Percobaan manusia tak etis di Amerika Serikat

Subjek percobaan sifilis Tuskegee diambil darahnya, c. 1953

Sejumlah eksperimen yang dilakukan pada subjek uji manusia di Amerika Serikat dianggap tidak etis, karena dilakukan tanpa sepengetahuan, atau penjelasan dan persetujuan dari subjek. Pengujian semacam itu telah dilakukan sepanjang sejarah Amerika, tetapi beberapa di antaranya masih berlangsung. Eksperimen tersebut meliputi paparan manusia terhadap banyak senjata kimia dan biologi (termasuk infeksi dengan penyakit mematikan atau melemahkan), eksperimen radiasi manusia, suntikan bahan kimia beracun dan radioaktif, eksperimen bedah, interogasi dan penyiksaan eksperimen, tes yang melibatkan zat pengubah pikiran, dan berbagai macam eksperimen lainnya. Banyak dari tes ini dilakukan pada anak-anak, individu yang sakit, dan cacat mental, seringkali dengan kedok perawatan medis. Dalam banyak penelitian, sebagian besar subjek adalah orang miskin, ras minoritas, atau narapidana.

Banyak dari percobaan ini melanggar hukum Amerika Serikat. Beberapa lainnya disponsori oleh lembaga pemerintah atau oknum-oknum di dalamnya, termasuk Pusat Pengendalian Penyakit, Militer Amerika Serikat, dan CIA, atau mereka disponsori oleh perusahaan swasta yang terlibat dalam kegiatan militer. Program penelitian manusia biasanya sangat rahasia dan dilakukan tanpa sepengetahuan atau otorisasi Kongres, dan dalam banyak kasus informasi tentang mereka tidak dirilis sampai bertahun-tahun setelah penelitian dilakukan.

Implikasi etis, profesional, dan hukum dari hal ini dalam komunitas medis dan ilmiah Amerika Serikat cukup signifikan, dan menyebabkan banyak institusi dan kebijakan yang berusaha untuk memastikan masa depan penelitian subjek manusia di Amerika Serikat akan etis dan legal. Kemarahan publik pada akhir abad ke-20 atas penemuan percobaan pemerintah pada subjek manusia menyebabkan banyak penyelidikan dan dengar pendapat kongres, termasuk Komite Gereja dan Komisi Rockefeller, keduanya pada tahun 1975, dan Komite Penasihat Eksperimen Radiasi Manusia tahun 1994, dan lain-lain.

Referensi

Sumber utama

• Annas, George J.; Grodin, Michael A. (1995). The Nazi Doctors and the Nuremberg Code: Human Rights in Human Experimentation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510106-5. 
• Brody, Baruch A. (1998). The Ethics of Biomedical Research: An International Perspective. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509007-9. 
• Cina, Stephen J.; Perper, Joshua A. (2010). When Doctors Kill. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4419-1368-5. 
• Cole, Leonard A. (1996). The Eleventh Plague: The Politics of Biological and Chemical Warfare. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-8050-7214-3. 
• Eckart, Wolfgang Uwe (2006). Man, Medicine, and the State: The human body as an object of government sponsored medical research in the 20th century. Franz Steiner Verlag. ISBN 978-3-515-08794-0. 
• Goliszek, Andrew (2003). In The Name of Science. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-30356-3. 
• Grodin, Michael A.; Glantz, Leonard H., ed. (1994). Children as Research Subjects: Science, ethics, and law. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-507103-0. 
• Halpern, Sydney A. (2006). Lesser Harms: The Morality of Risk in Medical Research. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-31452-5. 
• Hornblum, Allen M. (1998). Acres of Skin: Human experiments at Holmesburg Prison, a story of abuse and exploitation in the name of medical science. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-91990-6. 
• Hornblum, Allen M. (2007). Sentenced to Science: One Black Man's Story of Imprisonment in America. The Pennsylvania State University Press. ISBN 978-0-271-03336-5. 
• Lederer, Susan E. (1997). Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-5709-6. 
• Loue, Sana (2000). Textbook of research ethics: theory and practice. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-46448-5. 
• McCoy, Alfred W. (2006). A question of torture: CIA Interrogation, From the Cold War to the War on Terror. New York: Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-8041-4. 
• Moreno, Jonathan D. (2001). Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92835-9. 
• Otterman, Michael (2007). American torture: from the Cold War to Abu Ghraib and beyond. Melbourne Univ. Publishing. ISBN 978-0-522-85333-9. 
• David J. Rothman (1992). Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed Medical Decision Making. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08210-0. 
• Shamoo, Adil E.; Resnik, David B. (2009). Responsible Conduct of Research. Oxford University Press US. ISBN 978-0-19-536824-6. 
• Washington, Harriet A. (2008). Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present. Random House. ISBN 978-0-7679-1547-2. 

Daftar pustaka

Utama

• "Human Research Report" - a monthly newsletter on protecting human subjects
• Frankel, Mark S. (1975). "The Development of Policy Guidelines Governing Human Experimentation in the United States". Ethics in Science and Medicine. 2. 
• Hornblum, Allen M.; Newman, Judith Lynn; Dober, Gregory J. (2013). Against Their Will: The Secret History of Medical Experimentation on Children in Cold War America. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-34171-5. 
• Jonsen, Albert R. (1998). The Birth of Bioethics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517147-1. 
• Kalechofsky, Roberta. Human Experimentation: Before the Nazi Era and After. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal August 21, 2011. Diakses tanggal February 18, 2010. 
• Weyers, Wolfgang (2003). The Abuse of Man: An illustrated history of dubious medical experimentation. Ardor Scribendi. ISBN 978-1-893357-21-1. 

Peperangan biologis dan eksperimen penyakit/patogen

• Bibliography of Chemical and Biological Warfare documents
• The History of Bioterrorism in America, Richard Sanders, Race and History, Sunday, November 24, 2002 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)
• Introduction to Biological Weapons – Federation of American Scientists
• Franz, et al., The U.S. Biological Warfare and Biological Defense Programs
• US Army Activities in the US Biological Warfare Program, 1977 Congressional report
• Christopher et al., "Biological warfare. A historical perspective", Journal of the American Medical Association. 6 August 1997;278(5):412-7.
• "Years Ago, The Military Sprayed Germs on U.S. Cities", Wall Street Journal, October 22, 2001, via American Patriot Friends Network. Retrieved November 13, 2008.

Eksperimen radiasi manusia

Buku

• Killing Our Own: The disaster of America's experience with atomic radiation, by Harvey Wasserman, Delacorte Press, c1992, ISBN 978-0-440-04567-0
• The Plutonium Files: America's Secret Medical Experiments, by Eileen Welsome, The Dial Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-385-31402-2
• The Treatment: The Story of Those Who Died in the Cincinnati Radiation Tests, by Martha Stephens, Duke University Press, c2002, Durham, N.C., ISBN 0-8223-2811-9
• Bravo for the Marshallese: Regaining Control in a Post-Nuclear, Post-Colonial World, by Holly M. Barker, Wadsworth, 2004. ISBN 0-534-61326-8

Dokumen pemerintah

• Adherence To and Compliance With Arms Control, Nonproliferation and Disarmament Agreements and Commitments - U. S. Congressional Research Service
• Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments (ACHRE) – National Security Archives
• Exposure of the American population to radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons tests: a review of the CDC-NCI draft report on a feasibility study of the health consequences to the American population from nuclear weapons tests conducted by the United States and other nations, National Research Council (U.S.). Committee to Review the CDC-NCI Feasibility Study of the Health Consequences from Nuclear Weapons Tests, National Academies Press, 2003 ISBN 978-0-309-08713-1

Jurnal

• "'A Little Touch of Buchenwald': America's Secret Radiation Experiments", Reviews in American History – Volume 28, Number 4, December 2000, pp. 601–606
• Chair's Perspective on the Work of the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments by Ruth Faden

Eksperimen psikologis/penyiksaan/interogasi

• Bibliography of U.S. interrogation/torture research
• Truth, torture, and the American way, Jennifer Harbury
• Biderman, A. Social-Psychological Needs and "Involuntary" Behavior as Illustrated by Compliance in Interrogation, Sociometry, Vol. 23, No. 2 (June 1960), pp. 120–147
• The CIA: Mind-Bending Disclosures – Time Magazine, Monday, August 15, 1977 (Retrieved February 18, 2010)
• Resources on Drug Experimentation and Related Mind Control Experiments by the U.S. Government
• Khatchadourian, Raffi (December 7, 2012) "Operation Delirium", The New Yorker

Video

• MKULTRA Victim Testimony A – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
• MKULTRA Victim Testimony B – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
• MKULTRA Victim Testimony C – 1977 MKULTRA Congressional Hearings
• President Clinton apologizes for Human Radiation Experiments
• Complete transcript of Clinton's apology for Human Radiation Experiments
• Physicians for Human Rights Accuses CIA of Carrying Out Illegal Human Experimentation – video report by Democracy Now!
• The Dark History of Medical Experimentation from the Nazis to Tuskegee to Puerto Rico – video report by Democracy Now!