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Sejarah olahraga

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Kompetisi gulat sumo kuno dari periode Heian atau Kamakura Jepang (antara 794 dan 1333)

Sejarah olahraga tidak dapat dilepaskan dari apa yang terjadi di dunia Kuno. Pada zaman itu, aktivitas fisik yang berkembang menjadi olahraga memiliki keterkaitan awal dengan ritual, perang, dan hiburan.[1]

Penelitian mengenai sejarah olahraga menghasilkan pelajaran tentang perubahan-perubahan sosial dan mengenai sifat olahraga itu sendiri, karena olahraga kelihatannya terwujud dalam pengembangan keahlian dasar manusia (compare play).[butuh rujukan]Ketika mencoba menggali lebih jauh ke belakang dalam sejarah, semakin sedikit bukti yang memuat teori tentang asal usul dan tujuan olahraga.

Pada mulanya, olahraga berkaitan dengan pelatihan militer. Contohnya, pertandingan olahraga dahulu digunakan sebagai cara untuk menentukan apakah seseorang itu tepat dan berdaya guna untuk menjalankan tugas kemiliteran.[butuh rujukan] Adapun olahraga beregu dipakai untuk melatih dan membuktikan kemampuan tempur serta untuk bertugas dalam suatu unit ketentaraan.[2]

Olahraga pada masa prasejarah

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Paintings of humans in the cave of swimmers

Lukisan-lukisan dinding gua yang ditemukan di Gua Lascaux di Prancis terlihat menampilkan olahraga lari cepat dan gulat pada era Paleolitikum Akhir sekitar 15.300 tahun silam.[3][4][Verifikasi gagal] Lukisan-lukisan dinding gua di Provinsi Bayankhongor Province Mongolia yang diperkirakan berasal dari era Neolitikum (ca  7000 SM) memperlihatkan gambaran sebuah pertandingan gulat yang ditonton banyak orang.[5][Verifikasi gagal] Seni batu Neolitik di "gua para perenang" di Wadi Sura, dekat Gilf Kebir di Mesir menampilkan bukti bahwa olahraga berenang dan panahan telah dipraktikkan sekitar tahun 10.000 SM Lukisan-lukisan prasejarah di Jepang juga menampilkan olahraga yang mirip dengan gulat sumo.[6]

Agaknya setelah peralihan dari mengumpulkan buruan, bertani menjadi sarana utama yang dominan dalam hal penyediaan makanan. Individu-individu yang tadinya mengambil peran sebagai pemburu—yang kemungkinan secara fisik lebih condong untuk tujuan tersebut—memiliki sedikit cara untuk memanfaatkan keahlian mereka dalam pengaturan yang lebih praktis lagi. Jadi, alih-alih terus berlatih berburu dan melatih kemampuan tersebut, terbangunlah suatu budaya kompetisi yang bermaksud untuk menunjukkan siapa yang paling "siap" untuk berbagai elemen perburuan; misalnya, kecepatan berlari, kekuatan untuk bergulat atau ketepatan untuk menyerang mangsa dan taruhan yang terkait dengan ajang tersebut. Hal ini kemudian berkembang secara bertahap menjadi apa yang sekarang kita sebut dengan olahraga.

Sumeria Kuno

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An Egyptian burial chamber mural, from the tomb of Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum dating to around 2400 BCE, showing wrestlers in action[7]

Beragam macam petunjuk adanya para pegulat telah ditemukan pada lempeng-lempeng batu yang digali dari kebudayaan Sumeria.[8] Satu lukisan berisi tiga pasang pegulat dipercaya berasal dari masa 3000 SM.[9] Sebuah patung perunggu,[10] (mungkin mirip vas) has been found at Khafaji in Iraq that shows two figures in a wrestling hold that dates to around 2600 BCE. The statue is one of the earliest depictions of sport and is housed in the National Museum of Iraq.[11][12] The origins of boxing have also been traced to ancient Sumer.[9] The Epic of Gilgamesh gives one of the first historical records of sport with Gilgamesh engaging in a form of belt wrestling with Enkidu. The cuneiform tablets recording the tale date to around 2000 BCE; however, the historical Gilgamesh is supposed to have lived around 2800 to 2600 BCE.[13] The Sumerian king Shulgi also boasts of his prowess in sport in the Self-praise of Shulgi A, B, and C.[13] Fishing hooks not unlike those made today have been found during excavations at Ur, showing evidence of angling in Sumer at around 2600 BCE.[14]

Mesir Kuno

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The Charioteer of Delphi, Delphi Museum

Monumen tuk Para Firaun yang ditemukan di Beni Hasan berasal dari masa 2000 SEU[15] memberi pertanda bahwa sejumlah cabang olahraga termasuk gulat, angkat berat, lompat jauh, berenang, dayung, panahan, memancing,[14] dan atletik, kemudian juga berbagai macam olahraga bola, telah berkembang baik dan diatur pada masa Mesir kuno. Olahraga bangsa Mesir lainnya juga termasuk lempar lembing dan lompat tinggi.[16] Sebuah penggambaran terawal mengenai sosok pegulat ditemukan di pekuburan Khnumhotep and Niankhkhnum di Saqqara yang diperkirakan berasal dari sekitar masa 2400 SEU.[7][17]

Yunani Kuno

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Lihat pula: Outline of ancient Greece

Karya Seni Minoan dari Kreta Zaman Perunggu Bronze Age menampilkan perhelatan olahraga bernuansa ritual - thus a fresco dating to 1500 SEU merekam olahraga senam gymnastics in the form of religious bull-leaping and possibly bullfighting. Asal-usul The origins of Greek sporting festivals may date to funeral games of the Mycenean period, between 1600 BCE and ca 1100 BCE.[18] The Iliad includes extensive descriptions of funeral games held in honour of deceased warriors, such as those held for Patroclus by Achilles. Engaging in sport is described as the occupation of the noble and wealthy, who have no need to do manual labour themselves. In the Odyssey, king Odysseus of Ithaca proves his royal status to king Alkinoös of the Phaiakes by showing his proficiency in throwing the javelin. It was predictablyTemplat:Why? in Greece that sports were first instituted formally, with the first Olympic Games recorded in 776 BCE in Olympia, where they were celebrated until 393 CE. These games took place every four years, or Olympiad, which became a unit of time in historical chronologies. Initially a single sprinting event, the Olympics gradually expanded to include several footraces, run in the nude or in armor, boxing, wrestling, pankration, chariot racing, long jump, javelin throw, and discus throw.[butuh rujukan] During the celebration of the games, an Olympic Truce was enacted[oleh siapa?] so that athletes could travel from their countries to the games in safety. The prizes for the victors were wreaths of laurel leaves. Other important sporting events in ancient Greece included the Isthmian games, the Nemean Games, and the Pythian Games. Together with the Olympics, these were the most prestigious games, and formed the Panhellenic Games. Some games, e.g. the Panathenaia of Athens, included musical, reading and other non-athletic contests in addition to regular sports-events. The Heraean Games, held in Olympia as early as the 6th century BCE, were the first recorded sporting competition for women.

Olahraga masa kuno lainnya

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Sports that are at least two and a half thousand years old include hurling in Ancient Ireland, shinty in Scotland, harpastum (similar to rugby) in Rome, cuju (similar to association football) in China, and polo in Persia. The Mesoamerican ballgame originated over three thousand years ago. The Mayan ballgame of Pitz is believed to be the first ball sport, as it was first played around 2500 BCE.There are artifacts and structures that suggest that the Chinese engaged in sporting activities as early as 2000 BCE.[19] Gymnastics appears to have been a popular sport in China's ancient past. Ancient Persian sports include the traditional Iranian martial art of Zourkhaneh. Among other sports that originated in Persia are polo and jousting. A polished bone implement found at Eva in Tennessee, United States and dated to around 5000 BCE has been construed as a possible sporting device used in a "ring and pin" game.[9]

Abad Pertengahan

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Jousting at the Maryland Renaissance Festival

Untuk sekurangnya 900 tahun lamanya, telah diselenggarakan pertandingan antar desa yang berkompetisi satu sama lain secara ketat, dan kadang disertai kekerasan dalam permainan bola di daratan Inggris (sepakbola Shrovetide) dan di Irlandia (caid). Sebagai perbandingan, permainan calcio Fiorentino di Florence, Italia, pada mulanya dijadikan ajang olahraga tempur seperti anggar dan jousting. Permainan balapan kuda, secara khusus, dahulu merupakan salah satu kesukaan kelas atas di Britania Raya, dimana Ratu Anne mendirikan Ascot Racecourse.

Perkembangan olahraga modern

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A young cricketer by W.G. Grace, 1891

Sejumlah sejarawan, yang paling menonjol ialah Bernard Lewis, mengklaim bahwa olahraga beregu sebagaimana kita tahu kini sebenarnya merupakan penemuan baru dari kebudayaan Barat. British Prime Minister John Major was more explicit in 1995:

We invented the majority of the world's great sports.... 19th century Britain was the cradle of a leisure revolution every bit as significant as the agricultural and industrial revolutions we launched in the century before.[20]

The traditional team sports are seen as springing primarily from Britain, and subsequently exported across the vast British Empire. European colonialism helped spread particular games around the world, especially cricket (not directly related to baseball), football of various sorts, bowling in a number of forms, cue sports (like snooker, carom billiards, and pool), hockey and its derivatives, equestrian, and tennis, and many winter sports. The originally European-dominated modern Olympic Games generally also ensured standardization in particularly European, especially British, directions when rules for similar games around the world were merged.[21]

Regardless of game origins, the Industrial Revolution and mass production brought increased leisure which allowed more time to engage in playing or observing (and gambling upon) spectator sports, as well as less elitism in and greater accessibility of sports of many kinds. With the advent of mass media and global communication, professionalism became prevalent in sports, and this furthered sports popularity in general.

With the increasing values placed on those who won also came the increased desire to cheat. Some of the most common ways of cheating today involve the use of performance-enhancing drugs such as steroids. The use of these drugs has always been frowned on but in recent history there have also been agencies set up to monitor professional athletes and ensure fair play in the sport.

England

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Artikel utama: Sport in the United Kingdom § History, dan Sport in England
The Ashes urn, competed for between Australia and England in cricket

Writing about cricket in particular, John Leech has explained the role of Puritan power, the English Civil War, and the Restoration of the monarchy in England.[22] The Long Parliament in 1642 "banned theatres, which had met with Puritan disapproval. Although similar action would be taken against certain sports, it is not clear if cricket was in any way prohibited, except that players must not break the Sabbath". In 1660, "the Restoration of the monarchy in England was immediately followed by the reopening of the theatres and so any sanctions that had been imposed by the Puritans on cricket would also have been lifted."[22] He goes on to make the key point that political, social and economic conditions in the aftermath of the Restoration encouraged excessive gambling, so much so that a Gambling Act was deemed necessary in 1664. It is certain that cricket, horse racing and boxing (i.e., prizefighting) were financed by gambling interests. Leech explains that it was the habit of cricket patrons, all of whom were gamblers, to form strong teams through the 18th century to represent their interests. He defines a strong team as one representative of more than one parish and he is certain that such teams were first assembled in or immediately after 1660. Prior to the English Civil War and the Commonwealth, all available evidence concludes that cricket had evolved to the level of village cricket only where teams that are strictly representative of individual parishes compete. The "strong teams" of the post-Restoration mark the evolution of cricket (and, indeed of professional team sport, for cricket is the oldest professional team sport) from the parish standard to the county standard. This was the point of origin for major, or first-class, cricket. The year 1660 also marks the origin of professional team sport.[22] All-England cricket teams have played since 1739.

A number of the public schools such as Winchester and Eton, introduced variants of football and other sports for their pupils. These were described at the time as "innocent and lawful", certainly in comparison with the rougher rural games. With urbanization in the 19th century, the rural games moved to the new urban centres and came under the influence of the middle and upper classes. The rules and regulations devised at English institutions began to be applied to the wider game, with governing bodies in England being set up for a number of sports by the end of the 19th century. The rising influence of the upper class also produced an emphasis on the amateur, and the spirit of "fair play". The industrial revolution also brought with it increasing mobility, and created the opportunity for universities in Britain and elsewhere to compete with one another. This sparked increasing attempts to unify and reconcile various games in England, leading to the establishment of the Football Association in London, the first official governing body in football.

For sports to become professionalized, coaching had to come first. It gradually professionalized in the Victorian era and the role was well established by 1914. In the First World War, military units sought out the coaches to supervise physical conditioning and develop morale-building teams.[23] Sport became an important part of military life for British servicemen serving around the world.[24][25][26]

The British Empire and post-colonial sports

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The influence of British sports and their codified rules began to spread across the world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly association football. A number of major teams elsewhere in the world still show these British origins in their names, such as A.C. Milan in Italy, Grêmio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense in Brazil, and Athletic Bilbao in Spain. Cricket became popular in several of the nations of the then British Empire, such as Australia, South Africa, India and Pakistan, and remain popular in and beyond today's Commonwealth of Nations. The revival of the Olympic Games by Baron Pierre de Coubertin was also heavily influenced by the amateur ethos of the English public schools.[27] The British played a major role in defining amateurism, professionalism, the tournament system and the concept of fair play.[28] Some sports developed in England, spread to other countries and then lost its popularity in England while remaining actively played in other countries, a notable example being bandy which remains popular in Finland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, and Sweden.[29]

Baseball (closely related to English rounders and French la soule, and less clearly connected to cricket) became established in the urban Northeastern United States, with the first rules being codified in the 1840s, while American football was very popular in the south-east, with baseball spreading to the south, and American football spreading to the north after the Civil War. There is documented evidence of baseball in England. An extract from an 18th-century diary containing the oldest known reference to baseball is among the items on display in a new exhibition in London exploring the English origins and cricketing connections of America's national sport.

While baseball was once claimed to have been invented in the U.S. in the mid-19th century, recent findings suggest a sport of the same name may have evolved decades earlier alongside cricket, crossing the Atlantic with English settlers to the American colonies. One notable discovery found in a shed in a village in Surrey, southern England, in 2008 was a handwritten 18th-century diary belonging to a local lawyer, William Bray. "Went to Stoke church this morn.," wrote Bray on Easter Monday in 1755. "After dinner, went to Miss Jeale's to play at base ball with her the 3 Miss Whiteheads, Miss Billinghurst, Miss Molly Flutter, Mr. Chandler, Mr. Ford and H. Parsons. Drank tea and stayed til 8." In the 1870s the game split between the professionals and amateurs; the professional game rapidly gained dominance, and marked a shift in the focus from the player to the club. The rise of baseball also helped squeeze out other sports such as cricket, which had been popular in Philadelphia prior to the rise of baseball.

American football (and gridiron football more generally) also has its origins in the English variants of the game, with the first set of intercollegiate football rules based directly on the rules of the Football Association in London. However, Harvard chose to play a game based on the rules of Rugby football. Walter Camp would then heavily modify this variant in the 1880s, with the modifications also heavily influencing the rules of Canadian football.

American footballers tackling

Worldwide, the British influence includes many different football codes, lawn bowls, lawn tennis and other sports. The major impetus for this was the patenting of the world's first lawn mower in 1830. This allowed for the preparation of modern ovals, playing fields, pitches, grass courts, etc.[30]

United States

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Artikel utama: History of sports in the United States

Most sports in the United States evolved out of European practices. However, volleyball, skateboarding, and snowboarding are European American inventions, some of which have become popular in other countries. However, Lacrosse and surfing arose from Native American and Native Hawaiian activities that predate Western contact.[31][32]

Around the world

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The 21st century has seen a move towards adventure sports as a form of individual escapism, transcending the routines of life. Examples include white water rafting, paragliding, canyoning, base jumping and more genteelly, orienteering.

Women's sport history

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Artikel utama: Women's sports
UCSD women's soccer players fighting over ball

Women's competition in sports has been frowned upon by many societies in the past. The English public-school background of organized sport in the 19th and early 20th century led to a paternalism that tended to discourage women's involvement in sports, with, for example, no women officially competing in the 1896 Olympic Games. The 20th century saw major advances in the participation of women in sports due to a growing women's sports movement in Europe and North America. This led to the initiation of the Women's Olympiad (held three times 1921, 1922 and 1923) and the Women's World Games (held four times (1922, 1926, 1930 and 1934. In 1924 the 1924 Women's Olympiad was held in London. The increase in girls' and women's participation in sport has been partly influenced by the women's rights and feminist movements of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, respectively. In the United States, female students’ participation in sports was significantly boosted by the Title IX Act in 1972, which forbade gender discrimination in all aspects of any educational environment that uses federal financial aid,[33] leading to increased funding[34] and support to develop female athletes.

Pressure from sports funding bodies has also improved gender equality in sports. For example, the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the Leander Club (for rowing) in England had both been male-only establishments since their founding in 1787 and 1818, respectively, but both opened their doors to female members at the end of the 20th century at least partially due to the requirements of the United Kingdom Lottery Sports Fund.

The 21st century has seen women’s participation in sport at its all-time highest. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, women competed in 27 sports over 137 events, compared to 28 men’s sports in 175 events.[35] Several national women's professional sports leagues have been founded and are in competition, and women’s international sporting events such as the FIFA Women's World Cup, Women's Rugby World Cup, and Women's Hockey World Cup continue to grow.

Stadia through the ages

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See also

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References

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  1. ^ Crowther, Nigel B. (2007). Sport in Ancient Times. Praeger series on the ancient world, ISSN 1932-1406. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. hlm. xxii. ISBN 9780275987398. Diakses tanggal 30 Mei 2018. People in the ancient world rarely practiced sports for their own sake, especially in the earliest times, for physical pursuits had strong links with ritual, warfare, entertainment, or other external features. 
  2. ^ "Sport and preparing troops for war | National Army Museum". www.nam.ac.uk (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2021-11-17. 
  3. ^ Capelo, Holly (July 2010). "Symbols from the Sky: Heavenly messages from the depths of prehistory may be encoded on the walls of caves throughout Europe". Seed Magazine. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 8 May 2012. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  4. ^ Gary Barber (1 February 2007). Getting Started in Track and Field Athletics: Advice & Ideas for Children, Parents, and Teachers. Trafford Publishing. hlm. 25–. ISBN 978-1-4120-6557-3. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  5. ^ "Hartsell, Jeff., Wrestling 'in our blood,' says Bulldogs' Luvsandorj, 17 March 2011". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-06-24. Diakses tanggal 2021-12-22. 
  6. ^ Robert Crego (2003). Sports and Games of the 18th and 19th CenturiesPerlu mendaftar (gratis). Greenwood Publishing Group. hlm. 34–. ISBN 978-0-313-31610-4. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  7. ^ a b Egypt Thomb Diarsipkan 2011-07-13 di Wayback Machine.. Lessing Photo. 15 Feb 2011.
  8. ^ Harriet Crawford (16 September 2004). Sumer and the SumeriansPerlu mendaftar (gratis). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 247–. ISBN 978-0-521-53338-6. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  9. ^ a b c Kendall Blanchard (1995). The Anthropology of Sport: An Introduction. ABC-CLIO. hlm. 99–. ISBN 978-0-89789-330-5. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  10. ^ Time Inc (15 August 1938). LIFE. Time Inc. hlm. 59–. ISSN 0024-3019. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  11. ^ Faraj Baṣmahʹjī (1975). Treasures of the Iraq Museum. Al-Jumhuriya Press. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  12. ^ David Gilman Romano (1993). Athletics and Mathematics in Archaic Corinth: The Origins of the Greek Stadion. American Philosophical Society. hlm. 10–. ISBN 978-0-87169-206-1. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  13. ^ a b Nigel B. Crowther (2007). Sport in Ancient Times. Greenwood Publishing Group. hlm. 15–. ISBN 978-0-275-98739-8. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  14. ^ a b Terry Hellekson (19 November 2005). Fish Flies: The Encyclopedia Of The Fly Tier's Art. Gibbs Smith. hlm. 2–. ISBN 978-1-58685-692-2. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  15. ^ W. J. Hamblin (12 April 2006). Warfare in Ancient Near East. Taylor & Francis. hlm. 433–. ISBN 978-0-415-25588-2. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  16. ^ William J. Baker (1 July 1988). Sports in the Western WorldPerlu mendaftar (gratis). University of Illinois Press. hlm. 8–. ISBN 978-0-252-06042-7. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  17. ^ Michael Rice (7 November 2001). Who's Who in Ancient Egypt. Psychology Press. hlm. 98–. ISBN 978-0-415-15449-9. Diakses tanggal 26 September 2012. 
  18. ^ Wendy J. Raschke (15 June 1988). Archaeology Of The Olympics: The Olympics & Other Festivals In Antiquity. Univ of Wisconsin Press. hlm. 22–. ISBN 978-0-299-11334-6. Diakses tanggal 12 August 2012. 
  19. ^ "Sports History in China". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2009-03-03. Diakses tanggal 2021-12-22. 
  20. ^ Garry Whannel (2005). Media Sport Stars: Masculinities and Moralities. Routledge. hlm. 72. ISBN 978-1134698714. 
  21. ^ "Britain's Living Legacy to the Games: Sports". The New York Times. 26 July 2012. Diakses tanggal 14 November 2016. 
  22. ^ a b c Leach (2005a) is a heavily annotated chronology of cricket 1300-1730 and the source for numerous entries here.[butuh klarifikasi]
  23. ^ Dave Day, Professionals, Amateurs and Performance: Sports Coaching in England, 1789–1914 (2012)
  24. ^ Mason, Tony; Riedi, Eliza (4 November 2010). Sport and the Military: The British Armed Forces 1880–1960 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139788977. 
  25. ^ Campbell, James D. (16 March 2016). 'The Army Isn't All Work': Physical Culture and the Evolution of the British Army, 1860–1920 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Routledge. ISBN 9781317044536. 
  26. ^ Bogdanovic, Nikolai (19 December 2017). Fit to Fight: A History of the Royal Army Physical Training Corps 1860-2015 (dalam bahasa Inggris). Bloomsbury USA. ISBN 9781472824219. 
  27. ^ Harold Perkin, "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British empire and Commonwealth." The International Journal of the History of Sport 6.2 (1989): 145-155.
  28. ^ Sigmund Loland, "Fair play in sports contests-a moral norm system." Sportwissenschaft 21.2 (1991): 146-162.
  29. ^ "Svenska Bandyförbundet, bandyhistoria 1875–1919". Iof1.idrottonline.se. 1 February 2013. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 19 October 2013. Diakses tanggal 9 April 2014. 
  30. ^ Australian Broadcasting Corporation's Radio National Ockham's Razor, first broadcast 6 June 2010.
  31. ^ Elliott J. Gorn, A Brief History of American Sports (2004)
  32. ^ S.W. Pope, ed. The new American sport history: recent approaches and perspectives (U of Illinois Press, 1997).
  33. ^ Britt, M. & Timmerman, M. 'Title IX and Higher Education: The Implications for the 21st Century' in "Franklin Business and Law Journal", Vol. 2014, No. 1. (March 2014), pp. 83-86.
  34. ^ Reinbrecht, E. 'Northwestern University and Title IX: One Step Forward for Football Players, Two Steps Back for Female Student Athletes' in "University of Toledo Law Review", Vol. 47, No. 1. (September 2015), pp. 243-277.
  35. ^ Pfister, G. 'Outsiders: Muslim Women and Olympic Games - Barriers and Opportunities' in "The International Journal of the History of Sport", Vol. 27, Nos. 16-18. (November–December 2010), pp. 2925-2957.

Further reading

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  • Day, Dave. Professionals, Amateurs and Performance: Sports Coaching in England, 1789–1914 (2012)
  • Gorn, Elliott J. A Brief History of American Sports (2004)
  • Guttmann, Allen [de; fr]. Women's Sports: A History, Columbia University Press 1992
  • Guttmann, Allen. Games and Empires: Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism, Columbia Univ Press, 1996
  • Guttmann, Allen. The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (2002)
  • Holt, Richard. Sport and Society in Modern France (1981).
  • Holt, Richard. Sport and the British: A Modern History (1990) excerpt
  • Howell, Colin. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sport and the Making of Modern Canada (2001)
  • Mangan, J.A. (1996). Militarism, Sport, Europe: War Without Weapons. Routledge. 
  • Maurer, Michael. "Vom Mutterland des Sports zum Kontinent: Der Transfer des englischen Sports im 19. Jahrhundert", European History Online, Mainz, 2011, retrieved: 25 February 2012.
  • Morrow, Don and Kevin B. Wamsley. Sport in Canada: A History (2009)
  • Murray, Bill. The World's Game: A History of Soccer (1998)
  • Polley, Martin. Sports History: a practical guide, Palgrave, 2007.
  • Scott A.G.M. Crawford (Hrg.), Serious sport: J.A. Mangan's contribution to the history of sport, Portland, OR : Frank Cass, 2004
  • Pope, S.W. ed. The new American sport history : recent approaches and perspectives, Univ. of Illinois Press, 1997

Journals

Pranala luar

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Templat:History of sports Templat:Sport

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