Peradaban Lembah Indus

Peradaban Lembah Indus

Jangkauan geografis	Asia Selatan
Periode	Zaman Perunggu
Tanggal	ca 3300–ca 1700 BCE
Didahului oleh	Mehrgarh
Diikuti oleh	Periode Weda

Berkas:Indusvalleyexcavation.jpg

Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus berada sepanjang Sungai Indus di Pakistan sekarang ini. Puing Mohenjo-daro difoto di atas merupakan pusat dari masyarakat kuno ini.

Lokasi kota-kota kuno di Lembah Sungai Indus

Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus (Indus Valley Civilization; IVC), 2800 SM–1800 SM, merupakan sebuah peradaban kuno yang hidup sepanjang Sungai Indus yang sekarang merupakan wilayah Pakistan dan India barat. Sungai saraswati veda yang mungkin kering pada akhir 1900 SM. . [1]

Sejumlah situs utama Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus

Masyarakat

Orang-orang Dravida yang diperkirakan merupakan pendiri kota kuno ini sendiri menjadi tanda tanya bagi para arkeolog. Riwayat mereka tak dapat ditelusuri hingga sekarang. Bahasa dan aksara yang mereka gunakan dalam artefak-artefak yang ditemukan di sana masih belum dapat dipecahkan hingga sekarang. Uniknya di kota tersebut tidak ditemukan bangunan untuk kegiatan religius dan tanda-tanda sistem kasta. Hal ini mengakibatkan para peneliti berspekulasi kalau masyarakat Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa merupakan peradaban yang hidup bergantung sepenuhnya pada ilmu pengetahuan (sudah meninggalkan praktik keagamaan) dan memiliki filosofi hidup yang tinggi (terlihat dari ketiadaan sistem kasta dalam hierarki sosial).

Lihat pula

• Daftar lokasi Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus
• Daftar penemuan Peradaban Lembah Sungai Indus
• Mohenjo-daro
• Meluhha
• Harappa
• Chanhudaro
• Sindh

Bibliografi

• Allchin, Bridget (1997). Origins of a Civilization: The Prehistory and Early Archaeology of South Asia. New York: Viking. 
• Allchin, Raymond (ed.) (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. New York: Cambridge University Press. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: authors list (link)
• Aronovsky, Ilona; Gopinath, Sujata (2005). The Indus Valley. Chicago: Heinemann. 
• Basham, A. L. (1967). The Wonder That Was India. London: Sidgwick & Jackson. hlm. 11–14. 
• Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca; Menozzi, Paolo; Piazza, Alberto (1994), The History and Geography of Human Genes, Princeton University Press 
• Chakrabarti, D. K. (2004). Indus Civilization Sites in India: New Discoveries. Mumbai: Marg Publications. ISBN 81-85026-63-7. 
• Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press 
• Dani, Ahmad Hassan (1984). Short History of Pakistan (Book 1). University of Karachi. 
• Dani, Ahmad Hassan; Mohen, J-P. (eds.) (1996). History of Humanity, Volume III, From the Third Millennium to the Seventh Century BC. New York/Paris: Routledge/UNESCO. ISBN 0-415-09306-6. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: authors list (link)
• Derenko, Miroslava (2013), "Complete Mitochondrial DNA Diversity in Iranians", PLOS ONE, 8 (11): e80673, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080673, PMC 3828245 , PMID 24244704 
• Dikshit, K.N. (2013), "Origin of Early Harappan Cultures in the Sarasvati Valley: Recent Archaeological Evidence and Radiometric Dates" (PDF), Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (9), diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 18 January 2017 
• Gallego Romero, Irene; et al. (2011), "Herders of Indian and European Cattle Share their Predominant Allele for Lactase Persistence", Mol. Biol. Evol., 29: 249–60, doi:10.1093/molbev/msr190, PMID 21836184 
• Gangal, Kavita; Sarson, Graeme R.; Shukurov, Anvar (2014), "The Near-Eastern roots of the Neolithic in South Asia", PLOS ONE, 9: e95714, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714, PMC 4012948 , PMID 24806472 
• Gupta, S. P. (1996). The Indus-Saraswati Civilization: Origins, Problems and Issues. Delhi: Pratibha Prakashan. ISBN 81-85268-46-0. 
• Gupta, S. P. (ed.) (1995). The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilisation. Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Prakashan. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: authors list (link)
• Habib, Irfan (2002), The Making of History: Essays Presented to Irfan Habib, Anthem Press 
• Heggarty, Paul; Renfrew, Collin (2014), "South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages", dalam Renfrew, Collin; Bahn, Paul, The Cambridge World Prehistory, Cambridge University Press 
• Hiltebeitel, Alf (2011). "The Indus Valley "Proto-Śiva", Re-examined through Reflections on the Goddess, the Buffalo, and the Symbolism of vāhanas". Dalam Adluri, Vishwa; Bagchee, Joydeep. When the Goddess was a Woman: Mahabharata Ethnographies – Essays by Alf Hiltebeitel. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-19380-2. 
• Kathiroli; et al. (2004). "Recent Marine Archaeological Finds in Khambhat, Gujarat". Journal of Indian Ocean Archaeology (1): 141–149. 
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1998). Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilisation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577940-1. 
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991). "The Indus Valley tradition of Pakistan and Western India". Journal of World Prehistory. 5 (4): 1–64. doi:10.1007/BF00978474. 
• Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark; Heuston, Kimberly (2005). The Ancient South Asian World. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517422-4. 
• Kivisild; et al. (1999), "Deep common ancestry of Indian and western-Eurasian mitochondrial DNA lineages" (PDF), Curr. Biol., 9: 1331–1334, doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(00)80057-3, PMID 10574762, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2005-10-30 
• Kumar, Dhavendra (2004), Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent, Springer, ISBN 1-4020-1215-2, diakses tanggal 2008-11-25 
• Lal, B. B. (1998). India 1947–1997: New Light on the Indus Civilization. New Delhi: Aryan Books International. ISBN 81-7305-129-1. 
• Lal, B. B. (1997). The Earliest Civilisation of South Asia (Rise, Maturity and Decline). 
• Lal, B. B. (2002). The Sarasvati flows on. 
• Lazaridis, Iosif; et al. (2016). "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East". Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L. bioRxiv 059311 . doi:10.1038/nature19310. PMC 5003663 . PMID 27459054. 
• Mani, B.R. (2008), "Kashmir Neolithic and Early Harappan : A Linkage" (PDF), Pragdhara, 18: 229–247 
• Marshall, John (1931). Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-1179-5. 
• Manuel, Mark (2010), "Chronology and Culture-History in the Indus Valley", dalam Gunawardhana, P.; Adikari, G.; Coningham Battaramulla, R.A.E., Sirinimal Lakdusinghe Felicitation Volume, Neptune 
• Mascarenhas, Desmond D.; Raina, Anupuma; Aston, Christopher E.; Sanghera, Dharambir K. (2015), "Genetic and Cultural Reconstruction of the Migration of an Ancient Lineage", BioMed Research International, 2015: 1–16, doi:10.1155/2015/651415 
• Masson, Charles (1842). "Chapter 2: Haripah". Narrative of Various Journeys in Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Panjab; including a residence in those countries from 1826 to 1838. London: Richard Bentley. hlm. 472. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 30 September 2007. 
• McIntosh, Jane (2001). A Peaceful Realm: The Rise And Fall of the Indus Civilization. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3532-9. 
• McIntosh, Jane (2008). "Religion and ideology". The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2. 
• Mirabal, Sheyla; Regueiro, M; Cadenas, AM; Cavalli-Sforza, LL; Underhill, PA; Verbenko, DA; Limborska, SA; Herrera, RJ; et al. (2009). "Y-Chromosome distribution within the geo-linguistic landscape of northwestern Russia". European Journal of Human Genetics. 17 (10): 1260–1273. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.6. PMC 2986641 . PMID 19259129. 
• Mughal, Mohammad Rafique (1997). Ancient Cholistan, Archaeology and Architecture. Ferozesons. ISBN 969-0-01350-5. 
• Mukherjee, Namita; Nebel, Almut; Oppenheim, Ariella; Majumder, Partha P. (2001), "High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from central Asia and West Asia into India" (PDF), Journal of Genetics, Springer India, 80 (3): 125–35, doi:10.1007/BF02717908, PMID 11988631, diakses tanggal 2008-11-25 
• Mukherjee, Ashoke (2001b), "Rigvedic Sarasvati: Myth and Reality", Breakthrough, Vol.9, No.1, January 2001 
• Narasimhan, Vagheesh M.; Anthony, David; Mallory, James; Reich, David (2018), The Genomic Formation of South and Central Asia, bioRxiv 292581  
• Lahiri, Nayanjot (ed.) (2000). The Decline and Fall of the Indus Civilisation. Delhi: Permanent Black. ISBN 81-7530-034-5. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: authors list (link)
• Palanichamy, Malliya Gounder (2015), "West Eurasian mtDNA lineages in India: an insight into the spread of the Dravidian language and the origins of the caste system", Human Genetics, 134 (6): 637–647, doi:10.1007/s00439-015-1547-4, PMID 25832481 
• Pamjav, Horolma; Fehér, Tibor; Németh, Endre; Pádár, Zsolt (2012), "Brief communication: new Y-chromosome binary markers improve phylogenetic resolution within haplogroup R1a1", American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 149 (4): 611–615, doi:10.1002/ajpa.22167, PMID 23115110 
• Parpola, Asko (19 May 2005). "Study of the Indus Script" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 6 March 2006.  (50th ICES Tokyo Session)
• Parpola, Asko (2015), The Roots of Hinduism. The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilisation, Oxford University Press 
• Pittman, Holly (1984). Art of the Bronze Age: southeastern Iran, western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0-87099-365-7. 
• Possehl, Gregory L. (11 November 2002). The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-1642-9. 
• Poznik (2016), "Punctuated bursts in human male demography inferred from 1,244 worldwide Y-chromosome sequences", Nature Genetics, 48: 593–599, doi:10.1038/ng.3559, PMC 4884158 , PMID 27111036 
• Sarkar, Anindya (2016), "Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization", Scientific Reports, doi:10.1038/srep26555 
• Semino, O; Passarino G, Oefner PJ (2000), "The genetic legacy of Paleolithic Homo sapiens sapiens in extant Europeans: A Y chromosome perspective", Science, 290: 1155–1159, doi:10.1126/science.290.5494.1155, PMID 11073453 
• Sengupta, S; Zhivotovsky, LA; King, R; Mehdi, SQ; Edmonds, CA; Chow, CE; Lin, AA; Mitra, M; et al. (2005). "Polarity and Temporality of High-Resolution Y-Chromosome Distributions in India Identify Both Indigenous and Exogenous Expansions and Reveal Minor Genetic Influence of Central Asian Pastoralists". American Journal of Human Genetics. 78 (2): 202–21. doi:10.1086/499411. PMC 1380230 . PMID 16400607. .
• Rao, Shikaripura Ranganatha (1991). Dawn and Devolution of the Indus Civilisation. New Delhi: Aditya Prakashan. ISBN 81-85179-74-3. 
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1995). "Cultural tradition and Palaeoethnicity in South Asian Archaeology". Dalam George Erdosy (ed.). Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia. Berlin u.a.: de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: editors list (link)
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1999). "Migration, Philology and South Asian Archaeology". Dalam Bronkhorst and Deshpande (eds.). Aryan and Non-Aryan in South Asia. Cambridge: Harvard University, Dept. of Sanskrit and Indian Studies. ISBN 1-888789-04-2. Pemeliharaan CS1: Menggunakan parameter penyunting (link)
• Shaffer, Jim G. (1992). "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age". Dalam R. W. Ehrich (ed.). Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (edisi ke-Second). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan: editors list (link)
• Singh, Sakshi (2016), "Dissecting the influence of Neolithic demic diffusion on Indian Y-chromosome pool through J2-M172 haplogroup", Scientific Reports, 6: 19157, doi:10.1038/srep19157, PMC 4709632 , PMID 26754573 
• Srinivasan, Doris (1975). "The So-Called Proto-śiva Seal from Mohenjo-Daro: An Iconological Assessment". Archives of Asian Art. 29: 47–58. JSTOR 20062578. 
• Srinivasan, Doris Meth (1997). Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning and Form in Multiplicity in Indian Art. Brill. ISBN 978-9004107588. 
• Sullivan, Herbert P. (1964). "A Re-Examination of the Religion of the Indus Civilization". History of Religions. 4 (1): 115–125. doi:10.1086/462498. JSTOR 1061875. 
• Thapar, Romila (2004). Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8. 
• Underhill, Peter A; Myres, Natalie M; Rootsi, Siiri; Metspalu, Mait; Zhivotovsky, Lev A; King, Roy J; Lin, Alice A; Chow, Cheryl-Emiliane T; et al. (2009). "Separating the post-Glacial coancestry of European and Asian Y chromosomes within haplogroup R1a". European Journal of Human Genetics. 18 (4): 479–84. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.194. PMC 2987245 . PMID 19888303. 
• Underhill, Peter A. (2014), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a" (PDF), European Journal of Human Genetics, 23 (1): 124–131, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50, ISSN 1018-4813, PMC 4266736 , PMID 24667786, diakses tanggal 15 June 2016 
• Underhill, Peter A.; et al. (2015), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a" (PDF), European Journal of Human Genetics, 23: 124–131, doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50, PMC 4266736 , PMID 24667786 
• Wells, R.S. (2001), "The Eurasian Heartland: A continental perspective on Y-chromosome diversity", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98 (18): 10244–10249, Bibcode:2001PNAS...9810244W, doi:10.1073/pnas.171305098, PMC 56946 , PMID 11526236 
• Willey; Phillips (1958), Method and Theory in American Archaeology 
• Witzel, Michael (February 2000). "The Languages of Harappa" (PDF). Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 
• Wright, Rita P. (2009), The Ancient Indus: Urbanism, Economy, and Society, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-57219-4, diakses tanggal 29 September 2013 

Pustaka tambahan

• Coningham, Robin; Young, Ruth (2015), The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE–200 CE, Cambridge University Press 

Pranala luar

• An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)
• Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India
• Photos and descriptions of archaeological excavations — 90 page intro to Indus (Harappa and Indus Valley Civilization at harappa.com)
• The Indus Script (harappa.com)
• http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf 'Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis' by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)
• Horseplay in Harappa article debunking claims of decipherment of the "Indus script"
  • A reply to Frontline’s cover story by Michael Danino
• Prehistoric dentistry evidence found in Indus - BBC News
• Indus artefacts
• Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization