Barack Obama: Perbedaan antara revisi

Barack Obama
Artikel ini adalah bagian dari seri tentang; Barack Obama
	Latar belakang; Senat Illinois; Senat AS; Posisi politik; Citra publik; Keluarga; Pendahuluan 2008; Kampanye Obama–Biden; Transisi; Pelantikan ke-1; Sejarah pemilihan umum; Kepresidenan Garis waktu '09; '10; '11; '12; '13; ; 100 hari pertama; Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian; Kampanye kedua; Pelantikan ke-2;

Barack Obama
Barack Obama
	Obama pada tahun 2012
Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44
	Masa jabatan; 20 Januari 2009 – 20 Januari 2017
Wakil Presiden	Joe Biden
	Pendahulu; George W. Bush Pengganti; Donald Trump
Senator Amerika Serikat ; dari Illinois
	Masa jabatan; 3 Januari 2005 – 16 November 2008
	Pendahulu; Peter Fitzgerald Pengganti; Roland Burris
Anggota Senat Illinois ; dari Distrik ke-13
	Masa jabatan; 8 Januari 1997 – 4 November 2004
	Pendahulu; Alice Palmer Pengganti; Kwame Raoul
Informasi pribadi
Lahir	Barack Hussein Obama II; 4 Agustus 1961 (umur 63); Honolulu, Hawaii, A.S.
Partai politik	Demokrat
Suami/istri	Michelle Robinson (3 Oktober 1992–sekarang)
Anak	Malia (l. 1998) ; Sasha (l. 2001)
Orang tua	Barack Obama, Sr. ; Lolo Soetoro (ayah); Kezia Obama ; Ann Dunham; Ruth Nidesand; Jael Otieno (ibu);
Tempat tinggal	Chicago, Illinois
Almamater	Occidental College ; Universitas Columbia (B.A.) ; Harvard Law School (J.D.)
Profesi	Pengacara ; Profesor hukum konstitusi ; Penggerak masyarakat ; Penulis
Penghargaan	Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian
Tanda tangan
Situs web	www.barackobama.com
	Suara Barack Obama Obama pada saat kematian Osama bin Laden; Direkam pada 2 Mei 2011
	Penghargaan (3 September 2022) Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Narrator (en) ; (2022) Audie Award for Narration by the Author or Authors (en) ; (2017) Profile in Courage Award (en) ; (2016) German Media Award (en) ; (28 April 2014) Orde Sikatuna; (21 Maret 2013) Presidential Medal of Distinction (en) ; (2012) Tokoh Tahun Ini Time; (2009) King Abdulaziz Medal (en) ; (2009) Daftar penerima Nobel Perdamaian; (2008) Phoenix Award (en) ; (2008) Financial Times Person of the Year (en) ; (2008) Tokoh Tahun Ini Time; (2007, 2021) NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work, Nonfiction (en) ; (8 Februari 2006) Grammy Award for Best Audio Book, Narration & Storytelling Recording (en) ; (2005) NAACP Image Award – Chairman's Award (en) ; (2005) Grammy Award for Best Audio Book, Narration & Storytelling Recording (en) ; Romy (en) ; Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (en) ; honorary doctor of the University of Johannesburg (en) ; Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (en) ; honorary doctorate from the University of Notre Dame (en) ; honorary doctor of the Northwestern University (en) ; National Medal of Science ;
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Barack Hussein Obama II (/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/ simak^ⓘ; lahir 4 Agustus 1961) adalah seorang politikus Amerika yang menjabat sebagai Presiden Amerika Serikat ke-44. Ia merupakan orang Afrika Amerika pertama yang menempati jabatan tersebut.

Lahir di Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama merupakan lulusan Universitas Columbia dan Harvard Law School, tempat ia menjadi presiden Harvard Law Review. Ia dulunya seorang penggerak masyarakat di Chicago sebelum mendapat gelar hukumnya. Ia bekerja sebagai jaksa hak-hak sipil di Chicago dan mengajar hukum konstitusi di University of Chicago Law School sejak 1992 sampai 2004. Ia tiga kali mewakili Distrik ke-13 di Senat Illinois mulai tahun 1997 hingga 2004, namun tidak lolos ke tahap Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Amerika Serikat tahun 2000.

Pada tahun 2004, Obama mendapat perhatian nasional saat berkampanye mewakili Illinois di Senat Amerika Serikat melalui kemenangannya pada pemilu pendahuluan Partai Demokrat bulan Maret, pidatonya di Konvensi Nasional Demokrat bulan Juli, dan pemilihannya sebagai Senat pada bulan November. Ia memulai kampanye presidennya tahun 2007, dan pada tahun 2008, setelah kampanye pendahuluan melawan Hillary Rodham Clinton, Obama memenangkan mayoritas suara delegasi dalam pemilu pendahuluan partai Demokrat untuk dijadikan calon presiden. Ia kemudian mengalahkan calon dari Partai Republik John McCain dalam pemilihan umum presiden tahun 2008, dan dilantik sebagai presiden pada tanggal 20 Januari 2009. Sembilan bulan kemudian, Obama dinyatakan sebagai pemenang Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian 2009. Ia terpilih lagi sebagai presiden pada November 2012, mengalahkan Mitt Romney dari Partai Republik, dan dilantik untuk kedua kalinya pada tanggal 20 Januari 2013.^[8]

Pada masa jabatan pertamanya, Obama mengesahkan undang-undang stimulus ekonomi sebagai tanggapan terhadap resesi 2007–2009 di Amerika Serikat dalam bentuk American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 dan Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010. Inisiatif besar dalam negeri lainnya pada masa pemerintahannya adalah Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act; Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act; Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010; Budget Control Act of 2011; dan American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012. Di bidang kebijakan luar negeri, Obama mengakhiri keterlibatan militer A.S. dalam Perang Irak, menambah jumlah tentara di Afganistan, menandatangani perjanjian pengendalian senjata New START bersama Rusia, memerintahkan intervensi militer A.S. di Libya, dan melaksanakan operasi militer yang berujung pada kematian Osama bin Laden. Pada bulan mei 2012, ia menjadi presiden A.S. pertama yang mendukung pengesahan pernikahan sesama jenis secara terbuka.

Masa muda dan karier

Obama lahir pada tanggal 4 Agustus 1961 di Kapiʻolani Maternity & Gynecological Hospital (sekarang Kapiʻolani Medical Center for Women and Children) di Honolulu, Hawaii,^[2]^[9]^[10] dan menjadi Presiden pertama yang lahir di Hawaii.^[11] Ibunya, Stanley Ann Dunham, lahir di Wichita, Kansas, dan merupakan keturunan bangsa Inggris.^[12] Ayahnya, Barack Obama, Sr., adalah seorang anggota suku Luo dari Nyang’oma Kogelo, Kenya. Orang tua Obama bertemu pada tahun 1960 di kelas bahasa Rusia di University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, tempat ayahnya kuliah sebagai penerima beasiswa asing.^[13]^[14] Keduanya menikah di Wailuku, Maui, pada tanggal 2 Februari 1961,^[15]^[16] dan terpisah ketika ibu Obama pindah bersama putranya yang baru lahir ke Seattle, Washington, pada akhir Agustus 1961 agar bisa berkuliah di University of Washington selama satu tahun. Sementara itu, Obama, Sr. menyelesaikan program S1 ekonominya di Hawaii pada Juni 1962, kemudian mengikuti program S2 di Harvard University dengan beasiswa. Orang tua Obama bercerai pada bulan Maret 1964.^[17] Obama Sr. pulang ke Kenya tahun 1964, lalu menikah kembali; ia hanya sekali menjenguk Barack di Hawaii, yaitu pada tahun 1971.^[18] Ia meninggal dunia akibat kecelakaan lalu lintas tahun 1982.^[19]

Pada tahun 1963, Dunham bertemu Lolo Soetoro, seorang mahasiswa East–West Center asal Indonesia yang mengambil program S2 dalam bidang geografi di University of Hawaii. Mereka menikah di Molokai pada tanggal 15 Maret 1965.^[20] Setelah dua tahun perpanjangan visa J-1-nya, Lolo pulang ke Indonesia tahun 1966, diikuti istri dan putra tirinya 16 bulan kemudian pada tahun 1967. Mereka awalnya menetap di Menteng Dalam, Tebet, Jakarta Selatan, kemudian pindah ke permukiman elit di Menteng, Jakarta Pusat, pada tahun 1970.^[21] Sejak usia 6 sampai 10 tahun, Obama bersekolah di Sekolah Katolik St. Fransiskus dari Assisi selama dua tahun dan Sekolah Dasar Besuki selama satu setengah tahun, ditambah pendidikan rumahan dengan bantuan Calvert School.^[22]

Pada tahun 1971, Obama kembali ke Honolulu untuk tinggal bersama orang tua ibunya, Madelyn dan Stanley Dunham, dan dengan bantuan beasiswa ia mengenyam pendidikan di Punahou School, sebuah sekolah persiapan perguruan tinggi, mulai kelas lima sampai lulus tahun 1979.^[23] Obama tinggal dengan ibu dan adiknya di Hawaii selama tiga tahun mulai 1972 sampai 1975, sementara ibunya menjalani program S2 antropologi di University of Hawaii.^[24] Ibu dan adiknya pulang ke Indonesia tahun 1975 untuk melaksanakan kerja lapangan antropologi, sementara Obama memilih untuk tetap tinggal di Hawaii bersama kakek neneknya agar bisa bersekolah di Punahou.^[25] Ibunya menghabiskan hampir dua dasawarsa di Indonesia, bercerai dengan Lolo tahun 1980 dan mendapatkan gelar PhD tahun 1992, sebelum meninggal dunia tahun 1995 di Hawaii pasca-pengobatan kanker ovarium dan kanker rahim.^[26]

Tentang masa kecilnya, Obama mengingat kembali, "Bahwa ayahku tidak seperti orang-orang di sekitarku—ia hitam bagaikan ter, ibuku putih bagaikan susu—nyaris tidak terpikirkan olehku."^[14] Ia menjelaskan perjuangannya sebagai sosok pemuda dewasa yang ingin menyatukan berbagai sudut pandang sosial terhadap warisan multirasialnya.^[27] Merenungkan masa kecilnya di Honolulu, Obama menulis: "Kesempatan yang Hawaii tawarkan—untuk menyaksikan berbagai macam budaya dengan suasana yang saling menghargai—menjadi bagian tak terpisahkan dari pandangan duniaku, sekaligus menjadi dasar nilai-nilai yang aku pegang erat."^[28] Obama juga menulis dan berbicara tentang pemakaian alkohol, ganja, dan kokain saat ia masih muda untuk "menyingkirkan pertanyaan siapa aku dari pikiran saya".^[29] Obama sempat menjadi anggota "choom gang", sebuah kelompok pertemanan yang menghabiskan waktu bersama-sama dan sering menghirup marijuana.^[30]^[31] Pada acara Civil Forum on the Presidency tahun 2008, Obama menyatakan penyesalannya karena pernah mengonsumsi obat-obatan terlarang saat SMA.^[32]

Setelah SMA, Obama pindah ke Los Angeles tahun 1979 untuk menuntut ilmu di Occidental College. Pada bulan Februari 1981, ia berpidato di hadapan publik untuk pertama kalinya, meminta Occidental melakukan divestasi dari Afrika Selatan sebagai respon terhadap kebijakan apartheid di sana.^[33] Pada pertengahan 1981, Obama berkunjung ke Indonesia untuk menemui ibu dan adiknya, Maya, kemudian menemui keluarga teman-teman kuliahnya di Pakistan dan India selama tiga minggu.^[33] Kemudian pada 1981, ia pindah ke Columbia University di New York City dan mendapatkan gelar dalam ilmu politik dengan kekhususan hubungan internasional^[34] dan lulus dengan gelar Bachelor of Arts pada tahun 1983. Ia bekerja selama satu tahun di Business International Corporation,^[35] kemudian di New York Public Interest Research Group.^[36]^[37]

Penggerak masyarakat Chicago dan Harvard Law School

Dua tahun setelah lulus, Obama bekerja sebagai direktur Developing Communities Project (DCP), sebuah organisasi masyarakat berbasis gereja yang awalnya terdiri dari 8 paroki Katolik Roseland, West Pullman, dan Riverdale di South Side, Chicago. Ia bekerja di sana sebagai penggerak masyarakat pada bulan Juni 1985 sampai Mei 1988.^[37]^[38] Ia membantu membuat program pelatihan kerja, program tutorial persiapan masuk perguruan tinggi, dan organisasi hak-hak penyewa di Altgeld Gardens.^[39] Obama juga bekerja sebagai konsultan dan instruktur untuk Gamaliel Foundation, sebuah institut penggerak masyarakat.^[40] Pada pertengahan 1988, untuk pertama kalinya ia berkunjung ke Eropa selama tiga minggu, lalu lima minggu di Kenya untuk bertemu dengan saudara-saudara ayahnya.^[41]^[42] Ia kembali berkunjung ke Kenya pada tahun 1992 bersama tunangannya, Michelle, dan adiknya, Auma.^[41]^[43] Obama datang lagi ke Kenya pada Agustus 2006 untuk mengunjungi tempat kelahiran ayahnya, yaitu sebuah desa dekat Kisumu di pedesaan barat Kenya.^[44]

Pada akhir 1988, Obama masuk Harvard Law School. Ia terpilih sebagai editor Harvard Law Review pada akhir tahun pertamanya,^[45] dan presiden jurnal pada tahun kedua.^[39]^[46] Sepanjang musim panas, ia pulang ke Chicago, lalu bekerja sebagai jaksa di firma hukum Sidley Austin tahun 1989 dan Hopkins & Sutter tahun 1990.^[47] Setelah lulus dengan gelar J.D. secara magna cum laude^[48] dari Harvard tahun 1991, ia pulang ke Chicago.^[45] Pemilihan Obama sebagai presiden Harvard Law Review berkulit hitam pertama menjadi perhatian media nasional^[39]^[46] dan berujung pada ditandatanganinya kontrak penerbitan buku karya Obama tentang hubungan antarras,^[49] yang berubah menjadi memoar pribadi. Buku karya Obama tersebut diterbitkan pada pertengahan 1995 dengan judul Dreams from My Father.^[49]

University of Chicago Law School dan jaksa hak sipil

Pada tahun 1991, Obama menjabat sebagai Dosen Tamu Hukum dan Pemerintahan di University of Chicago Law School selama dua tahun sambil menyelesaikan buku pertamanya.^[49]^[50] Ia kemudian mengajar di University of Chicago Law School selama 12 tahun (sebagai Dosen pada 1992 sampai 1996 dan Dosen Senior pada 1996 sampai 2004), mengajarkan hukum konstitusi.^[51]

Mulai bulan April sampai Oktober 1992, Obama memimpin Project Vote di Illinois, yaitu kampanye registrasi pemilih dengan sepuluh staf dan 700 pendaftar sukarela; proyek ini berhasil mendaftarkan 150.000 dari 400.000 warga Afrika-Amerika tak terdaftar di negara bagian Illinois sampai-sampai Crain's Chicago Business memasukkan Obama dalam daftar "40 under Forty" pada tahun 1993.^[52]

Tahun 1993, ia bergabung dengan Davis, Miner, Barnhill & Galland, sebuah firma hukum 13 jaksa yang bergerak di bidang litigasi hak-hak sipil dan pembangunan ekonomi masyarakat. Obama menjadi jaksa pembantu di sana pada tahun 1993 sampai 1996, kemudian of counsel tahun 1996 sampai 2004. Lisensi hukumnya tidak aktif lagi pada tahun 2007.^[53]^[54]

Sejak 1994 hingga 2002, Obama menjabat sebagai anggota dewan direktur Woods Fund of Chicago, yang pada 1985 menjadi yayasan pertama yang mendanai Developing Communities Project; dan dewan direktur Joyce Foundation.^[37] Ia menjabat sebagai anggota dewan direktur Chicago Annenberg Challenge mulai tahun 1995 sampai 2002, kemudian sebagai presiden pendiri dan ketua dewan direktur mulai tahun 1995 sampai 1999.^[37]

Karier legislatif: 1997–2008

Senator negara bagian: 1997–2004

Obama terpilih sebagai anggota Senat Illinois pada tahun 1996, menggantikan Alice Palmer sebagai Senator dari Distrik ke-13 Illinois yang pada waktu itu mencakup permukiman South Side Chicago dari Hyde Park – Kenwood ke selatan hingga South Shore dan barat hingga Chicago Lawn.^[55] Setelah terpilih, Obama mendapat dukungan dari kedua partai untuk undang-undang reformasi hukum etika dan pelayanan kesehatan.^[56] Ia memperkenalkan hukum penambahan kredit pajak untuk pekerja berpenghasilan rendah, menegosiasikan reformasi kesejahteraan, dan mempromosikan peningkatan subsidi perawatan anak.^[57] Tahun 2001, selaku ketua bersama Joint Committee on Administrative Rules, Obama mendukung peraturan pinjaman upah dan pemberian pinjaman gadai predator usulan Gubernur Ryan dari Partai Republik yang bertujuan menghindari penyitaan rumah.^[58]

Obama terpilih kembali sebagai Senator Illinois pada tahun 1998, mengalahkan Yesse Yehudah dari Partai Republik, lalu terpilih lagi pada tahun 2002.^[59] Tahun 2000, ia kalah dalam pemilu pendahuluan Demokrat untuk distrik kongres ke-1 Illinois di Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Amerika Serikat. Pemilu tersebut dimenangkan oleh petahana Bobby Rush yang sudah menjabat empat kali dengan margin suara dua banding satu.^[60]

Pada Januari 2003, Obama menjadi ketua Komite Pelayanan Kesehatan dan Masyarakat Senat Illinois setelah Demokrat merebut kembali suara mayoritas pasca menjadi minoritas selama satu dasawarsa.^[61] Ia memperkenalkan dan memimpin pengesahan undang-undang dwipartai yang mengawasi pemrofilan ras dengan meminta polisi mencatat ras pengemudi yang mereka tahan, serta undang-undang yang menjadikan Illinois negara bagian pertama yang mewajibkan interogasi pelaku pembunuhan direkam.^[57]^[62] Selama kampanye pemilu Senat A.S. 2004, perwakilan polisi memuji Obama atas keterlibatan aktifnya bersama organisasi polisi dengan menerapkan reformasi hukuman mati.^[63] Obama mengundurkan diri dari Senat Illinois pada bulan november 2004 setelah terpilih menjadi anggota Senat Amerika Serikat.^[64]

Kampanye Senat A.S.

Bulan Mei 2002, Obama mengadakan pemungutan suara untuk menilai prospeknya pada pemilu Senat A.S. 2004; ia membuat panitia kampanye, menggalang dana, dan bekerja sama dengan konsultan media politik David Axelrod pada Agustus 2002. Obama secara resmi mencalonkan diri pada bulan Januari 2003.^[65]

Obama adalah salah seorang penentang pertama invasi Irak 2003 yang dicanangkan oleh pemerintahan George W. Bush.^[66] Pada tanggal 2 Oktober 2002, saat Presiden Bush dan Kongres menyetujui resolusi bersama yang mengizinkan dilancarkannya Perang Irak,^[67] Obama mengadakan kampanye anti-Perang Irak pertama di Chicago dan berpidato di sana.^[68]^[69] Ia mengadakan kampanye anti-perang lainnya pada bulan Maret 2003 dan berkata bahwa "belum terlambat" untuk menghentikan perang.^[70]

Keputusan petahana dari Partai Republik Peter Fitzgerald dan pendahulunya dari Partai Demokrat Carol Moseley Braun untuk tidak berpartisipasi dalam pemilihan umum berujung pada persaingan pemilihan pendahluan Demokrat dan Republik secara terbuka yang melibatkan 15 orang kandidat.^[71] Pada pemilihan pendahuluan Maret 2004, Obama menang dengan selisih yang tidak diduga-duga—yang menjadikannya bintang satu malam di Partai Demokrat nasional, sehingga memunculkan spekulasi tentang masa depannya sebagai presiden serta penerbitan ulang memoarnya, Dreams from My Father.^[72] Pada Juli 2004, Obama menyampaikan pidatonya di Konvensi Nasional Demokrat 2004^[73] yang ditonton oleh 9,1 juta orang. Pidatonya disambut hangat dan menaikkan statusnya di Partai Demokrat.^[74]

Calon pesaing Obama pada pemilihan umum, yaitu pemenang pemilihan pendahuluan dari Partai Republik Jack Ryan, keluar pada bulan Juni 2004.^[75] Enam minggu kemudian, Alan Keyes menerima pencalonan Republik untuk menggantikan Ryan.^[76] Pada pemilihan umum November 2004, Obama memenangkan 70 persen suara.^[77]

Senator A.S.: 2005–2008

Potret resmi Obama sebagai anggota Senat Amerika Serikat

Obama disumpah sebagai seorang senator pada tanggal 3 Januari 2005,^[78] dan menjadi satu-satunya anggota Senat dari Congressional Black Caucus.^[79] CQ Weekly menyebutnya sebagai seorang "Demokrat setia" berdasarkan analisis seluruh suara Senat tahun 2005–2007. Pada 13 November 2008, Obama mengumumkan akan mengundurkan diri dari jabatan Senatnya terhitung 16 November 2008, sebelum dimulainya sesi lame-duck, untuk berfokus pada masa transisinya sebagai presiden.^[80]

Undang-undang

Obama turut mensponsori Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act.^[81] Ia memperkenalkan dua inisiatif yang diberi nama dirinya: Lugar–Obama, yang memperluas konsep pengurangan risiko bersama Nunn–Lugar menjadi senjata api konvensional;^[82] dan Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006, yang mengizinkan pembuatan USAspending.gov, mesin pencari anggaran federal di Internet.^[83] Tanggal 3 Juni 2008, Senator Obama—bersama Senator Tom Carper, Tom Coburn, dan John McCain—memperkenalkan RUU kelanjutannya, yaitu Strengthening Transparency and Accountability in Federal Spending Act of 2008.^[84]

Obama mensponsori RUU yang mewajibkan pemilik PLTN memberitahu kebocoran radioaktif kepada otoritas negara bagian dan wilayah setempat, namun gagal disahkan secara bulat setelah diubah besar-besaran oleh komite.^[85] Mengenai reformasi kerugian, Obama memberi suaranya untuk Class Action Fairness Act of 2005 dan FISA Amendments Act of 2008, yang memberikan imunitas kewajiban sipil kepada perusahaan-perusahaan telekomunikasi yang mematuhi operasi penyadapan tanpa surat perintah NSA.^[86]

Gray-haired man and Obama stand, wearing casual polo shirts. Obama wears sunglasses and holds something slung over his right shoulder. — Obama dan Sen. A.S. Richard Lugar (R-IN) mengunjungi sebuah fasilitas perombakan rudal bergerak di Rusia (Agustus 2005).^[87]

Pada bulan Desember 2006, Presiden Bush mengesahkan Undang-Undang Pemulihan, Keamanan, dan Pengenalan Demokrasi Republik Demokratik Kongo, yang menandai UU federal pertama yang disahkan dan disponsori Obama.^[88] Bulan Januari 2007, Obama dan Senator Feingold memperkenalkan peraturan jet perusahaan dalam Honest Leadership and Open Government Act yang disahkan bulan September 2007.^[89] Obama juga memperkenalkan Deceptive Practices and Voter Intimidation Prevention Act, sebuah RUU yang mengkriminalisasi praktik penipuan dalam pemilihan umum federal,^[90] dan Iraq War De-Escalation Act of 2007.^[91] Tidak satupun yang disahkan.

Kemudian pada tahun 2007, Obama memperkenalkan amendemen terhadap Defense Authorization Act yang berisi tentang penambahan perlindungan bagi pensiunan militer yang menderita gangguan kepribadian.^[92] Amanddemen ini disahkan Senat dengan suara bulat pada musim semi 2008.^[93] Ia memperkenalkan pula Iran Sanctions Enabling Act yang mendukung divestasi dana pensiun negara dari industri minyak dan gas Iran, yang tidak disahkan komite; serta mensponsori bersama UU pengurangan risiko terorisme nuklir.^[94] Obama juga mensponsori amendemen Senat terhadap State Children's Health Insurance Program yang memberikan perlindungan kerja selama satu tahun untuk para anggota keluarga yang merawat tentara-tentara terluka akibat pertempuran.^[95]

Komite

Obama mengemban tugas di Komite Senat untuk Hubungan Luar Negeri, Lingkungan dan Pekerjaan Umum dan Urusan Veteran sepanjang Desember 2006.^[96] Pada Januari 2007, ia keluar dari komite Lingkungan dan Pekerjaan Umum dan melaksanakan tugas tambahan di Komite Kesehatan, Pendidikan, Buruh, dan Pensiun dan Keamanan Dalam Negeri dan Urusan Pemerintahan.^[97] Ia juga menjadi Ketua subkomite Senat untuk Urusan Eropa.^[98] Selaku anggota Komite Hubungan Luar Negeri Senat, Obama melakukan serangkaian kunjungan resmi ke Eropa Timur, Timur Tengah, Asia Tengah, dan Afrika. Ia bertemu dengan Mahmoud Abbas sebelum menjadi Presiden Otoritas Nasional Palestina dan berpidato di Universitas Nairobi sambil mengutuk korupsi di tubuh pemerintahan Kenya.^[99]

Kampanye presiden

Kampanye presiden 2008

Pada tanggal 10 Februari 2007, Obama menyatakan pencalonannya sebagai Presiden Amerika Serikat di depan gedung Old State Capitol di Springfield, Illinois.^[100]^[101] Pemilihan tempat pengumuman itu dianggap simbolis karena di situ Abraham Lincoln menyampaikan pidato bersejarahnya yang berjudul "House Divided" tahun 1858.^[100]^[102] Obama menekankan isu pengakhiran Perang Irak secepat mungkin, meningkatkan kebebasan energi, dan menyediakan layanan kesehatan universal,^[103] dalam kampanye yang mengusung tema "harapan" dan "perubahan".^[104]

Banyak kandidat yang ikut bertarung dalam pemilihan pendahuluan presiden Partai Demokrat. Persaingan besar ini berakhir dengan duel antara Obama dan Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton dan berlangsung ketat sepanjang proses pemilihan pendahuluan. Akan tetapi, Obama tetap unggul dalam jumlah delegasi karena perencanaan jangka panjang yang baik, penggalangan dana kelas atas, dominasi di negara-negara bagian kaukus, serta pemanfaatan peraturan alokasi delegasi yang sangat rapi.^[105] Pada 7 Juni 2008, Clinton mengakhiri kampanyenya dan mendukung Obama.^[106]

Tanggal 23 Agustus, Obama mengumumkan penunjukan Senator Delaware Joe Biden sebagai pasangan kampanye sekaligus calon wakil presidennya.^[107] Biden dipilih dari sejumlah calon yang meliputi mantan Gubernur Indiana dan Senator Evan Bayh dan Gubernur Virginia Tim Kaine.^[108] Pada Konvensi Nasional Demokrat 2008 di Denver, Colorado, Hillary Clinton meminta para pendukungnya memilih Obama dan ia serta Bill Clinton menyampaikan pidato dukungan untuk Obama.^[109] Obama menyampaikan pidato penerimaan pencalonannya, bukan di tengah arena Konvensi Nasional Demokrat, tetapi di Invesco Field at Mile High di hadapan sekitar 75.000 orang; pidato tersebut ditonton oleh lebih dari 38 juta orang di seluruh dunia.^[110]^[111]

Selama proses pemilihan pendahuluan dan pemilihan umum, kampanye Obama mencetak sejumlah rekor penggalangan dana, terutama dalam jumlah sumbangan kecil.^[112] Pada 19 Juni 2008, Obama menjadi kandidat presiden partai besar pertama yang menolak pendanaan publik dalam pemilu sejak sistem tersebut dicetuskan tahun 1976.^[113]

John McCain dicalonkan sebagai kandidat dari Partai Republik dan keduanya mengikuti tiga debat presiden pada bulan September dan Oktober 2008.^[114] Tanggal 4 November, Obama memenangkan pemilu dengan 365 suara elektoral dibandingkan dengan 173 suara yang diperoleh McCain.^[115] Obama memenangkan 52,9% suara rakyat dibandingkan dengan 45,7% yang diterima McCain.^[116] Ia menjadi orang Afrika Amerika pertama yang menduduki jabatan presiden.^[117] Obama menyampaikan pidato kemenangannya di hadapan ratusan ribu pendukungnya di Grant Park, Chicago.^[118]

Kampanye presiden 2012

Pada tanggal 4 April 2011, Obama mengumumkan kampanye pemilihannya kembali untuk pemilu 2012 dalam sebuah video berjudul "It Begins with Us" di situs webnya dan mengirim berkas pemilu ke Federal Election Commission.^[120]^[121]^[122] Sebagai presiden petahana, ia secara virtual tidak punya saingan pada pemilihan pendahuluan presiden Partai Demokrat,^[123] dan pada 3 April 2012, Obama berhasil mendapat dukungan dari 2778 delegasi konvensi yang dibutuhkan untuk memenangkan pencalonan Demokrat.^[124]

Pada Konvensi Nasional Demokrat 2012 di Charlotte, North Carolina, mantan Presiden Bill Clinton secara resmi mencalonkan Obama dan Joe Biden sebagai kandidat dari Partai Demokrat untuk menjadi presiden dan wakil presiden pada pemilihan umum mendatang, melawan Mitt Romney, mantan gubernur Massachusetts, dan Anggota DPR Paul Ryan dari Wisconsin dari Partai Republik.^[125]

Pada tanggal 6 November 2012, Obama memeroleh 332 suara elektoral, melebihi batas minimal 270 yang dibutuhkan agar bisa terpilih lagi sebagai presiden.^[126]^[127]^[128] Dengan 51% suara rakyat, Obama menjadi presiden Demokrat pertama sejak Franklin D. Roosevelt yang dua kali mendapatkan mayoritas suara rakyat.^[129]^[130] Presiden Obama berpidato di hadapan para pendukung dan relawannya di McCormick Place, Chicago, setelah pemilihannya kembali dan berkata: "Malam ini kalian memilih tindakan, bukan politik seperti biasanya. Kalian memilih kami untuk berfokus pada pekerjaan kalian, bukan kami. Dan dalam beberapa minggu dan bulan selanjutnya, saya berusaha menghubungi dan bekerja sama dengan para pemimpin dari kedua partai."^[131]

Pemerintahan

Hari-hari pertama

Pelantikan Barack Obama sebagai Presiden ke-44 dilaksanakan pada tanggal 20 Januari 2009. Pada hari-hari pertamanya menjabat, Obama mengeluarkan sejumlah perintah eksekutif dan memorandum presiden yang ditujukan pada militer A.S. untuk menyusun rencana penarikan tentara dari Irak.^[132] Ia memerintahkan penutupan kamp penahanan Teluk Guantanamo,^[133] tetapi Kongres mencegahnya dengan menolak pencairan dana yang diperlukan.^[134]^[135]^[136] Obama mengurangi tingkat kerahasiaan catatan presiden.^[137] Ia juga mencabut penerapan kembali Mexico City Policy era Presiden Ronald Reagan oleh Presiden George W. Bush yang melarang bantuan federal untuk organisasi perencanaan keluarga internasional yang melakukan atau memberi bantuan konseling tentang aborsi.^[138]

Kebijakan dalam negeri

Rancangan undang-undang pertama yang disahkan oleh Obama adalah Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 yang memperlonggar persyaratan batasan tuntutan hukum upah setara.^[139] Lima hari kemudian, ia menandatangani perizinan kembali State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) untuk mengasuransikan sekitar 4 juta anak.^[140] Pada bulan Maret 2009, Obama menghapus kebijakan era Bush yang membatasi pendanaan penelitian sel batang embrionik dan berjanji membuat "panduan ketat" mengenai penelitian tersebut.^[141]

Obama menunjuk dua wanita untuk menjabat di Mahkamah Agung pada dua tahun pertama masa pemerintahannya. Sonia Sotomayor, yang dicalonkan Obama tanggal 26 Mei 2009 untuk menggantikan Hakim Pembantu David Souter, resmi menjabat pada 6 Agustus 2009^[142] dan menjadi Hakim Mahkamah Agung Hispanik pertama.^[143] Elena Kagan, yang dicalonkan Obama tanggal 10 Mei 2010 untuk menggantikan Hakim Pembantu John Paul Stevens, resmi menjabat pada 5 Agustus 2010 sehingga untuk pertama kalinya sepanjang sejarah Amerika Serikat pejabat wanita di Mahkamah Agung berjumlah tiga orang.^[144]

Pada tanggal 30 September 2009, pemerintahan Obama mengusulkan peraturan baru khusus pembangkit listrik, pabrik, dan penyulingan minyak untuk membatasi emisi gas rumah kaca dan memperlambat pemanasan global.^[145]^[146]

Tanggal 8 Oktober 2009, Obama menandatangani Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act, sebuah peraturan yang memperluas hukum kebencian federal Amerika Serikat 1969 agar mencakup juga kejahatan yang dilakukan karena jenis kelamin, orientasi seksual, identitas gender, atau kecacatan korban baik yang dipersepsikan maupun yang benar-benar dialami.^[147]^[148]

Pada 30 Maret 2010, Obama menandatangani Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act, sebuah rancangan undang-undang rekonsiliasi yang mengakhiri proses pemberian subsidi oleh pemerintah federal kepada bank-bank swasta untuk menghapus pinjaman yang dijamin pemerintah, menambah pemberian beasiswa Pell Grant, dan mengubah Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.^[149]^[150]

Pada pidato kebijakan antariksa bulan April 2010, Obama mengumumkan rencana perubahan arah di NASA, badan antariksa Amerika Serikat. Ia mengakhiri rencana peluncuran kembali penerbangan antariksa manusia ke Bulan dan pengembangan roket Ares I, Ares V dan program Constellation, agar bisa mendanai proyek-proyek ilmu Bumi, jenis roket baru, dan penelitian dan pengembangan misi berawak ke Mars, serta misi yang sedang berlangsung ke Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional.^[151]

Tanggal 22 Desember 2010, Obama mengesahkan Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 yang memenuhi janji kampanye presiden Obama pada tahun 2008^[152]^[153] untuk mengakhiri kebijakan Don't ask, don't tell tahun 1993 yang mencegah kaum gay dan lesbian berdinas secara bebas di Angkatan Bersenjata Amerika Serikat.^[154]

2011 State of the Union Address yang disampaikan Presiden Obama berfokus pada pendidikan dan inovasi, menekankan pentingnya ekonomi inovasi supaya Amerika Serikat semakin bersaing di panggung dunia. Ia membicarakan kebuntuan pengeluaran dalam negeri selama lima tahun, penghapusan pengecualian pajak bagi perusahaan minyak dan membatalkan potongan pajak bagi orang-orang kaya A.S., melarang earmark, dan mengurangi biaya layanan kesehatan. Ia berjanji bahwa Amerika Serikat akan mempunyai satu juga kendaraan listrik pada tahun 2015 dan 80%-nya akan bergantung pada listrik "bersih".^[155]^[156]

Selaku kandidat senator Illinois, Obama pernah berkata pada tahun 1996 bahwa ia ingin melegalisasi pernikahan sesama jenis;^[157] namun saat berkampanye untuk menjadi senator A.S. tahun 2004, ia menyatakan meski ia mendukung persatuan sipil dan hubungan serumah untuk kaum penyuka sesama jenis, karena alasan strategis ia menentang pernikahan sesama jenis.^[158] Pada tanggal 9 Mei 2012, sesaat setelah peluncuran resmi kampanyenya untuk pemilihan kembali sebagai presiiden, Obama mengatakan pandangannya telah berubah dan ia secara terbuka mendukung legalisasi pernikahan sesama jenis. Ia menjadi presiden menjabat A.S. pertama yang melakukan hal tersebut.^[159]^[160]

Kebijakan ekonomi

Obama menyampaikan pidato mingguan pertamanya sebagai Presiden Amerika Serikat pada 24 Januari 2009 yang membahas American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

Pada tanggal 7 Februari 2009, Obama mengesahkan American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, sebuah paket stimulus ekonomi senilai $787 miliar untuk membantu pemulihan ekonomi akibat memburuknya resesi global.^[161] Undang-undang ini mencakup peningkatan pengeluaran pemerintah untuk layanan kesehatan, infrastruktur, pendidikan, berbagai pengecualian dan insentif pajak, dan bantuan langsung individu,^[162] yang dilaksanakan dalam kurun beberapa tahun.

Pada bulan Maret, Menteri Keuangan Obama, Timothy Geithner, mengambil sejumlah keputusan untuk menangani krisis keuangan, termasuk memperkenalkan Public-Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets yang berisi peraturan batas pembelian aset real estat terbengkalai sampai $2 triliun.^[163] Obama mengintervensi industri otomotif bermasalah^[164] pada Maret 2009, memperbarui pinjaman untuk General Motors dan Chrysler supaya terus beroperasi sambil melakukan reorganisasi. Pada bulan-bulan selanjutnya, Gedung Putih menetapkan persyaratan untuk kebangkrutan yang dialami kedua perusahaan tersebut, termasuk penjualan Chrysler ke pabrik mobil Italia Fiat^[165] dan reorganisasi GM yang memberikan pemerintah A.S. saham sementara sebesar 60% di perusahaan tersebut dan 12% untuk pemerintah Kanada.^[166] Bulan Juni 2009, tidak puas dengan kemajuan stimulus ekonomi, Obama meminta kabinetnya mempercepat investasi.^[167] Ia mengesahkan Car Allowance Rebate System, dikenal dengan sebutan "Cash for Clunkers", yang berhasil mempercepat ekonomi untuk sementara.^[168]^[169]^[170]

Meski jaminan pengeluaran dan pinjaman dari Federal Reserve dan Departemen Keuangan yang diizinkan pemerintahan Bush dan Obama senilai $11,5 triliun, hanya $3 triliun yang dikeluarkan pada akhir November 2009.^[171] Akan tetapi, Obama dan Congressional Budget Office memperkirakan bahwa defisit anggaran 2010 akan mencapai $1,5 triliun atau 10,6% dari produk domestik bruto Amerika Serikat dibandingkan dengan defisit sebesar $1,4 triliun atau 9,9% dari PDB pada tahun 2009.^[172]^[173] Untuk tahun 2011, pemerintahan Obama memperkirakan defisit akan sedikit turun hingga $1,34 triliun, sementara defisit 10 tahun akan naik hingga $8,53 triliun atau 90% dari PDB.^[174] Kenaikan batas utang A.S. terbaru sebesar $16,4 triliun disahkan pada tanggal 26 Januari 2012.^[175] Pada tanggal 2 Agustus 2011, setelah Kongres panjang lebar membicarakan perlunya menaikkan batas utang Amerika Serikat, Obama mengesahkan RUU dwipartai Budget Control Act of 2011. UU ini memberlakukan batasan pengeluaran rahasia sampai 2021, menetapkan prosedur penaikan batas utang, membentuk Congressional Joint Select Committee on Deficit Reduction untuk merencanakan pengurangan defisit lebih lanjut dengan tujuan mencapai penghematan anggaran sebesar $1,5 triliun dalam kurun 10 tahun, dan menetapkan prosedur otomatis untuk mengurangi pengeluaran sampai $1,2 triliun jika UU yang berawal dengan komite gabungan pilihan baru tersebut gagal mencapai penghematan yang ditetapkan.^[176] Dengan mengesahkan UU ini, Kongres mampu mencegah gagal bayar obligasi oleh pemerintah A.S..^[177]

Seperti 2008, tingkat pengangguran naik pada tahun 2009 dan mencapai puncaknya pada bulan Oktober di level 10,0% dan rata-rata 10,0% pada kuartal keempat. Setelah menurun hingga 9,7% pada kuartal pertama 2010, tingkat pengangguran turun sampai 9,6% pada kuartal kedua dan tetap stabil sampai akhir tahun.^[180] Antara Februari dan Desember 2010, jumlah lapangan kerja naik 0,8%, kurang dari rata-rata 1,9% pada masa-masa perbandingan dalam empat pemulihan lapangan kerja sebelumnya.^[181] Per November 2012, tingkat pengangguran turun hingga 7,7%.^[182] Pertumbuhan PDB kembali naik pada kuartal ketiga 2009 hingga 1,6%, diikuti peningkatan sebesar 5,0% pada kuartal keempat.^[183] Pertumbuhan berlanjut pada tahun 2010 dengan peningkatan sebesar 3,7% pada kuartal pertama dengan sedikit perbedaan hingga akhir tahun.^[183] Pada Juli 2010, Federal Reserve menyatakan bahwa meski aktivitas ekonomi terus meningkat, kemajuannya melambat, dan Ketua Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke mengatakan bahwa masa depan ekonomi "malah tidak jelas."^[184] Secara keseluruhan, ekonomi nasional mengalami kenaikan sebesar 2,9% pada tahun 2010.^[185]

Congressional Budget Office dan sejumlah ekonom memuji rencana stimulus Obama untuk pertumbuhan ekonomi.^[186]^[187] CBO merilis laporan yang menyatakan RUU stimulus ini menaikkan jumlah lapangan kerja hingga 1–2,1 juta orang,^[187]^[188]^[189]^[190] sambil mengakui bahwa "Mustahil mengetahui berapa banyak lapangan kerja yang tercipta jika paket stimulus tidak ada."^[186] Meski dalam survei anggota National Association for Business Economics bulan April 2010 menunjukkan kenaikan jumlah lapangan kerja (terhadap survei yang sama pada bulan Januari) untuk pertama kalinya dalam dua tahun, 73% dari 68 responden percaya bahwa RUU stimulus tersebut tidak berdampak apapun terhadap lapangan kerja.^[191]

Satu bulan setelah pemilu pertengahan 2010, Obama mengumumkan persetujuan dengan fraksi Repulik di Kongres berupa perpanjangan sementara nilai pajak penghasilan 2001 dan 2003 selama dua tahun, pengurangan pajak gaji selama satu tahun, kelanjutan tunjangan pengangguran, dan jumlah nilai dan pengecualian baru untuk pajak properti.^[192] Persetujuan ini ditentang oleh sejumlah pihak dari kedua kubu partai dan Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010 senilai $858 miliar disetujui dengan suara mayoritas di kedua partai sebelum disahkan Obama pada 17 Desember 2010.^[193]

Reformasi layanan kesehatan

Obama meminta Kongres mengesahkan UU yang mereformasi layanan kesehatan di Amerika Serikat, salah satu janji kampanye dan tujuan legislatif utamanya.^[194] Ia merencanakan perluasan cakupan asuransi kesehatan hingga orang-orang yang belum terasuransikan, membatasi kenaikan premi, dan mengizinkan masyarakat memeroleh kembali jaminan mereka saat keluar atau ganti pekerjaan. Rencananya adalah menganggarkan $900 miliar selama 10 tahun dan membuat rencana asuransi pemerintah yang disebut opsi publik untuk bersaing dengan sektor asuransi perusahaan sebagai komponen utama menekan biaya dan memperbaiki kualitas layanan kesehatan. Pengasuransi juga dilarang menolak orang sakit ataupun menolak mengasuransikan mereka atas kondisi tidak jelas, dan mewajibkan setiap warga Amerika Serikat memiliki asuransi kesehatan. Rencana ini juga meliputi pemotongan pengeluaran kesehatan dan pembebanan pajak kepada perusahaan-perusahaan asuransi yang menawarkan rencana asuransi yang mahal.^[195]^[196]

Tanggal 14 Juli 2009, fraksi Demokrat di DPR memperkenalkan rencana 1.017 halaman untuk merombak sistem layanan kesehatan A.S. yang Obama harapkan disetujui Kongres pada akhir 2009.^[194] Setelah banyak dibicarakan masyarakat ketika reses musim panas 2009, Obama menyampaikan pidato di sidang gabungan Kongres pada tanggal 9 September yang berisi kekhawatirannya tentang rencana tersebut.^[197] Pada Maret 2009, Obama mencabut larangan pemakaian dana federal untuk penelitian sel batang.^[198]

Tanggal 7 November 2009, sebuah RUU layanan kesehatan yang berisi opsi publik disetujui oleh DPR.^[199]^[200] Tanggal 24 Desember 2009, Senat menyetujui RUU-nya sendiri—tanpa opsi publik—dengan suara partai 60–39.^[201] Tanggal 21 Maret 2010, Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act yang disetujui Senat pada bulan Desember disetujui oleh DPR dengan suara 219 banding 212.^[202] Obama mengesahkan RUU ini pada tanggal 23 Maret 2010.^[203]

Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act berisi peraturan kesehatan yang harus dilaksanakan dalam kurun empat tahun, termasuk perluasan cakupan Medicaid hingga orang-orang berpendapatan 133% dari tingkat kemiskinan federal (FPL) terhitung tahun 2014,^[204] menyubsidi premi untuk orang-orang berpendapatan 400% dari FPL ($88.000 untuk keluarga empat orang pada tahun 2010) sehingga pembayaran "di luar kantung" maksimal untuk premi tahunan akan naik dari 2 menjadi 9,5% dari pendapatan mereka,^[205]^[206] memberikan insentif untuk pengusaha agar menyediakan tunjangan layanan kesehatan, melarang penolakan asuransi dan penolakan klaim berdasarkan kondisi yang sudah ada, membentuk pertukaran asuransi kesehatan, melarang batas asuransi tahunan, dan mendukung penelitian medis. Menurut laporan Gedung Putih dan Congressional Budget Office, pangsa maksimum pendapatan yang harus dibayarkan pelanggan asuransi akan bervariasi tergantung pendapatan mereka yang relatif terhadap tingkat kemiskinan federal.^[205]^[207]

Biaya pelaksanaan peraturan ini ditutupi oleh pajak, retribusi, dan penghematan biaya, seperti pajak Medicare baru untuk orang-orang berpendapatan tinggi, pajak jemur dalam ruangan, pemotongan anggaran program Medicare Advantage untuk dialihkan ke Medicare biasa, dan pembebanan tarif untuk peralatan medis dan perusahaan obat-obatan;^[208] ada pula penalti pajak untuk orang-orang yang tidak memiliki asuransi kesehatan, kecuali mereka dikecualikan akibat pendapatan rendah atau alasan lain.^[209] Pada Maret 2010, Congressional Budget Office memperkirakan bahwa dampak bersih dari kedua hukum tersebut berupa pengurangan defisit federal sebesar $143 miliar pada periode dasawarsa pertama.^[210]

Hukum ini disambut sejumlah tuntutan hukum yang kebanyakan didasarkan pada pendapat bahwa keputusan seseorang yang mewajibkan warga Amerika Serikat membeli asuransi kesehatan bersifat tidak konstitusional. Pada tanggal 28 Juni 2012, Mahkamah Agung memutuskan dengan suara 5–4 di sidang National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius bahwa Commerce Clause tidak mengizinkan pemerintah mewajibkan masyarakat membeli asuransi kesehatan, tetapi keputusan tersebut bersifat konstitusional sesuai perizinan perpajakan Kongres Amerika Serikat.^[211]

Kebocoran minyak Teluk Meksiko

Pada 20 April 2010, sebuah ledakan menghancurkan instalasi pengeboran lepas pantai di Prospek Macondo di Teluk Meksiko dan mengakibatkan kebocoran minyak luar biasa. Operator pengeboran lepas pantai ini, BP, melaksanakan rencana pembendungan dan pembersihan dan mulai mengebor dua sumur pembantu untuk menghentikan aliran tersebut. Obama mengunjungi kawasan Teluk Meksiko pada tanggal 2 Mei, 28 Mei, dan 4 Juni bersama sejumlah anggota kabinetnya. Tanggal 22 Mei, ia menyatakan dimulainya investigasi federal dan membentuk komisi dwipartai untuk merekomendasikan standar keselamatan baru setelah dilakukan tinjauan oleh Menteri Dalam Negeri Ken Salazar dan sidang Kongres. Tanggal 27 Mei, ia mengumumkan moratorium izin dan sewa pengeboran laut dalam baru selama 6 bulan sambil menunggu hasil tinjauan peraturan.^[212] Setelah berbagai upaya BP gagal, sejumlah pihak di media dan publik mengungkapkan ketidakjelasan sekaligus kritik atas beragam aspek kecelakaan ini, serta menginginkan Obama dan pemerintah federal terlibat lebih jauh dalam penanganannya.^[213]

Pengendalian senjata api

Pada tanggal 16 Januari 2013, satu bulan setelah penembakan Sekolah Dasar Sandy Hook, Presiden Obama mengusulkan serangkaian rencana pengendalian senjata api secara cepat, meminta Kongres mengesahkan kembali larangan senjata api "bergaya militer" seperti yang dipakai di beberapa kasus penembakan massal terakhir, menerapkan pembatasan magasin peluru menjadi 10 butir, melaksanakan pemeriksaan latar belakang semua pembeli senjata api, melarang kepemilikan dan penjualan peluru tembus rompi antipeluru, menerapkan hukuman berat bagi penyelundup senjata, khususnya penjual tak berlisensi yang membeli senjata api untuk pelaku kriminal dan menyetujui penunjukan kepala badan federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives untuk pertama kalinya sejak 2006.^[214]

Pemilihan pertengahan 2010

Obama menyebut pemilu 2 November 2010 yang berakhir dengan Partai Demokrat kehilangan 63 kursi yang didudukinya sekaligus kendali mayoritas di DPR^[215] sebagai hal yang "memalukan" dan "merugikan".^[216] Ia mengatakan hasilnya seperti itu karena belum banyak warga Amerika Serikat yang sudah merasakan dampak pemulihan ekonomi.^[217]

Kebijakan luar negeri

Pada bulan Februari dan Maret, Wakil Presiden Joe Biden dan Menteri Luar Negeri Hillary Rodham Clinton melakukan serangkaian perjalanan terpisah ke luar negeri untuk mengumumkan "era baru" dalam hubungan luar negeri A.S. dengan Rusia dan Eropa. Mereka memakai kata "break" dan "reset" untuk menyebut perubahan besar dari kebijakan era pemerintahan sebelumnya.^[218] Obama berusaha berkomunikasi dengan para pemimpin Arab dengan mengadakan wawancara pertamanya dengan jaringan televisi Arab, Al Arabiya.^[219]

Tanggal 19 Maret, Obama melanjutkan pendekatannya dengan umat Muslim dengan merilis video ucapan Selamat Tahun Baru untuk rakyat dan pemerintah Iran.^[220] Upaya ini tidak digubris oleh pemerintah Iran.^[221] Pada bulan April, Obama berpidato di Ankara, Turki, dan disambut hangat oleh sejumlah pemerintah di kawasan Arab.^[222] Tanggal 4 Juni 2009, Obama menyampikan pidato di Universitas Kairo, Mesir, yang berisi tentang dimulainya "awal baru" dalam hubungan antara dunia Islam dan Amerika Serikat dan mempromosikan perdamaian di Timur Tengah.^[223]

Tanggal 26 Juni 2009, menanggapi tindakan pemerintah Iran terhadap pengunjuk rasa pasca-pemilu presiden Iran 2009, Obama mengatakan, "Kekerasan yang dilakukan terhadap mereka sangat biadab. Kami mengetahuinya dan kami mengutuknya."^[224] Tanggal 7 Juli, saat di Moskwa, ia menjawab komentar Wakil Presiden Biden tentang kemungkinan serangan militer Israel ke Iran, "Kami telah berkata langsung kepada pemerintah Israel bahwa penting sekali untuk mencoba dan menyelesaikan masalah ini secara bersama-sama sehingga tidak menciptakan konflik besar di Timur Tengah."^[225]

Tanggal 24 September 2009, Obama menjadi presiden menjabat A.S. pertama yang menghadiri pertemuan Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa.^[226]

Pada bulan Maret 2010, Obama menentang secara terbuka rencana pemerintahan Perdana Menteri Israel Benjamin Netanyahu untuk terus melaksanakan proyek perumahan Yahudi di permukiman-permukiman Arab di Yerusalem Timur.^[227]^[228] Pada bulan itu juga, Obama membuat perjanjian dengan pemerintahan Presiden Rusia Dmitry Medvedev untuk mengganti Perjanjian Pengurangan Senjata Strategis 1991 dengan pakta baru yang mengurangi jumlah senjata nuklir jarak jauh mereka sebesar sepertiga dari total persediaannya.^[229] Perjanjian New START tersebut ditandatangani oleh Obama dan Medvedev pada April 2010 dan disahkan oleh Senat A.S. bulan Desember 2010.^[230]

Tanggal 6 Desember 2011, ia menginstruksikan semua badan pemerintahan mempertimbangkan hak-hak LGBT saat mengeluarkan bantuan keuangan ke negara asing.^[231]

Perang Irak

Pada tanggal 27 Februari 2009, Obama mengumuman bahwa operasi pertempuran di Irak akan berakhir dalam 18 bulan. Pernyataannya ditujukan kepada sekelompok Marinir yang hendak ditempatkan di Afghanistan. Obama mengatakan, "Saya katakan dengan jelas: pada 31 Agustus 2010, misi pertempuran kita di Irak akan berakhir."^[232] Pemerintahan Obama memperkirakan penarikan pasukan tempur akan rampung pada Agustus 2010, mengurangi jumlah tentara dari 142.000 orang menjadi satu pasukan transisi berkekuatan 50.000 orang di Irak sampai akhir 2011. Pada 19 Agustus 2010, brigade tempur AS terakhir keluar dari Irak. Tentara yang tersisa dialihkan dari operasi pertempuran ke kontra-terorisme dan pelatihan, perlengkapan, dan pendidikan pasukan keamanan Irak.^[233]^[234] Tanggal 31 Agustus 2010, Obama menyatakan bahwa misi tempur Amerika Serikat di Irak telah berakhir.^[235] Tanggal 21 Oktober 2011, Presiden Obama mengumumkan bahwa seluruh tentara A.S. akan keluar dari Irak tepat pada waktunya supaya bisa "pulang saat musim liburan".^[236]

Perang di Afghanistan

Pada awal masa pemerintahannya, Obama berupaya memperkuat keberadaan pasukan A.S. di Afghanistan.^[237] Ia menyetujui penambahan jumlah tentara A.S. menjadi 17.000 orang pada Februari 2009 untuk "menstabilkan situasi yang memburuk di Afghanistan", sebuah daerah yang katanya belum menerima "perhatian, arahan, dan sumber daya strategis yang mereka sangat perlukan".^[238] Ia mengganti komandan militer di Afghanistan, Jenderal David D. McKiernan, dengan mantan komandan Pasukan Khusus Letnan Jenderal Stanley A. McChrystal pada Mei 2009, menandakan bahwa pengalaman Pasukan Khusus McChrystal bisa membantu penerapan taktik-taktik kontra-penyergapan dalam perang.^[239] Tanggal 1 Desember 2009, Obama mengumumkan penempatan 30.000 personel militer tambahan di Afghanistan.^[240] Ia juga berencana mulai menarik tentara 18 bulan terhitung sejak tanggal tersebut.^[241], namun baru terealisasi pada pemerintahan Joe Biden, 15 Agustus 2021. McChrystal digantikan oleh David Petraeus pada bulan Juni 2010 setelah staf McChrystal mengkritik personel Gedung Putih dalam sebuah artikel majalah.^[242]

Israel

Obama berkata bahwa Amerika Serikat dan Israel memiliki hubungan yang "tak terpisahkan."^[243] Pada tahun-tahun pertama pemerintahan Obama, Amerika Serikat meningkatkan kerja sama militernya dengan Israel, termasuk menambah bantuan militer, membentuk kembali U.S.-Israeli Joint Political Military Group dan Defense Policy Advisory Group, serta meningkatkan jumlah kunjungan petinggi militer antar kedua negara.^[244] Pemerintahan Obama meminta Kongres mengalokasikan anggaran untuk mendanai program Kubah Besi sebagai respon terhadap serangan roket Palestina di Israel.^[245]

Pada tahun 2011, Amerika Serikat memveto sebuah resolusi Dewan Keamanan PBB yang mengutuk pembangunan permukiman Israel dan hanya Amerika Serikat yang melakukan aksi ini.^[246] Obama mendukung solusi dua negara terhadap konflik Arab–Israel sesuai perbatasan tahun 1967 dengan cara pertukaran tanah.^[247]

Perang di Libya

Pada Maret 2011, ketika pasukan yang setia pada Muammar Gaddafi memerangi pihak pemberontak di seluruh Libya, permintaan dibentuknya zona larangan terbang datang dari seluruh dunia, termasuk Eropa, Liga Arab, dan sebuah resolusi^[248] yang disahkan secara bulat oleh Senat A.S.^[249] Menanggapi pengesahan Resolusi Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa 1973 secara bulat pada tanggal 17 Maret, Gaddafi—yang sebelumnya berjanji "tidak ada ampun" bagi pemberontak Benghazi^[250]—mengumumkan penghentian semua aktivitas militer,^[251] namun sejumlah laporan menyebutkan bahwa pasukannya terus membombardir Misrata. keesokan harinya, atas perintah Obama, militer A.S. memainkan peran utama dalam serangan udara untuk menghancurkan kemampuan pertahanan udara pemerintah Libya demi melindungi warga sipil dan menciptakan zona larangan terbang,^[252] termasuk memakai rudal Tomahawk, B-2 Spirit, dan jet tempur.^[253]^[254]^[255] Enam hari kemudian, pada tanggal 25 Maret, dengan persetujuan ke-28 anggotanya, NATO memimpin upaya intervensi yang diberi nama Operation Unified Protector.^[256] Sejumlah anggota DPR^[257] mempertanyakan apakah Obama punya kewenangan konstitusional untuk memerintahkan aksi militer selain biaya, struktur, dan dampaknya.^[258]^[259]

Osama bin Laden

Presiden Obama tentang Kematian Osama bin Laden (9:28)

Pidato Presiden Obama (teks lengkap)

Presiden Obama tentang Kematian Osama bin Laden

versi suara saja

Bermasalah memainkan berkas-berkas ini? Lihat bantuan media.

Berawal dengan informasi yang diterima bulan Juli 2010, aktivitas mata-mata CIA pada bulan-bulan selanjutnya menyimpulkan bahwa sebuah bangunan perlindungan besar di Abbottabad, kawasan pinggiran 35 mil dari Islamabad, Pakistan, sebagai tempat bersembunyi Osama bin Laden.^[260] Kepala CIA Leon Panetta melaporkan hasil intelijen ini ke Presiden Obama pada bulan Maret 2011.^[260] Bertemu dengan penasihat keamanan nasionalnya selama enam minggu berikutnya, Obama menolak rencana pengeboman bangunan tersebut dan memerintahkan "serangan mendadak" oleh SEAL Angkatan Laut Amerika Serikat.^[260] Operasi ini dilaksanakan tanggal 1 Mei 2011 yang berujung dengan kematian Osama bin Laden dan penyitaan sejumlah berkas, drive komputer dan CD dari tempat perlindungannya.^[261]^[262] Jenazah bin Laden diidentifikasi melalui pengujian DNA^[263] dan dikuburkan di laut beberapa jam kemudian.^[264] Dalam hitungan menit setelah pengumuman Presiden dari Washington, DC, pada 1 Mei malam, muncul berbagai perayaan spontan di seluruh Amerika Serikat, termasuk kerumunan di luar Gedung Putih, Ground Zero, dan Times Square.^[261]^[265] Pengumuman tersebut disambut positif oleh seluruh jajaran partai, termasuk mantan Presiden Bill Clinton dan George W. Bush,^[266] dan sejumlah negara lain di seluruh dunia.^[267]

Citra budaya dan politik

Sejarah keluarga, popularitas, dan pendidikan Ivy League Obama jauh berbeda dibandingkan dengan para politikus Afrika Amerika yang memulai kariernya dengan ikut serta dalam gerakan hak-hak sipil pada tahun 1960-an.^[269] Menyatakan keterkejutannya atas sejumlah orang yang mempertanyakan apakah ia "cukup hitam", pada pertemuan National Association of Black Journalists bulan Agustus 2007 Obama mengatakan bahwa "kita masih terjebak dalam pemikiran bahwa jika Anda menarik perhatian orang kulit putih, pasti ada yang salah".^[270] Obama mengakui citra pemudanya dalam pidato kampanye bulan Oktober 2007, "Saya tidak akan berdiri di sini jika obor belum diserahkan ke generasi yang baru."^[271]

Obama sering dijuluki sebagai sosok orator yang kemampuannya tidak diragukan lagi.^[272] Pada masa transisi prapelantikan hingga masa pemerintahannya, Obama menyampaikan sejumlah pidato mingguan melalui video di Internet.^[273]

Menurut survei Gallup, Obama memulai masa pemerintahannya dengan persetujuan rakyat sebesar 68%,^[274] lalu menurun perlahan hingga 41% pada Agustus 2010,^[275] sebuah tren yang juga dialami Ronald Reagan dan Bill Clinton saat menjabat pada tahun pertama.^[276] Popularitasnya sempat naik sedikit setelah kematian Osama bin Laden dan bertahan sampai Juni 2011 ketika popularitasnya anjlok lagi ke level sebelum operasi penyerbuan dimulai.^[277]^[278]^[279] Jajak pendapat di negara lain menunjukkan adanya dukungan kuat untuk Obama,^[280] dan sebelum terpilih sebagai Presiden ia sempat bertemu dengan sejumlah tokoh asing ternama seperti Perdana Menteri Britania Raya Tony Blair,^[281] ketua Partai Demokrat Italia dan Wali Kota Roma Walter Veltroni,^[282] dan Presiden Prancis Nicolas Sarkozy.^[283]

Dalam jajak pendapat Harris Interactive untuk France 24 dan International Herald Tribune di Eropa Barat dan A.S. pada Februari 2009, Obama merupakan pemimpin dunia yang paling dihormati dan berpengaruh.^[284] Dalam jajak pendapat oleh Harris bulan Mei 2009, Obama merupakan pemimpin dunia paling terkenal, sekaligus sosok yang sangat diharapkan masyarakat mampu membawa dunia keluar dari krisis ekonomi.^[285]^[286]

Obama memenangkan Grammy Award dalam kategori Best Spoken Word Album untuk versi buku suara Dreams from My Father pada bulan Februari 2006 dan The Audacity of Hope pada Februari 2008.^[287] Pidato konsesinya setelah kampanye pendahuluan di New Hampshire diubah menjadi lagu "Yes We Can" oleh sejumlah artis independen dan ditonton sebanyak 10 juta kali di YouTube dalam kurun satu bulan^[288] dan memenangkan Daytime Emmy Award.^[289] Bulan Desember 2008, majalah Time menobatkan Obama sebagai Person of the Year atas pencalonan dan pemilihannya yang bersejarah yang digambarkan sebagai "peraihan suatu pencapaian yang tampak mustahil".^[290] Ia lagi-lagi dinobatkan sebagai Person of the Year tahun 2012.^[291]

Pada tanggal 9 Oktober 2009, Komite Nobel Norwegia mengumumkan bahwa Obama adalah pemenang Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian 2009 "atas upayanya yang luar biasa dalam memperkuat diplomasi internasional dan kerja sama antarmasyarakat".^[292] Obama menerima hadiah ini di Oslo, Norwegia tanggal 10 Desember 2009 dengan "rasa terima kasih mendalam dan kehormatan luar biasa."^[293] Pemberian hadiah ini disambut berbagai pujian dan kritik dari sejumlah pemimpin dunia dan tokoh media.^[294]^[295] Obama adalah presiden A.S. keempat yang memenangkan Hadiah Nobel Perdamaian dan ketiga yang memenangkan Hadiah Nobel saat sedang menjabat.

Keluarga dan kehidupan pribadi

Dalam sebuah wawancara tahun 2006, Obama menggarisbawahi keragaman keluarganya yang luas: "Rasanya seperti Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa berukuran mini... Saya punya kerabat yang mirip dengan Bernie Mac. Saya juga punya kerabat yang mirip dengan Margaret Thatcher."^[296] Obama memiliki adik ipar yang juga dibesarkan bersama dirinya (Maya Soetoro-Ng, putri dari ibunya dan suami keduanya yang berasal dari Indonesia) dan tujuh saudara ipar dari keluarga ayahnya yang berasal dari Kenya – enam di antaranya masih hidup.^[297] Nenek Obama dari pihak ibunya, Madelyn Dunham,^[298] meninggal dunia pada tanggal 2 November 2008,^[299] dua hari sebelum Obama terpilih menjadi Presiden. Obama juga memiliki hubungan kekerabatan dengan bangsa Irlandia; ia bertemu sepupunya di Moneygall pada bulan Mei 2011.^[300] Dalam buku Dreams from My Father, Obama mengaitkan sejarah keluarga ibunya dengan kemungkinan nenek moyang Pribumi Amerika dan hubungan kekerabatan jauh dengan Jefferson Davis, Presiden Konfederasi Amerika pada Perang Saudara Amerika.^[301]

Obama dipanggil "Barry" saat masih muda, kemudian meminta agar dipanggil dengan nama aslinya setelah duduk di bangku perguruan tinggi.^[302] Selain bahasa Inggris, Obama juga bisa mempertuturkan sedikit bahasa Indonesia setelah mempelajarinya selama empat tahun ketika bersekolah di Jakarta.^[303]^[304] Ia gemar bermain basket dan pernah berpartisipasi dalam tim basket SMA-nya.^[305] Ia juga sosok yang bertangan kidal.^[306]

Obama adalah pendukung Chicago White Sox dan ia melakukan lemparan pertama di 2005 ALCS saat masih menjabat sebagai senator.^[307] Pada tahun 2009, ia melakukan lemparan pertama di 2009 Major League Baseball All-Star Game dengan mengenakan jaket White Sox.^[308] Ia juga merupakan penggemar berat Chicago Bears di NFL, namun saat masih kecil dan remaja ia adalah penggemar Pittsburgh Steelers, dan berhenti menjelang kemenangan mereka di Super Bowl XLIII 12 hari setelah menjabat sebagai Presiden.^[309] Pada tahun 2011, Obama mengundang tim Chicago Bears tahun 1985 ke Gedung Putih; tim tersebut belum pernah masuk Gedung Putih sejak menang di Super Bowl tahun 1986 akibat bencana Wahana Antariksa Challenger.^[310]

Pada bulan Juni 1989, Obama bertemu Michelle Robinson saat bekerja sebagai pengacara pembantu di firma hukum Sidley Austin, Chicago.^[311] Ditugaskan sebagai penasihat Obama selama tiga bulan, Robinson bekerja sama dengan Obama di sejumlah acara sosial, namun menolak permintaan kencan pertamanya.^[312] Mereka mulai berkencan pada musim panas, bertunangan tahun 1991, dan menikah tanggal 3 Oktober 1992.^[313] Putri pertama mereka, Malia Ann, lahir tanggal 4 Juli 1998,^[314] diikuti putri kedua, Natasha ("Sasha"), pada tanggal 10 Juni 2001.^[315] Kedua putri Obama bersekolah di University of Chicago Laboratory Schools. Setelah pindah ke Washington, D.C. bulan Januari 2009, mereka mulai bersekolah di Sidwell Friends School.^[316] Keluarga Obama memiliki seekor anjing air Portugal bernama Bo yang dihadiahkan oleh Senator Ted Kennedy.^[317]

Setelah membuat persetujuan penerbitan buku, pada tahun 2005 keluarga ini pindah dari kondominium di Hyde Park, Chicago ke sebuah rumah senilai $1,6 juta di Kenwood, Chicago.^[318] Pembelian tanah di sampingnya—dan penjualan separuh lahannya ke Obama oleh istri pengembang, donor kampanye, dan sahabatnya Tony Rezko—menarik perhatian media setelah Rezko diadili dan ditahan akibat tuduhan korupsi politik yang tidak ada hubungannya dengan Obama.^[319]

Pada bulan Desember 2007, Money memperkirakan kekayaan bersih keluarga Obama sebesar $1,3 juta.^[320] Formulir pajak mereka tahun 2009 mencantumkan pendapatan rumah tangga senilai $5,5 juta—naik dari $4,2 juta tahun 2007 dan $1,6 juta tahun 2005—yang kebanyakan merupakan hasil penjualan buku-bukunya.^[321]^[322] Dari pendapatannya sebesar $1,7 juta pada tahun 2010, ia memberikan 14%-nya ke organisasi nirlaba, termasuk $131.000 ke Fisher House Foundation, badan amal yang membantu keluarga veteran terluka dan mengizinkan mereka tinggal dekat tempat veteran tersebut dirawat.^[323]^[324] Dalam informasi keuangannya yang dilepaskan ke publik tahun 2012, kekayaan Obama bisa mencapai $10 juta.^[325]

Obama sempat mencoba berhenti merokok beberapa kali, kadang dengan terapi pengganti nikotin, dan pada awal 2010 Michelle Obama mengatakan bahwa ia berhasil berhenti merokok.^[326]^[327]

Pandangan agama

Obama adalah seorang Kristen Protestan yang pandangan agamanya mulai terbentuk setelah beranjak dewasa. Di The Audacity of Hope, ia menulis bahwa ia "tidak dibesarkan di keluarga yang agamais". Ia menggambarkan ibunya yang dibesarkan oleh keluarga nonreligius (yang Obama sebut sebagai "Metodis dan Baptis tidak taat") sebagai sosok yang terlepas dari agama, namun juga "sosok yang pandangan spiritualnya paling terbuka yang pernah aku kenal". Ia menggambarkan ayahnya sebagai "ateis mutlak" pada saat orang tuanya bertemu, dan ayah tirinya sebagai "orang yang memandang agama sebagai sesuatu yang tidak terlalu bermanfaat." Obama menjelaskan bagaimana ia memahami "kekuatan tradisi agama Afrika-Amerika dalam menciptakan perubahan sosial" setelah bekerja sebagai penggerak masyarakat di gereja-gereja hitam saat berusia 20 tahunan.^[328]

Dalam sebuah wawancara dengan periodik evangelis Christianity Today, Obama menyatakan: "Saya seorang Kristen dan saya seorang Kristen yang taat. Saya percaya dengan penebusan dan kebangkitan Yesus Kristus. Saya percaya bahwa agama memberikan jalan pembersihan dari dosa dan kehidupan yang abadi."^[329] Pada tanggal 27 September 2010, Obama merilis pernyataan yang mengomentari pandangan agamanya, "Aku Kristen karena pilihan. Keluargaku tidak—sejujurnya, mereka bukan orang-orang yang rajin ke gereja setiap minggu. Dan ibuku adalah orang paling spiritual yang pernah aku kenal, tetapi dia tidak membesarkanku di gereja. Jadi aku memeluk agama Kristen setelah dewasa, dan ini karena petunjuk Yesus Kristus berbicara kepadaku dalam bentuk kehidupan yang ingin aku pimpin—menjadi pelindung saudara-saudaraku, memperlakukan orang lain sebagaimana mereka memperlakukanku."^[330]^[331]

Obama bertemu Trinity United Church of Christ Pdt. Jeremiah Wright pada bulan Oktober 1987 dan menjadi anggota Trinity tahun 1992.^[332] Ia keluar dari Trinity bulan Mei 2008 saat kampanye presiden pertamanya setelah pernyataan kontroversial Jeremiah Wright tersebar ke publik.^[333] Setelah lama mencari gereja yang cocok di Washington, Obama mengumumkan pada Juni 2009 bahwa tempat ibadah kesukaannya adalah Kapel Evergreen di Camp David.^[334]

Catatan kaki

^ "President Barack Obama". Washington, D.C.: The White House. 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2008.
^ ^a ^b "Certificate of Live Birth: Barack Hussein Obama II, August 4, 1961, 7:24 pm, Honolulu". Department of Health, State of Hawaii (The White House). April 27, 2011. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved April 27, 2011.
^ Fornek, Scott; Good, Greg (9 September 2007). "The Obama family tree" (PDF). Chicago Sun-Times. hlm. 2B–3B. Diakses tanggal 22 March 2008.
^ Crilly, Rob (22 August 2008). "Life is good in my Nairobi slum, says Barack Obama's younger brother". The Times. London. hlm. 37. Diakses tanggal 23 August 2008.
^ Pflanz, Mike (21 August 2008). "Barack Obama is my inspiration, says lost brother". The Daily Telegraph. London. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-12-02. Diakses tanggal 23 August 2008.
^ "The President's Kin" (PDF). New York. 23 November 2009. Diakses tanggal 20 January 2012.
^
"American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2009. "Religion: Christian"
- "The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2012.
- Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."
- Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. msnbc.com. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church.".
- "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."
- Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David.".
- Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post. p. A6. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."
^ Shear, Michael (January 21, 2013). "Obama Cites Nation's Ideals in Call to Act". The New York Times. Diakses tanggal January 21, 2013.
^ Maraniss, David (August 24, 2008). "Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible". The Washington Post. p. A22. Retrieved October 28, 2008.
^ Nakaso, Dan (December 22, 2008). "Twin sisters, Obama on parallel paths for years". The Honolulu Advertiser. p. B1. Retrieved January 22, 2011.
^ Rudin, Ken (December 23, 2009). "Today's Junkie segment On TOTN: a political review Of 2009". Talk of the Nation (Political Junkie blog) (NPR). Retrieved April 18, 2010. "We began with the historic inauguration on January 20—yes, the first president ever born in Hawaii"
^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 12.
^ Jones, Tim (March 27, 2007). "Barack Obama: Mother not just a girl from Kansas; Stanley Ann Dunham shaped a future senator". Chicago Tribune. p. 1 (Tempo). Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ ^a ^b
Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 9–10.
- Scott (2011), pp. 80–86.
- Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118.
- Maraniss (2012), p. 154–160.
^ Ripley, Amanda (April 9, 2008). "The story of Barack Obama's mother". Time. Retrieved April 9, 2007.
^
Scott (2011), p. 86.
- Jacobs (2011), pp. 125–127.
- Maraniss (2012), p. 160–163.
^
Scott (2011), pp. 87–93.
- Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118, 125–127, 133–161.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 170–183, 188–189.
^
Scott (2011), pp. 142–144.
- Jacobs (2011), pp. 161–177, 227–230.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 190–194, 201–209, 227–230.
^
Ochieng, Philip (November 1, 2004). "From home squared to the US Senate: how Barack Obama was lost and found". The EastAfrican. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post. p. A12. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
- Jacobs (2011), pp. 251–255.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 411–417.
^
Scott (2011), pp. 97–103.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 195–201, 225–230.
^ Maraniss (2012), pp. 195–201, 209–223, 230–244.
^ Maraniss (2012), pp. 216, 221, 230, 234–244.
^
Serafin, Peter (March 21, 2004). "Punahou grad stirs up Illinois politics". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved March 20, 2008.
- Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 18, 2011.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.
- Scott (2012), pp. 131–134.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 264–269.
^
Scott (2011), pp. 139–157.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281.
^
Scott (2011), pp. 157–194.
- Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281, 324–326.
^ Scott (2011), pp. 214, 294, 317–346.
^
Serrano, Richard A. (March 11, 2007). "Obama's peers didn't see his angst". Los Angeles Times. p. A20. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
- Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.
^ Reyes, B.J. (February 8, 2007). "Punahou left lasting impression on Obama". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved February 10, 2007. "As a teenager, Obama went to parties and sometimes sought out gatherings on military bases or at the University of Hawaii that were mostly attended by blacks."
^ Elliott, Philip (November 21, 2007). "Obama gets blunt with N.H. students". The Boston Globe (Associated Press). p. 8A. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^
Karl, Jonathan (May 25, 2012). "Obama and his pot-smoking "choom gang"". ABC News. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
- Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.
- for analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:
- Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times. p. A21. Retrieved October 29, 2006.
- Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post. p. A1. Retrieved January 14, 2007.
^ "FRONTLINE The Choice 2012". PBS. October 9, 2012. Diakses tanggal October 29, 2012.
^ Hornick, Ed (August 17, 2008). "Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum". CNN. Retrieved May 18, 2012.
^ ^a ^b
Gordon, Larry (January 29, 2007). "Occidental recalls 'Barry' Obama". Los Angeles Times. p. B1. Archived from the original on May 24, 2010. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
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- Obama: Saya Kangen Nasi Goreng, Bakso, dan Rambutan
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^ Kantor, Jodi (June 1, 2007). "One Place Where Obama Goes Elbow to Elbow". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 24, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008. See also: "The Love of the Game" (video). Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel (HBO). April 15, 2008. Retrieved October 12, 2011.
^ Stolberg, Sheryl Gay; Kirkpatrick, David D.; Shane, Scott (January 22, 2009). "On First Day, Obama Quickly Sets a New Tone". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved September 7, 2012.
^ "Barack Obama: White Sox 'serious' ball". The Swamp. August 25, 2008. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
^ "Barack Obama Explains White Sox Jacket, Talks Nats in All-Star Booth Visit". MLB Fanhouse. July 14, 2009. Retrieved December 6, 2009.
^ Branigin, William (January 30, 2009). "Steelers Win Obama's Approval". The Washington Post. "But other than the Bears, the Steelers are probably the team that's closest to my heart."
^ Mayer, Larry (October 7, 2011). "1985 Bears honored by President Obama". Chicago Bears. Retrieved November 4, 2012.
^ Obama (2006), pp. 327–332. See also:Brown, Sarah (December 7, 2005). "Obama '85 masters balancing act". The Daily Princetonian. Archived from the original on February 20, 2009. Retrieved February 9, 2009.
^ Obama (2006), p. 329.
^ Fornek, Scott (October 3, 2007). "Michelle Obama: 'He Swept Me Off My Feet'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on January 18, 2010. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Martin, Jonathan (July 4, 2008). "Born on the 4th of July". Politico. Archived from the original on July 10, 2008. Retrieved July 10, 2008.
^ Obama (1995, 2004), p. 440, and Obama (2006), pp. 339–340. See also:"Election 2008 Information Center: Barack Obama". Gannett News Service. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ "Obamas choose private Sidwell Friends School", International Herald Tribune, November 22, 2008
^ Cooper, Helene (April 13, 2009). "One Obama Search Ends With a Puppy Named Bo". The New York Times. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Zeleny, Jeff (December 24, 2005). "The first time around: Sen. Obama's freshman year". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^
Slevin, Peter (December 17, 2006). "Obama says he regrets land deal with fundraiser". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
- Robinson, Mike (June 4, 2008). "Rezko found guilty in corruption case". Associated Press. msnbc.com. Archived from the original on June 7, 2008. Retrieved June 24, 2008.
^ Harris, Marlys (December 7, 2007). "Obama's Money". CNNMoney.com. Archived from the original on April 24, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
See also:Goldfarb, Zachary A (March 24, 2007). "Measuring Wealth of the '08 Candidates". The Washington Post. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Zeleny, Jeff (April 17, 2008). "Book Sales Lifted Obamas' Income in 2007 to a Total of $4.2 Million". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 20, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
^ Shear, Michael D.; Hilzenrath, David S. (April 16, 2010). "Obamas report $5.5 million in income on 2009 tax return". The Washington Post. Retrieved December 22, 2010.
^ Solman, Paul (April 18, 2011). "How Much Did President Obama Make in 2010?". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
^ Solman, Paul (April 27, 2011). "The Obamas Gave $131,000 to Fisher House Foundation in 2010; What Is It?". PBS NewsHour. Retrieved January 27, 2012.
^ Wolf, Richard (May 16, 2012). "Obama worth as much as $10 million". USA Today. Retrieved June 16, 2012.
^ Elsner, Alan (December 7, 2008). Obama says he won't be smoking in White House" Diarsipkan 2013-01-30 di Wayback Machine.. Reuters. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
^ Zengerle, Patricia (February 8, 2011). "Yes, he did: first lady says Obama quit smoking" Diarsipkan 2013-01-30 di Wayback Machine.. Reuters. Retrieved May 9, 2011.
^
Obama (2006), pp. 202–208. Portions excerpted in: Obama, Barack (October 16, 2006). "My Spiritual Journey". Time. Archived from the original on April 30, 2008. Retrieved April 28, 2008.
- Obama, Barack (June 28, 2006). "'Call to Renewal' Keynote Address". Barack Obama: U.S. Senator for Illinois. Archived from the original on January 4, 2009. Retrieved June 16, 2008.
^ Pulliam, Sarah; Olsen, Ted (January 23, 2008). "Q&A: Barack Obama". Christianity Today. Diakses tanggal January 4, 2013.
^ Obama 'Christian By Choice': President Responds To Questioner by Charles Babington and Darlene Superville, Associated Press, September 28, 2010
^ Video – President Obama: "I am a Christian By Choice" by ABC News, September 29, 2010.
^
Garrett, Major; Obama, Barack (March 14, 2008). "Obama talks to Major Garrett on 'Hannity & Colmes'". RealClearPolitics. Retrieved November 10, 2012. "Major Garrett, Fox News correspondent: So the first question, how long have you been a member in good standing of that church? Sen. Barack Obama (D-IL), presidential candidate: You know, I've been a member since 1991 or '92. And -- but I have known Trinity even before then when I was a community organizer on the South Side, helping steel workers find jobs...Garrett: As a member in good standing, were you a regular attendee of Sunday services? Obama: You know, I won't say that I was a perfect attendee. I was regular in spurts, because there was times when, for example, our child had just been born, our first child. And so we didn't go as regularly then."
- Associated Press (April 29, 2008). "Obama denounces former pastor". MSNBC.com. Retrieved November 10, 2012. "I have been a member of Trinity United Church of Christ since 1992, and have known Reverend Wright for 20 years," Obama said. "The person I saw yesterday was not the person that I met 20 years ago."
- Miller, Lisa (July 11, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. Retrieved November 10, 2012. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."
- Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 177. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6. "In late October 1987, his third year as an organizer, Obama went with Kellman to a conference on the black church and social justice at the Harvard Divinity School."
- Maraniss (2012), p. 557: It would take time for Obama to join and become fully engaged in Wright's church, a place where he would be baptized and married; that would not happen until later, during his second time around in Chicago, but the process started then, in October 1987...Jerry Kellman: "He wasn't a member of the church during those first three years, but he was drawn to it, he was drawn to Jeremiah."
^ Associated Press (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized". MSNBC.com. Retrieved January 20, 2009.
^ Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obamas find a church home—away from home". Time. Retrieved December 14, 2009.

Referensi

Jacobs, Sally H. (2011). The Other Barack: The Bold and Reckless Life of President Obama's Father. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-793-5.
Maraniss, David (2012). Barack Obama: The Story. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-6040-4.
Mendell, David (2007). Obama: From Promise to Power. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-085820-9.
Obama, Barack (1995, 2004). Dreams from My Father: A Story of Race and Inheritance. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-1-4000-8277-3.
Obama, Barack (2006). The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. New York: Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-23769-9.
Scott, Janny (2011). A Singular Woman: The Untold Story of Barack Obama's Mother. New York: Riverhead Books. ISBN 978-1-59448-797-2.

Bacaan lanjutan

Graff, Garrett. "The Legend of Barack Obama", Washingtonian, November 1, 2006. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
Koltun, Dave (2005) "The 2004 Illinois Senate Race: Obama Wins Open Seat and Becomes National Political "Star"" in "The Road to Congress 2004" Editors: Sunil Ahuja (Youngstown State University) and Robert Dewhirst (Truman State University), Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York, 2005, ISBN 1-59454-360-7
Lizza, Ryan. "Above the Fray", GQ, September 2007. Retrieved October 27, 2010.
MacFarquhar, Larissa. "The Conciliator: Where is Barack Obama Coming From?", The New Yorker, May 7, 2007. Retrieved January 14, 2008.
McClelland, Edward, Young Mr. Obama: Chicago and the Making of a Black President Diarsipkan 2012-10-06 di Wayback Machine., Bloomsbury Press, 2010.
Zutter, Hank De. "What Makes Obama Run? Diarsipkan 2009-04-01 di Wayback Machine.", Chicago Reader, December 8, 1995. Retrieved January 14, 2008.

Pranala luar

Cari tahu mengenai Barack Obama pada proyek-proyek Wikimedia lainnya:
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Resmi

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Latar dan berita di The Washington Post
Biografi di Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
Catatan suara dikelola oleh The Washington Post
Biografi, catatan suara, dan penilaian kelompok kepentingan di Project Vote Smart
Profil kongres di GovTrack
Posisi isu dan kutipan di On the Issues
Informasi keuangan di OpenSecrets.org
Gaji, perjalanan, dan keuangan pribadi staf di LegiStorm.com
Laporan dan data keuangan kampanye di Federal Election Commission
Kontribusi kampanye di National Institute for Money in State Politics
Kemunculan di C-SPAN
Kemunculan di Charlie Rose
Kemunculan di Internet Movie Database
Berita dan komentar di The New York Times
Berita dan komentar di The Wall Street Journal
Berita dan komentar di The Guardian
Karya oleh Barack Obama di perpustakaan (katalog WorldCat)
Collected news and commentary at the Chicago Tribune
Collected news and commentary at the Annenberg Public Policy Center's FactCheck.org
Collected news and commentary at the Tampa Bay Times's PolitiFact.com
Collected news and commentary at The Washington Post's Fact Checker blog

[biography-1] "President Barack Obama". Washington, D.C.: The White House. 2008. Retrieved December 12, 2008.

[birth-certificate-2] "Certificate of Live Birth: Barack Hussein Obama II, August 4, 1961, 7:24 pm, Honolulu". Department of Health, State of Hawaii (The White House). April 27, 2011. Archived from the original on April 29, 2011. Retrieved April 27, 2011.

[Fornek_2007a-3] Fornek, Scott; Good, Greg (9 September 2007). "The Obama family tree" (PDF). Chicago Sun-Times. hlm. 2B–3B. Diakses tanggal 22 March 2008.

[4] Crilly, Rob (22 August 2008). "Life is good in my Nairobi slum, says Barack Obama's younger brother". The Times. London. hlm. 37. Diakses tanggal 23 August 2008.

[5] Pflanz, Mike (21 August 2008). "Barack Obama is my inspiration, says lost brother". The Daily Telegraph. London. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-12-02. Diakses tanggal 23 August 2008.

[6] "The President's Kin" (PDF). New York. 23 November 2009. Diakses tanggal 20 January 2012.

[Christian-7] "American President: Barack Obama". Charlottesville, VA: Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. 2009. Archived from the original on January 23, 2009. Retrieved January 23, 2009. "Religion: Christian"
"The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2012.

Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."

Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. msnbc.com. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church.".

"Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."

Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David.".

Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post. p. A6. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."

[8] "The Truth about Barack's Faith". Obama for America. Archived from the original on January 5, 2011. Retrieved July 1, 2012.

[9] Miller, Lisa (July 18, 2008). "Finding his faith". Newsweek. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010. Retrieved February 4, 2010. "He is now a Christian, having been baptized in the early 1990s at Trinity United Church of Christ in Chicago."

[10] Barakat, Matthew (November 17, 2008). "Obama's church choice likely to be scrutinized; D.C. churches have started extending invitations to Obama and his family". Associated Press. msnbc.com. Archived from the original on January 24, 2009. Retrieved January 20, 2009. "The United Church of Christ, the denomination from which Obama resigned when he left Wright's church, issued a written invitation to join a UCC denomination in Washington and resume his connections to the church.".

[11] "Barack Obama, long time UCC member, inaugurated forty-fourth U.S. President". United Church of Christ. January 20, 2009. Archived from the original on January 25, 2009. Retrieved January 21, 2009. "Barack Obama, who spent more than 20 years as a UCC member, is the forty-fourth President of the United States."

[12] Sullivan, Amy (June 29, 2009). "The Obama's find a church home—away from home". Time. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "instead of joining a congregation in Washington, D.C., he will follow in George W. Bush's footsteps and make his primary place of worship Evergreen Chapel, the nondenominational church at Camp David.".

[13] Kornblut, Anne E. (February 4, 2010). "Obama's spirituality is largely private, but it's influential, advisers say". The Washington Post. p. A6. Retrieved February 5, 2010. "Obama prays privately ... And when he takes his family to Camp David on the weekends, a Navy chaplain ministers to them, with the daughters attending a form of Sunday school there."

[8] Shear, Michael (January 21, 2013). "Obama Cites Nation's Ideals in Call to Act". The New York Times. Diakses tanggal January 21, 2013.

[maraniss-9] Maraniss, David (August 24, 2008). "Though Obama had to leave to find himself, it is Hawaii that made his rise possible". The Washington Post. p. A22. Retrieved October 28, 2008.

[10] Nakaso, Dan (December 22, 2008). "Twin sisters, Obama on parallel paths for years". The Honolulu Advertiser. p. B1. Retrieved January 22, 2011.

[11] Rudin, Ken (December 23, 2009). "Today's Junkie segment On TOTN: a political review Of 2009". Talk of the Nation (Political Junkie blog) (NPR). Retrieved April 18, 2010. "We began with the historic inauguration on January 20—yes, the first president ever born in Hawaii"

[12] Obama (1995, 2004), p. 12.

[Jones_2007-13] Jones, Tim (March 27, 2007). "Barack Obama: Mother not just a girl from Kansas; Stanley Ann Dunham shaped a future senator". Chicago Tribune. p. 1 (Tempo). Archived from the original on February 21, 2009. Retrieved May 18, 2012.

[Obama_1995,_2004,_pp._9–10-14] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 9–10.
Scott (2011), pp. 80–86.

Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118.

Maraniss (2012), p. 154–160.

[21] Scott (2011), pp. 80–86.

[22] Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118.

[23] Maraniss (2012), p. 154–160.

[Ripley_2008-15] Ripley, Amanda (April 9, 2008). "The story of Barack Obama's mother". Time. Retrieved April 9, 2007.

[16] Scott (2011), p. 86.
Jacobs (2011), pp. 125–127.

Maraniss (2012), p. 160–163.

[26] Jacobs (2011), pp. 125–127.

[27] Maraniss (2012), p. 160–163.

[17] Scott (2011), pp. 87–93.
Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118, 125–127, 133–161.

Maraniss (2012), pp. 170–183, 188–189.

[29] Jacobs (2011), pp. 115–118, 125–127, 133–161.

[30] Maraniss (2012), pp. 170–183, 188–189.

[18] Scott (2011), pp. 142–144.
Jacobs (2011), pp. 161–177, 227–230.

Maraniss (2012), pp. 190–194, 201–209, 227–230.

[32] Jacobs (2011), pp. 161–177, 227–230.

[33] Maraniss (2012), pp. 190–194, 201–209, 227–230.

[19] Ochieng, Philip (November 1, 2004). "From home squared to the US Senate: how Barack Obama was lost and found". The EastAfrican. Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. Retrieved June 25, 2008.
Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post. p. A12. Retrieved June 25, 2008.

Jacobs (2011), pp. 251–255.

Maraniss (2012), pp. 411–417.

[35] Merida, Kevin (December 14, 2007). "The ghost of a father". The Washington Post. p. A12. Retrieved June 25, 2008.

[36] Jacobs (2011), pp. 251–255.

[37] Maraniss (2012), pp. 411–417.

[20] Scott (2011), pp. 97–103.
Maraniss (2012), pp. 195–201, 225–230.

[39] Maraniss (2012), pp. 195–201, 225–230.

[21] Maraniss (2012), pp. 195–201, 209–223, 230–244.

[22] Maraniss (2012), pp. 216, 221, 230, 234–244.

[23] Serafin, Peter (March 21, 2004). "Punahou grad stirs up Illinois politics". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved March 20, 2008.
Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 18, 2011.

Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.

Scott (2012), pp. 131–134.

Maraniss (2012), pp. 264–269.

[43] Scott, Janny (March 14, 2008). "A free-spirited wanderer who set Obama's path". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved November 18, 2011.

[44] Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 3 and 4.

[45] Scott (2012), pp. 131–134.

[46] Maraniss (2012), pp. 264–269.

[24] Scott (2011), pp. 139–157.
Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281.

[48] Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281.

[25] Scott (2011), pp. 157–194.
Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281, 324–326.

[50] Maraniss (2012), pp. 279–281, 324–326.

[26] Scott (2011), pp. 214, 294, 317–346.

[27] Serrano, Richard A. (March 11, 2007). "Obama's peers didn't see his angst". Los Angeles Times. p. A20. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.

[53] Obama (1995, 2004), Chapters 4 and 5.

[28] Reyes, B.J. (February 8, 2007). "Punahou left lasting impression on Obama". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. Retrieved February 10, 2007. "As a teenager, Obama went to parties and sometimes sought out gatherings on military bases or at the University of Hawaii that were mostly attended by blacks."

[29] Elliott, Philip (November 21, 2007). "Obama gets blunt with N.H. students". The Boston Globe (Associated Press). p. 8A. Retrieved May 18, 2012.

[30] Karl, Jonathan (May 25, 2012). "Obama and his pot-smoking "choom gang"". ABC News. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.

for analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:

Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times. p. A21. Retrieved October 29, 2006.

Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post. p. A1. Retrieved January 14, 2007.

[57] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 93–94.

[58] r analysis of the political impact of the quote and Obama's more recent admission that he smoked marijuana as a teenager ("When I was a kid, I inhaled"), see:

[59] Seelye, Katharine Q. (October 24, 2006). "Obama offers more variations from the norm". The New York Times. p. A21. Retrieved October 29, 2006.

[60] Romano, Lois (January 3, 2007). "Effect of Obama's candor remains to be seen". The Washington Post. p. A1. Retrieved January 14, 2007.

[31] "FRONTLINE The Choice 2012". PBS. October 9, 2012. Diakses tanggal October 29, 2012.

[32] Hornick, Ed (August 17, 2008). "Obama, McCain talk issues at pastor's forum". CNN. Retrieved May 18, 2012.

[Occidental-33] Gordon, Larry (January 29, 2007). "Occidental recalls 'Barry' Obama". Los Angeles Times. p. B1. Archived from the original on May 24, 2010. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
Possley, Maurice (March 30, 2007). "Activism blossomed in college". Chicago Tribune. p. 20. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Kovaleski, Serge F. (February 9, 2008). "Old friends say drugs played bit part in Obama's young life". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Rohter, Larry (April 10, 2008). "Obama says real-life experience trumps rivals' foreign policy credits". The New York Times. p. A18. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Goldman, Adam; Tanner, Robert (May 15, 2008). "Old friends recall Obama's years in LA, NYC". USA Today (Associated Press). Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Helman, Scott (August 25, 2008). "Small college awakened future senator to service (subscription archive)". The Boston Globe. p. 1A. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Jackson, Brooks (June 5, 2009). "More 'birther' nonsense: Obama's 1981 Pakistan trip". FactCheck.org. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 98–112. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6.

Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 92–112.

Mendell (2007), pp. 55–62.

[64] Possley, Maurice (March 30, 2007). "Activism blossomed in college". Chicago Tribune. p. 20. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[65] Kovaleski, Serge F. (February 9, 2008). "Old friends say drugs played bit part in Obama's young life". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[66] Rohter, Larry (April 10, 2008). "Obama says real-life experience trumps rivals' foreign policy credits". The New York Times. p. A18. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[67] Goldman, Adam; Tanner, Robert (May 15, 2008). "Old friends recall Obama's years in LA, NYC". USA Today (Associated Press). Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[68] Helman, Scott (August 25, 2008). "Small college awakened future senator to service (subscription archive)". The Boston Globe. p. 1A. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[69] Jackson, Brooks (June 5, 2009). "More 'birther' nonsense: Obama's 1981 Pakistan trip". FactCheck.org. Retrieved May 12, 2010.

[70] Remnick, David (2010). The Bridge: The Life and Rise of Barack Obama. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 98–112. ISBN 978-1-4000-4360-6.

[71] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 92–112.

[72] Mendell (2007), pp. 55–62.

[34] Boss-Bicak, Shira (January 2005). "Barack Obama '83". ISSN 0572-7820. Retrieved October 1, 2006.

[35] Obama, Barack (1998). "Curriculum vitae". The University of Chicago Law School. Archived from the original on May 9, 2001. Retrieved October 1, 2006.
Issenberg, Sasha (August 6, 2008). "Obama shows hints of his year in global finance; Tied markets to social aid". The Boston Globe. p. 1A. Archived from the original on August 9, 2008. Retrieved August 6, 2008.

[75] Issenberg, Sasha (August 6, 2008). "Obama shows hints of his year in global finance; Tied markets to social aid". The Boston Globe. p. 1A. Archived from the original on August 9, 2008. Retrieved August 6, 2008.

[36] Scott, Janny (July 30, 2007). "Obama's account of New York often differs from what others say". The New York Times. p. B1. Retrieved July 31, 2007.
Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 133–140.

Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.

[77] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 133–140.

[78] Mendell (2007), pp. 62–63.

[Who's_Who_2008-37] Chassie, Karen, ed. (2007). Who's Who in America, 2008. New Providence, NJ: Marquis Who's Who. p. 3468. ISBN 978-0-8379-7011-0.

[38] Lizza, Ryan (March 19, 2007). "The agitator: Barack Obama's unlikely political education". The New Republic 236 (12): 22–26, 28–29. ISSN 0028-6583. Retrieved August 21, 2007.
Secter, Bob; McCormick, John (March 30, 2007). "Portrait of a pragmatist". Chicago Tribune. p. 1. Archived from the original on December 14, 2009. Retrieved May 18, 2012.

Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 140–295.

Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.

[81] Secter, Bob; McCormick, John (March 30, 2007). "Portrait of a pragmatist". Chicago Tribune. p. 1. Archived from the original on December 14, 2009. Retrieved May 18, 2012.

[82] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 140–295.

[83] Mendell (2007), pp. 63–83.

[Harvard_Law_1990a-39] Matchan, Linda (February 15, 1990). "A Law Review breakthrough". The Boston Globe. p. 29. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
Corr, John (February 27, 1990). "From mean streets to hallowed halls" (paid archive). The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. C01. Retrieved June 6, 2008.

[85] Corr, John (February 27, 1990). "From mean streets to hallowed halls" (paid archive). The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. C01. Retrieved June 6, 2008.

[40] Obama, Barack (August–September 1988). "Why organize? Problems and promise in the inner city". Illinois Issues 14 (8–9): 40–42. ISSN 0738-9663. reprinted in:
Knoepfle, Peg, ed. (1990). After Alinsky: community organizing in Illinois. Springfield, IL: Sangamon State University. pp. 35–40. ISBN 0-9620873-3-5. "He has also been a consultant and instructor for the Gamaliel Foundation, an organizing institute working throughout the Midwest."

[Obama_2012-41] Obama, Auma (2012). And then life happens: a memoir. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 189–208, 212–216. ISBN 978-1-250-01005-6.

[42] Obama (1995, 2004), pp. 299–437.
Maraniss (2012), pp. 564–570.

[89] Maraniss (2012), pp. 564–570.

[43] Mundy, Liza (2008). Michelle: a biography. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-4165-9943-2.
Maraniss (2012), p. 564.

[91] Maraniss (2012), p. 564.

[44] Gnecchi, Nico (February 27, 2006). "Obama receives hero's welcome at his family's ancestral village in Kenya". Voice of America. Archived from the original on March 21, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2008.

[Harvard_Law_2007-45] Levenson, Michael; Saltzman, Jonathan (January 28, 2007). "At Harvard Law, a unifying voice". The Boston Globe. p. 1A. Retrieved June 15, 2008.
Kantor, Jodi (January 28, 2007). "In law school, Obama found political voice". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved June 15, 2008.

Mundy, Liza (August 12, 2007). "A series of fortunate events". The Washington Post. p. W10. Retrieved June 15, 2008.

Mendell (2007), pp. 80–92.

[94] Kantor, Jodi (January 28, 2007). "In law school, Obama found political voice". The New York Times. p. A1. Retrieved June 15, 2008.

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Pengawasan otoritas
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