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When [[Communal roosting|roosting]], Scaly-breasted Munia sit side-by-side in close contact with each other. The outermost bird is rarely content to remain at this position and will constantly wedge itself towards the center. Birds in a flock will sometimes preen each other, with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin. [[Allopreening]] is usually limited to the face and neck. The flocking drive is more than the drive of sleeping together, feeding together, and preening each other since even just after satisfying these activities, the birds still make vigorous attempts to stay together.<ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref>
When [[Communal roosting|roosting]], Scaly-breasted Munia sit side-by-side in close contact with each other. The outermost bird is rarely content to remain at this position and will constantly wedge itself towards the center. Birds in a flock will sometimes preen each other, with the soliciting bird usually showing its chin. [[Allopreening]] is usually limited to the face and neck. The flocking drive is more than the drive of sleeping together, feeding together, and preening each other since even just after satisfying these activities, the birds still make vigorous attempts to stay together.<ref name=behaviour>{{Cite journal|title= Hostile, Sexual, and Other Social Behaviour Patterns of the Spice Finch (''Lonchura punctulata'') in Captivity| author=Moynihan, M & M F Hall| journal=Behaviour| volume=7| issue=1| year=1954| pages=33–76 }}</ref>


Hostile behavior in Scaly-breasted Munia is rare compared to many other birds. The Scaly-breasted Munia exhibits unritualized intention movements and ambivalent postures, which is not due to relative weakness of hostility since they quarrel frequently, energetically, and at length. Instead, the distinctive feature of the Scaly-breasted Munia is probably correlated with its gregarious nature. The strong tendency of these birds to keep together most of the time obviates the need for hostile patterns. <ref name=behaviour/>
Hostile behavior in Scaly-breasted Munia is rare compared to many other birds. The Scaly-breasted Munia exhibits unritualized intention movements and ambivalent postures, which is not due to relative weakness of hostility since they quarrel frequently, energetically, and at length. Instead, the distinctive feature of the Scaly-breasted Munia is probably correlated with its gregarious nature. The strong tendency of these birds to keep together most of the time obviates the need for hostile patterns.<ref name=behaviour/>


===Food and foraging ===
===Food and foraging ===
Baris 85: Baris 85:


====Flock size tradeoffs====
====Flock size tradeoffs====
Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on [[predator]] vigilance and increasing feeding efficiency. Time spent on vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The “many-eyes” hypothesis predicts a reduction in [[vigilance]] levels in larger groups that can cause higher feeding rates if the time that is saved is used for foraging.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> The birds also collected seeds more quickly in larger groups, which reflects a decrease in vigilance in larger groups, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus on searching for food.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> Moreover, advantages of group membership include increased mean food intake rates and reduced variance in foraging success. These foraging advantages rely on the occurrence of joining. Joining is feeding from food discovered or captured by others and results in information sharing and producer-scrounger models.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Another aspect of group living is an increase in the competition for resources, which may also contribute to lower antipredatory vigilance due to increased foraging time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Although, other studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size in reducing time spent on [[predator]] vigilance and increasing feeding efficiency. Time spent on vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four. The “many-eyes” hypothesis predicts a reduction in [[vigilance]] levels in larger groups that can cause higher feeding rates if the time that is saved is used for foraging.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pulliam|first=R. H.|title=On the advantages of flocking|journal=J. Theor. Bio.|year=1973|volume=38|pages=419-422|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> The birds also collected seeds more quickly in larger groups, which reflects a decrease in vigilance in larger groups, a decrease in handling time, and an increase in both search speed and focus on searching for food.<ref>{{cite journal| pages= 1526–1531| title= The effect of group size on vigilance and feeding rate in spice finches (''Lonchura punctulata'')|author= Beauchamp, G and Barbara Livoreil|year=1997|journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology|volume=75| url=http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/z97-776| doi=10.1139/z97-776}}</ref> Moreover, advantages of group membership include increased mean food intake rates and reduced variance in foraging success. These foraging advantages rely on the occurrence of joining. Joining is feeding from food discovered or captured by others and results in information sharing and producer-scrounger models.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L.A.|coauthors=G. Beauchamp|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution|date=1|year=1999|month=March|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102-106|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0,|accessdate=10 October 2012}}</ref> Another aspect of group living is an increase in the competition for resources, which may also contribute to lower antipredatory vigilance due to increased foraging time.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rieucau|first=G.|coauthors=Giraldeau, L.-A.|title=Group size effect caused by food competition in nutmeg mannikins (Lonchura punctulata)|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=12 February 2009|year=2008|month=October|volume=20|issue=2|pages=421–425|doi=10.1093/beheco/arn144|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Although, other studies show that increased competition results in a decreased feeding rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Gauvin|first=Shawn|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata ) reduce their feeding rates in response to simulated competition|journal=Oecologia|year=2004|volume=139|issue=1|pages=150–156|doi=10.1007/s00442-003-1482-2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Foraging models====
====Foraging models====
When foraging, Scaly-breasted Munia work together in a group. Group foragers search for their food individually, but they can also search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others’ discoveries have been modeled in two ways that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two search modes: the information sharing and the producer-scrounger models. The behavior patterns of Scaly-breasted Munia have been studied to determine whether they fit the producer-scrounger model or the information sharing model. The information sharing model assumes that individuals can search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer-scrounger model assumes incompatible search modes. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> [[Analysis of covariance]] shows that the frequencies of hopping with the head pointing up and down were statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird's joining and finding, respectively. When the expected [[Evolutionarily stable strategy|stable frequency]] of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the seed distribution, the birds' relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly. When the seed distribution made use of scrounger tactic that were unprofitable, the frequency of hopping with the head up dropped to zero. Consequently, in the Scaly-breasted Munia, finding and joining behaviour conforms more closely to the assumptions of a producer-scrounger model.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref>
When foraging, Scaly-breasted Munia work together in a group. Group foragers search for their food individually, but they can also search for others that have found food and join them. The economic consequences of the decision to join others’ discoveries have been modeled in two ways that differ in the degree of compatibility that is assumed between the two search modes: the information sharing and the producer-scrounger models. The behavior patterns of Scaly-breasted Munia have been studied to determine whether they fit the producer-scrounger model or the information sharing model. The information sharing model assumes that individuals can search concurrently for finding and joining opportunities while the producer-scrounger model assumes incompatible search modes.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Giraldeau|first=L-A.|coauthors=Beauchamp, G.|title=Food exploitation: searching for the optimal joining policy|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|year=1999|volume=14|issue=3|pages=102–106|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01542-0|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> [[Analysis of covariance]] shows that the frequencies of hopping with the head pointing up and down were statistically associated with the frequencies of a bird's joining and finding, respectively. When the expected [[Evolutionarily stable strategy|stable frequency]] of the scrounger tactic was altered by changing the seed distribution, the birds' relative frequency of hopping with the head up changed accordingly. When the seed distribution made use of scrounger tactic that were unprofitable, the frequency of hopping with the head up dropped to zero. Consequently, in the Scaly-breasted Munia, finding and joining behaviour conforms more closely to the assumptions of a producer-scrounger model.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Luc-Alain Giraldeau, Myriam Lavoie|title=Head position as an indication of producer and scrounger tactics in a ground-feeding bird|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2001|month=May |volume=61|issue=5|pages=895-903|doi=10.1006/anbe.2000.1678}}</ref>
Furthermore, studies have shown that Scaly-breasted Munia increase their joining frequency and even their allocation to the scrounger tactic as food is more clumped, lending more support to the applicability of the producer-scrounger model to ground feeding granivorous birds. Moreover, as group size increases, the foragers increase their scrounging, resulting in increased intervals between patch discoveries and decreased finding rate. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Furthermore, studies have shown that Scaly-breasted Munia increase their joining frequency and even their allocation to the scrounger tactic as food is more clumped, lending more support to the applicability of the producer-scrounger model to ground feeding granivorous birds. Moreover, as group size increases, the foragers increase their scrounging, resulting in increased intervals between patch discoveries and decreased finding rate.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|title=Increasing foraging group size increases scrounger use and reduces searching efficiency in nutmeg mannikins ( Lonchura punctulata )|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|year=2002|volume=52|issue=3|pages=232–238|doi=10.1007/s00265-002-0500-4|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Vigilance====
====Vigilance====
Most social foragers must search for food while avoiding predators. Group-foraging Scaly-breasted Munia engage in a producer–scrounger game search for their own food by hopping with the head down and search for others' food discoveries by hopping with the head up. It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also, by virtue of their head position, be concurrently alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance. If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance, then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities, and hence more joining. However, the scrounger tactic and antipredatory vigilance are two incompatible functions of scanning behaviour based off two findings. The rates of head up recorded in stationary and eating birds increased with increased distance to cover, confirming that the head up behavior functions as antipredatory vigilance. Neither the rates nor the proportion of hops involving scans varied with distance, so scanning while hopping does not contribute to antipredatory vigilance. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Most social foragers must search for food while avoiding predators. Group-foraging Scaly-breasted Munia engage in a producer–scrounger game search for their own food by hopping with the head down and search for others' food discoveries by hopping with the head up. It has been suggested that individuals that play scrounger could also, by virtue of their head position, be concurrently alert for predators and hence contribute to antipredatory vigilance. If the scrounger tactic is compatible with antipredatory vigilance, then an increase in antipredatory vigilance should lead to the detection of more joining opportunities, and hence more joining. However, the scrounger tactic and antipredatory vigilance are two incompatible functions of scanning behaviour based off two findings. The rates of head up recorded in stationary and eating birds increased with increased distance to cover, confirming that the head up behavior functions as antipredatory vigilance. Neither the rates nor the proportion of hops involving scans varied with distance, so scanning while hopping does not contribute to antipredatory vigilance.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Coolen|first=Isabelle|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Incompatibility between antipredatory vigilance and scrounger tactic in nutmeg mannikins, Lonchura punctulata|journal=Animal Behaviour|date=1 October 2003|volume=66|issue=4|pages=657–664|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2236|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Specialized foraging====
====Specialized foraging====
Baris 105: Baris 105:


====Prey crypsis====
====Prey crypsis====
Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join, prey [[crypsis]] imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging. Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Barrette|first=Maryse|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2006|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1183–1189|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.10.008|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Moreover, the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cyptic backgrounds. The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed. Thus, the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Courant|first=Sabrina|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Conspecific presence makes exploiting cryptic prey more difficult in wild-caught nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2008|volume=75|issue=3|pages=1101–1108|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.023|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Since producers search for food and scroungers wait for opportunities to join, prey [[crypsis]] imposes a producer specific cost that shifts the producer scrounger equilibria towards more scrounging. Prey crypsis resulted in increased latency to eat the seed and increased number of detection errors.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barrette|first=Maryse|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Prey crypticity reduces the proportion of group members searching for food|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2006|volume=71|issue=5|pages=1183–1189|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2005.10.008|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Moreover, the presence of a competitor negatively affected foraging efficiency under cyptic backgrounds. The foraging efficiency of individuals that had previously foraged with a competitor on cryptic seeds remained low even after the competitor had been removed. Thus, the costs of foraging on cryptic prey may be greater for social foragers than for solitary foragers.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Courant|first=Sabrina|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Conspecific presence makes exploiting cryptic prey more difficult in wild-caught nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2008|volume=75|issue=3|pages=1101–1108|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.08.023|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


====Resource Defence====
====Resource Defence====
Recent models of economic defence in a group-foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Broom|first=Mark|coauthors=Ruxton, Graeme D.|title=Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=1 January 1998|volume=9|issue=4|pages=397–403|doi=10.1093/beheco/9.4.397|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Sirot|first=E.|title=An evolutionarily stable strategy for aggressiveness in feeding groups|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=1999|volume=11|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1093/beheco/11.4.351|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=F.|title=Resource defense in a group-foraging context|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=2002|volume=14|issue=1|pages=2–9|doi=10.1093/beheco/14.1.2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Studies with Scaly-breasted Munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled, and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not. Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable. Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled. When food location was signaled, increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters. <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>
Recent models of economic defence in a group-foraging context predict that the frequency of aggressive interactions should decline as resource density increases.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Broom|first=Mark|coauthors=Ruxton, Graeme D.|title=Evolutionarily stable stealing: game theory applied to kleptoparasitism|journal=Behavioral Ecology|date=1 January 1998|volume=9|issue=4|pages=397–403|doi=10.1093/beheco/9.4.397|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Sirot|first=E.|title=An evolutionarily stable strategy for aggressiveness in feeding groups|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=1999|volume=11|issue=4|pages=351–356|doi=10.1093/beheco/11.4.351|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> <ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=F.|title=Resource defense in a group-foraging context|journal=Behavioral Ecology|year=2002|volume=14|issue=1|pages=2–9|doi=10.1093/beheco/14.1.2|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref> Studies with Scaly-breasted Munia show that the intensity of aggressive encounters was highest when patch location was signaled, and the effect of changing resource density depended on whether patch location was signaled or not. Signaling patch location was equivalent to making the resources more spatially predictable. Changing patch density had no effect on the number of aggressive encounters when the location of food was not signaled. When food location was signaled, increasing patch density resulted in the predicted decrease in the number of aggressive encounters.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubois|first=Frédérique|coauthors=Giraldeau, Luc-Alain|title=Reduced resource defence in an uncertain world: an experimental test using captive nutmeg mannikins|journal=Animal Behaviour|year=2004|month=July|volume=68|issue=1|pages=21–25|doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2003.06.025|accessdate=15 November 2012}}</ref>


===Breeding===
===Breeding===

Revisi per 5 Desember 2018 18.52

Bondol Peking
Individu dewasa subspesies punctulata di Taman Nasional Nagarhole, India
Individu remaja subspesies punctulata di Kolkata, India
Klasifikasi ilmiah
Kerajaan:
Animalia
Filum:
Chordata
Kelas:
Aves
Ordo:
Passeriformes
Famili:
Estrildidae
Genus:
Lonchura
Spesies:
L. punctulata
Nama binomial
Lonchura punctulata
(L., 1753)

Bondol peking atau pipit peking (Lonchura punctulata) adalah sejenis burung kecil pemakan padi dan biji-bijian. Nama punctulata berarti berbintik-bintik, menunjuk kepada warna bulu-bulu di dadanya.

Orang Jawa menyebutnya emprit peking, prit peking; orang Sunda menamainya piit peking atau manuk peking, meniru bunyi suaranya. Di Malaysia burung ini disebut pipit pinang, dan dalam bahasa Inggris dikenal sebagai Scaly-breasted Munia --lagi-lagi terkait dengan bintik di dadanya yang mirip gambaran sisik.

Pemerian

Burung dewasa, Bogor.

Burung yang berukuran kecil, dari paruh hingga ujung ekor sekitar 11 cm. Burung dewasa berwarna cokelat di leher dan sisi atas tubuhnya, dengan coretan-coretan agak samar berwarna muda dan tangkai bulu putih. Tenggorokan cokelat kemerahan. Sisi bawah putih, dengan lukisan serupa sisik berwarna coklat pada dada dan sisi tubuh.[2] Perut bagian bawah sampai pantat putih. Burung muda dengan dada dan perut kuning tua sampai agak coklat kotor, tanpa sisik[3]. Jantan tidak berbeda dengan betina dalam penampakannya.

Iris mata coklat gelap; paruh khas pipit berwarna abu-abu kebiruan; kaki hitam keabu-abuan.[2]

Tempat hidup dan kebiasaan

Burung yang muda, Bogor.

Bondol peking sering ditemui di lingkungan perdesaan dan kota, terutama di dekat persawahan atau tegalan. Makanan utama burung ini adalah aneka biji rumput-rumputan termasuk padi[3]. Oleh sebab itu bondol peking kerap mengunjungi sawah, padang rumput, lapangan terbuka bervegetasi dan kebun.

Hidup berpasangan atau dalam kelompok kecil, bondol peking sering teramati bergerombol memakan bulir biji-bijian di semak rerumputan atau bahkan turun ke atas tanah. Kelompok ini umumnya lincah dan bergerak bersama-sama, sambil terus berbunyi-bunyi saling memanggil.

Bunyi dua suku, ki-dii, ki-dii..; panggilan ki-ii.. atau ckii, ckii..; dan suara tanda bahaya tret.. tret.. .[3]

Burung ini tidak segan untuk bercampur dengan jenis bondol lainnya[2], seperti dengan bondol jawa (L. leucogastroides) atau yang lain. Kelompok bondol ini pada awalnya mungkin hanya terdiri dari beberapa ekor saja, akan tetapi di musim panen padi dapat membesar hingga mencapai ratusan ekor. Terlihat menyolok di sore hari pada saat terbang dan hinggap bersama-sama di pohon-pohon tempat tidurnya. Kelompok yang besar semacam ini dapat menimbulkan kerugian yang besar kepada para petani.

Bondol peking kerap menghuni kebun, pekarangan dan tepi jalan. Seperti tecermin dari namanya di Malaysia, bondol ini sering memilih pohon pinang atau palma lainnya, pohon atau semak yang tinggi, untuk tempatnya bersarang. Sarang berbentuk bola atau botol dibangun dari rerumputan, diletakkan tersembunyi di antara daun-daun dan ranting[3]. Telurnya berwarna putih, 4-6(-10) butir, masing-masing berukuran sekitar 15 x 11 mm. Berbiak di sepanjang tahun.[4]

Bondol ini hidup mulai dari ketinggian dekat muka laut hingga sekitar 1.800 m dpl.[2], bahkan hingga 2.200 m di Lombok dan 2.300 m di Timor[5].

Subspesies dan penyebaran

Bondol peking tersebar di Asia Selatan dan Asia Tenggara dengan 12 subspesies sebagai berikut[6]:

  1. L. p. punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758), tersebar dari Nepal hingga Sikkim, India dan Sri Lanka
  2. L. p. subundulata (Godwin-Austen, 1874), tersebar di timur laut India (Assam) hingga Bhutan dan bagian barat Myanmar
  3. L. p. yunnanensis (Parkes, 1958), tersebar di timur laut Myanmar dan barat daya China
  4. L. p. topela (Swinhoe, 1863), tersebar di selatan China hingga utara Thailand, Indochina, Hainan, dan Taiwan
  5. L. p. cabanisi (Sharpe, 1890), tersebar di Filipina (Luzon, Mindoro, Panay, Cebu, Calauit dan Palawan)
  6. L. p. fretensis (Kloss, 1931), tersebar di selatan Thailand dan Semenanjung Malaysia hingga Sumatera dan pulau-pulau di sekitarnya
  7. L. p. nisoria (Temminck, 1830), tersebar di Jawa, Bali, Lombok, dan Sumbawa
  8. L. p. baweana (Hoogerwerf, 1963), endemik di Pulau Bawean (Laut Jawa)
  9. L. p. holmesi (Restall, 1992), endemik di bagian tenggara Borneo (Kalimantan)
  10. L. p. sumbae (Mayr, 1944), endemik di Pulau Sumba
  11. L. p. blasii (Stresemann, 1912), tersebar di Flores, Timor, Kepulauan Tanimbar, dan pulau-pulau kecil di Nusa Tenggara
  12. L. p. particeps (Riley, 1920), endemik di Pulau Sulawesi



Galeri

Referensi

  1. ^ BirdLife International (2012). "Lonchura punctulata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2013.2. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Diakses tanggal 10 Juni 2014. 
  2. ^ a b c d MacKinnon, J., K. Phillips, B. van Balen. 2000. Burung-burung di Sumatera, Jawa, Bali dan Kalimantan: 425. Seri Panduan Lapangan LIPI. Bogor :LIPI dan BirdLife IP.
  3. ^ a b c d MacKinnon, J. 1993. Panduan Lapangan Pengenalan Burung-burung di Jawa dan Bali: 379. Yogyakarta :Gadjah Mada University Press.
  4. ^ Hoogerwerf, A. 1949. De Avifauna van de Plantentuin te Buitenzorg (Java): 112-3. Buitenzorg :Uitgave van de Kon. Plantentuin van Indonesië.
  5. ^ Coates, B.J. & K.D. Bishop. 2000. Panduan Lapangan Burung-burung di Kawasan Wallacea: 185. Bogor :BirdLife IP - Dove Publ.
  6. ^ Clements, J. F., T. S. Schulenberg, M. J. Iliff, B.L. Sullivan, C. L. Wood, and D. Roberson (2013). The eBird/Clements checklist of birds of the world: Version 6.8. The Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 

Pranala luar

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