "The magnitude and impact of the Youngest Toba Tuff super-eruption". Frontiers in Earth Science. 2: 16. Bibcode:2014FrEaS...2...16C. doi:10.3389/feart.2014.00016
.
- ^ "Lexique du substrat rocheux". dnr-mrn.gnb.ca. Diakses tanggal 2019-12-22.
- ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2019-12-12. Diakses tanggal 2019-09-11.
- ^ Tingey, David G.; Hart, Garret L.; Gromme, Sherman; Deino, Alan L.; Christiansen, Eric H.; Best, Myron G. (2013-08-01). "The 36–18 Ma Indian Peak–Caliente ignimbrite field and calderas, southeastern Great Basin, USA: Multicyclic super-eruptions". Geosphere (dalam bahasa Inggris). 9 (4): 864–950. Bibcode:2013Geosp...9..864B. doi:10.1130/GES00902.1 .
- ^ Ort, Michael (22 September 1997). "La Garita Caldera". Northern Arizona University. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 19 May 2011. Diakses tanggal 5 August 2010.
- ^ Lipman, Peter W. (2007-11-02). "Geologic Map of the Central San Juan Caldera Cluster, Southwestern Colorado". USGS Investigations Series I-2799. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 31 August 2010. Diakses tanggal 6 August 2010.
- ^ a b "Discovery of Two Ancient Yellowstone Super-Eruptions, Including the Volcanic Province's Largest and Most Cataclysmic Event, Indicates the Yellowstone Hotspot Is Waning". 5 June 2020.
- ^ Lindsay, J. M. (2001-03-01). "Magmatic Evolution of the La Pacana Caldera System, Central Andes, Chile: Compositional Variation of Two Cogenetic, Large-Volume Felsic Ignimbrites". Journal of Petrology. 42 (3): 459–486. Bibcode:2001JPet...42..459L. doi:10.1093/petrology/42.3.459 . ISSN 0022-3530.
- ^ a b Global Volcanism Program | Volcanoes of the World | Large Holocene Eruptions Diarsipkan 13 February 2010 di Wayback Machine.. Volcano.si.edu. Retrieved on 2011-11-18.
- ^ Froggatt, P. C.; Nelson, C. S.; Carter, L.; Griggs, G.; Black, K. P. (13 February 1986). "An exceptionally large late Quaternary eruption from New Zealand". Nature. 319 (6054): 578–582. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..578F. doi:10.1038/319578a0.
The minimum total volume of tephra is 1,200 km3 but probably nearer 2,000 km3, ...
- ^ a b Lisa A. Morgan; William C. McIntosh (2005). "Timing and development of the Heise volcanic field, Snake River Plain, Idaho, western USA". GSA Bulletin. 117 (3–4): 288–306. Bibcode:2005GSAB..117..288M. doi:10.1130/B25519.1.
- ^ Salisbury, M. J.; Jicha, B. R.; de Silva, S. L.; Singer, B. S.; Jimenez, N. C.; Ort, M. H. (21 December 2010). "40Ar/39Ar chronostratigraphy of Altiplano-Puna volcanic complex ignimbrites reveals the development of a major magmatic province". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 123 (5–6): 821–840. Bibcode:2011GSAB..123..821S. doi:10.1130/B30280.1.
- ^ Rejuvenation and Repeated Eruption of a 1.0 Ma Supervolcanic System at Mangakino Caldera, Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting 2012, abstract #V31C-2797. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
- ^ Wilson, C. J. N (2001-12-01). "The 26.5ka Oruanui eruption, New Zealand: an introduction and overview". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research (dalam bahasa Inggris). 112 (1): 133–174. Bibcode:2001JVGR..112..133W. doi:10.1016/S0377-0273(01)00239-6. ISSN 0377-0273.
- ^ Kay, Suzanne Mahlburg; Coira, Beatriz; Wörner, Gerhard; Kay, Robert W.; Singer, Bradley S. (2011-12-01). "Geochemical, isotopic and single crystal 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on the evolution of the Cerro Galán ignimbrites". Bulletin of Volcanology (dalam bahasa Inggris). 73 (10): 1487–1511. Bibcode:2011BVol...73.1487K. doi:10.1007/s00445-010-0410-7 . ISSN 1432-0819.
Pranala luar
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Overview and Transcript of the original BBC program
- Yellowstone Supervolcano and Map of Supervolcanoes Around The World Diarsipkan 2014-08-05 di Wayback Machine.
- USGS Fact Sheet - Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions - What's in Yellowstone's Future?
- Discovery Channel's site on "Supervolcano"
- Scientific American's The Secrets of Supervolcanoes
- Supervolcano di IMDb (dalam bahasa Inggris)
- Armageddon Online - Latest news covering super volcano activity since 1999
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| Jenis gunung berapi |
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| Batuan vulkanis | ||
| Daftar dan kelompok gunung berapi | ||
 | Artikel bertopik geografi ini adalah sebuah rintisan. Anda dapat membantu Wikipedia dengan mengembangkannya. |