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Revisi per 16 Juni 2020 04.19

Magistratus adalah pejabat negara Romawi Kuno yang dipilih rakyat.

Pada zaman kerajaan, Raja Roma adalah magistratus eksekutif utama.^[1] Pada praktiknya, raja berkuasa mutlak. Ia adalah imam besar sekaligus legislator, hakim, dan panglima angkatan bersenjata.^[1]^[2] Bilamana raja mangkat, kewenangannya beralih kepada senatus (senat). Senatus kemudian memilih seorang interrex (pemangku sementara) untuk memfasilitasi pemilihan raja baru.

Pada masa transisi dari kerajaan ke republik, perimbangan kekuasaan konstitusional bergeser dari lembaga eksekutif (Raja Roma) ke senatus. Ketika negara Republik Romawi berdiri pada tahun 509 pra-Masehi, kewenangan yang sebelumnya dipegang raja dialihkan kepada para consul. Tiap-tiap tahun, digelar pemilihan dua orang consul. Magistratus-magistratus zaman republik dipilih rakyat Roma, dan masing-masing diberi kewenangan sampai taraf tertentu. Kewenangan-kewenangan para magistratus disebut maior potestas (kewenangan-kewenangan utama).^[3] Dictator (magistratus ketua luar biasa) mengampu lebih banyak maior potestas daripada semua magistratus lain. Magistratus dengan maior potestas terbanyak sesudah dictator berturut-turut adalah censor (pejabat sensus), consul (magistratus ketua), praetor (panglima), curulis aedilis (pejabat ketertiban dan kesejahteraan sosial dari kalangan ningrat), dan akhirnya quaestor (pejabat pengawasan dan pemeriksaan). Tiap-tiap magistratus berhak membatalkan (veto) keputusan yang diambil magistratus lain yang sama banyak atau lebih sedikit maior potestas-nya.^[4] Berdasarkan definisi magistratus di atas, para tribunus plebis (pemimpin rakyat jelata) dan aedilis plebis (penyelenggara ketertiban dan kesejahteraan sosial dari kalangan rakyat jelata) dapat dianggap bukan magistratus^[5] karena hanya dipilih rakyat jelata (plebs) saja.^[3]

Pada masa transisi dari bentuk pemerintahan republik ke kekaisaran, perimbangan kekuasaan konstitusional bergeser kembali dari senatus ke lembaga eksekutif (Kaisar Romawi). Pada teorinya, senatus berwenang memilih kaisar baru, tetapi pada praktiknya, kaisar memilih sendiri penggantinya, meskipun hasil keputusannya kerap dimentahkan angkatan bersenjata atau perang saudara. Kewenangan kaisar (imperium) wujud, setidaknya dalam teori, karena kaisar memiliki kedudukan hukum. Dua komponen terpenting dari imperium adalah "kewenangan tribunus" dan "kewenangan proconsul".^[6] Setidaknya dalam teori, kewenangan tribunus (sama dengan kewenangan tribunus plebis zaman republik) membuat kaisar berwenang mengepalai pemerintahan sipil, sementara kewenangan proconsul (sama dengan kewenangan para wali negeri militer, atau para proconsul zaman republik) membuat kaisar berwenang mengepalai angkatan bersenjata. Kedua kewenangan ini dibedakan secara jelas pada awal zaman kekaisaran, tetapi akhirnya hilang. Kewenangan kaisar pun semakin tidak konstitusional dan kian monarkis.^[7] Jabatan-jabatan magistratus yang masih bertahan selepas zaman republik adalah consul, praetor, tribunus plebis, aedilis, quaestor, dan tribunus militum (pemimpin pasukan).^[8] Marcus Antonius menghapus jabatan dictator dan magister equitum (panglima pasukan berkuda) ketika menjabat sebagai consul pada tahun 44 pra-Masehi, sementara jabatan interrex dan censor dihapuskan tak lama kemudian.

Magistratus eksekutif Kerajaan Romawi

Para magistratus eksekutif Kerajaan Romawi adalah pejabat-pejabat negara yang dipilih rakyat. Pada zaman kerajaan, Raja Roma adalah magistratus eksekutif utama.^[1] Ia adalah kepala eksekutif, imam kepala, ketua legislator, hakim ketua, dan satu-satunya panglima tertinggi angkatan bersenjata.^[1]^[2] Kewenangan-kewenangannya didasarkan atas hukum serta preseden, dan hanya diperoleh melalui proses politik, yakni pemilihan. Pada praktiknya, tidak ada batasan nyata terhadap kewenangannya. Bila perang meletus, raja menjadi satu-satunya orang yang berhak mengerahkan tenaga rakyat untuk berperang, membentuk angkatan perang, mengangkat kepala-kepala pasukan, dan bila perlu memimpin sendiri kampanye-kampanye militer.^[2] Raja adalah penguasa seluruh harta benda milik negara, satu-satunya orang yang berhak membagi tanah rampasan dan barang jarahan perang, wakil utama kota Roma dalam urusan-urusan yang melibatkan dewa-dewi atau pemimpin-pemimpin komunitas lain, dan satu-satunya orang yang secara unilateral berhak memberlakukan hukum baru.^[2] Adakalanya raja mengajukan rancangan maklumat ke hadapan sidang rakyat atau senatus untuk diratifikasi secara seremonial, tetapi tidak ada yang dapat mengganggu gugat pemberlakuan maklumat. Raja mengangkat beberapa pejabat untuk membantunya menyelengarakan pemerintahan,^[9] dan secara unilateral memberi kewenangan kepada mereka. Bila raja sedang keluar kota, pemerintahan negara diselenggarakan oleh praefectus urbi (pejabat kota).^[9] Raja juga didampingi dua orang quaestor selaku pembantu panglima, dan dibantu beberapa pejabat lain dalam kasus-kasus makar. Pada masa perang, adakalanya raja hanya memimpin pasukan pejalan kaki, sementara kewenangan memimpin pasukan berkuda didelegasikan kepada kepala pasukan pengawal pribadinya, tribunus celerum.^[9] Kadang-kadang raja bertindak mengikuti preseden, pada umumnya untuk kepentingan praktis. Sebagai contoh, kendati secara unilateral dapat memaklumkan perang, lazimnya raja menghendaki maklumat tersebut terlebih dahulu diratifikasi sidang rakyat.^[9]^[10]

Selang waktu antara kemangkatan raja dan pemilihan raja baru disebut interregnum.^[11] Selama interregnum, senatus memilih salah seorang senator menjadi interrex^[12] untuk memfasilitasi pemilihan raja baru. Begitu mendapat bakal calon yang layak, interrex mengajukannya ke hadapan senatus untuk diloloskan menjadi calon raja. Jika disetujui senatus (melalui pemungutan suara), calon raja dapat diajukan ke hadapan comitia curiata (sidang rakyat) untuk dipilih rakyat.^[12] Jika calon raja terpilih menjadi raja, hasil pemilihan sidang rakyat diratifikasi senatus dengan menerbitkan maklumat.^[12] Selanjutnya interrex secara resmi memasyhurkan calon raja sebagai Raja Roma yang baru. Sesudah dimasyhurkan, raja melakukan "ambil auspicium" (mengamati dan menafsirkan gelagat burung), yakni menjalankan ritual pencarian pertanda dari dewa-dewi, kemudian diserahi kewenangan hukum (imperium) oleh sidang rakyat.^[12]

Magistratus eksekutif Republik Romawi

Para magistratus eksekutif Republik Romawi adalah pejabat-pejabat negara yang dipilih rakyat. Tiap-tiap magistratus diberi kewenangan sampai taraf tertentu.^[3] Dictator (jabatan tertinggi luar biasa dalam keadaan darurat) adalah magistratus dengan kewenangan terbesar. Di bawah dictator, magistratus dengan kewenangan paling besar adalah consul (jabatan tertinggi di luar keadaan darurat), kemudian praetor, censor, aedilis curialis, dan akhirnya quaestor. Setiap magistratus hanya berhak memveto tindakan magistratus lain yang setaraf atau lebih rendah kewenangannya. Karena secara teknis bukan magistratus,^[5] para tribunus plebis (maupun aedilis plebis) hanya mengandalkan sacrosanctitas (hak untuk diluhurkan, pantang dicelakai) yang melekat pada jabatan mereka jika hendak mencegah suatu tindakan.^[13] Jika larangannya tidak dituruti, tribunus plebis dapat memanfaatkan sacrosanctitas-nya^[14] untuk menghentikan suatu tindakan secara fisik, karena setiap perlawanan terhadap tindakan fisik tribunus plebis dianggap sebagai kejahatan yang diancam dengan hukuman mati.

Kewenangan konstitusional terpenting yang dapat dimiliki seorang magistratus adalah imperium (kewenangan memerintah), yakni kewenangan konstitusional yang hanya diampu para consul dan praetor. Pengampu imperium secara konstitusional berwenang menurunkan perintah-perintah (perintah militer maupun perintah-perintah lain). Begitu masa jabatan seorang magistratus berakhir, yang bersangkutan harus menunggu sepuluh tahun baru dapat kembali menjadi magistratus. Karena ketentuan ini menimbulkan masalah bagi beberapa magistratus, magistratus-magistratus tersebut kadang-kadang mengusahakan agar kewenangan memerintah mereka diperpanjang, sehingga mereka masih mengampu kewenangan tersebut selaku promagistratus (laksana pejabat).^[15]

Pada zaman republik, consul adalah magistratus biasa yang paling tinggi.^[16]^[17] Tiap-tiap tahun dipilih dua orang consul. Para consul terpilih mengampu kewenangan tertinggi di bidang sipil maupun militer. Sepanjang tahun jabatan, salah seorang consul berkedudukan lebih tinggi daripada rekan sejawatnya. Kedudukan ini bertukar tiap-tiap bulan.^[18] Para praetor menjalankan penegakan hukum sipil, memimpin sidang-sidang pengadilan, dan mengepalai angkatan bersenjata di daerah jajahan.^[19] Para censor bertugas menyelenggarakan sensus. Selama penyelenggaraan sensus, para censor dapat mengangkat orang-orang menjadi anggota senatus.^[20] Para aedilis adalah pejabat-pejabat negara yang dipilih untuk menangani urusan-urusan rumah tangga negara di Roma, dan diberi kewenangan untuk membawahi pengurusan pasar-pasar, penyelenggaraan kejuaraan-kejuaraan, dan pergelaran pertunjukan-pertunjukan.^[21] Para quaestors biasanya membantu para consul di Roma dan para wali negeri di daerah-daerah jajahan dalam penanganan urusan-urusan finansial.^[21] meskipun secara teknis bukan magistratus, para tribunus plebis dan aedilis plebis dihormati sebagai wakil-wakil rakyat. Mereka mewakili rakyat mengawasi senatus (melalui hak veto), dan memelihara kebebasan sipil seluruh rakyat Roma.

Dalam situasi-situasi darurat militer, seorang dictator diangkat untuk menjabat selama enam bulan.^[22] Pemerintahan konstitusional ditiadakan, dan dictator menjadi penguasa mutlak atas negara.^[23] Dictator selanjutnya mengangkat seorang magister equitum (kepala pasukan berkuda) sebagai wakilnya yang paling senior.^[24] Dictator seringkali mengundurkan diri dari jabatannya begitu masalah yang menimbulkan situasi darurat militer teratasi.^[22] Bilamana masa jabatan dictator berakhir, pemerintahan konstitusional kembali berjalan. Dictator biasa terakhir kali diangkat pada tahun 202 pra-Masehi. Selepas tahun 202 pra-Masehi, keadaan darurat diberlakukan dengan menerbitkan maklumat senatus consultum ultimum (ketetapan tertinggi senatus). Maklumat ini menghentikan pemerintahan sipil, memberlakukan darurat militer,^[25] dan melimpahkan kewenangan-kewenangan jabatan dictator kepada para consul.

Magistratus eksekutif Kekaisaran Romawi

Para magistratus eksekutif Kekaisaran Romawi adalah pejabat-pejabat pilihan rakyat. The powers of an emperor (his imperium) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" (potestas tribunicia) and the "proconsular powers" (imperium proconsulare).^[6] In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.^[7]

By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to.^[26] Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.^[27] The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,^[28]^[29] as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate.^[28] When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,^[28] and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor.^[28] The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (Censorship) and to conduct a census. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership.^[30] The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents.^[31] In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions, since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus, and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.^[27]

Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum).^[8] The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum) the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate.^[8] If an individual was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to the emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows.^[32] The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city.^[33] The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury.^[33] Under the empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct,^[34] and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies.^[34] Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome.^[35] Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over the grain supply to a board of commissioners. It wasn't until after they lost the power to maintain order in the city, however, that they truly became powerless, and the office disappeared entirely during the 3rd century.^[34]-->

Rujukan

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abbott, 8
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abbott, 15
^ ^a ^b ^c Abbott, 151
^ Abbott, 154
^ ^a ^b Abbott, 196
^ ^a ^b Abbott, 342
^ ^a ^b Abbott, 341
^ ^a ^b ^c Abbott, 374
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abbott, 16
^ Abbott, 19
^ Abbott, 12
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abbott, 14
^ Holland, 27
^ Polybius, 136
^ Lintott, 113
^ Polybius, 132
^ Byrd, 20
^ Cicero, 236
^ Byrd, 32
^ Lintott, 119
^ ^a ^b Byrd, 31
^ ^a ^b Byrd, 24
^ Cicero, 237
^ Byrd, 42
^ Abbott, 240
^ Abbott, 344
^ ^a ^b Abbott, 345
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Abbott, 357
^ Abbott, 356
^ Abbott, 354
^ Abbott, 349
^ Abbott, 376
^ ^a ^b Abbott, 377
^ ^a ^b ^c Abbott, 378
^ Abbott, 379

Sumber

Abbott, Frank Frost (1901). A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions. Elibron Classics (ISBN 0-543-92749-0).
Byrd, Robert (1995). The Senate of the Roman Republic. U.S. Government Printing Office, Senate Document 103-23.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (1841). The Political Works of Marcus Tullius Cicero: Comprising his Treatise on the Commonwealth; and his Treatise on the Laws. Translated from the original, with Dissertations and Notes in Two Volumes, oleh Francis Barham, Esq. London: Edmund Spettigue. Jld. 1.
Lintott, Andrew (1999). The Constitution of the Roman Republic. Oxford University Press (ISBN 0-19-926108-3).
Polybius (1823). The General History of Polybius: Translated from the Greek, oleh James Hampton. Oxford: Dicetak oleh W. Baxter. Edisi ke-5, Jld. 2.
Taylor, Lily Ross (1966). Roman Voting Assemblies: From the Hannibalic War to the Dictatorship of Caesar. The University of Michigan Press (ISBN 0-472-08125-X).

Sumber primer

Sumber sekunder

Bacaan lanjutan

Ihne, Wilhelm. Researches Into the History of the Roman Constitution. William Pickering. 1853.
Johnston, Harold Whetstone. Orations and Letters of Cicero: With Historical Introduction, An Outline of the Roman Constitution, Notes, Vocabulary and Index. Scott, Foresman and Company. 1891.
Mommsen, Theodor. Roman Constitutional Law. 1871-1888
Tighe, Ambrose. The Development of the Roman Constitution. D. Apple & Co. 1886.
Von Fritz, Kurt. The Theory of the Mixed Constitution in Antiquity. Columbia University Press, New York. 1975.
Historiai karya Polibios
Cambridge Ancient History, Jilid 9–13.
A. Cameron, The Later Roman Empire (Fontana Press, 1993).
M. Crawford, The Roman Republic (Fontana Press, 1978).
E. S. Gruen, "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic" (U California Press, 1974)
F. Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World (Duckworth, 1977, 1992).
A. Lintott, "The Constitution of the Roman Republic" (Oxford University Press, 1999)

[Abbott,_8-1] Abbott, 8

[Abbott,_15-2] Abbott, 15

[Abbott,_151-3] Abbott, 151

[Abbott,_154-4] Abbott, 154

[Abbott,_196-5] Abbott, 196

[Abbott,_342-6] Abbott, 342

[Abbott,_341-7] Abbott, 341

[Abbott,_374-8] Abbott, 374

[Abbott,_16-9] Abbott, 16

[Abbott,_19-10] Abbott, 19

[Abbott,_12-11] Abbott, 12

[Abbott,_14-12] Abbott, 14

[Holland,_27-13] Holland, 27

[Polybius,_136-14] Polybius, 136

[Lintott,_113-15] Lintott, 113

[Polybius,_132-16] Polybius, 132

[Byrd,_20-17] Byrd, 20

[Cicero,_236-18] Cicero, 236

[Byrd,_32-19] Byrd, 32

[Lintott,_119-20] Lintott, 119

[Byrd,_31-21] Byrd, 31

[Byrd,_24-22] Byrd, 24

[Cicero,_237-23] Cicero, 237

[Byrd,_42-24] Byrd, 42

[Abbott,_240-25] Abbott, 240

[Abbott,_344-26] Abbott, 344

[Abbott,_345-27] Abbott, 345

[Abbott,_357-28] Abbott, 357

[Abbott,_356-29] Abbott, 356

[Abbott,_354-30] Abbott, 354

[Abbott,_349-31] Abbott, 349

[Abbott,_376-32] Abbott, 376

[Abbott,_377-33] Abbott, 377

[Abbott,_378-34] Abbott, 378

[Abbott,_379-35] Abbott, 379

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@@ Baris 27: / Baris 27: @@
 == Magistratus eksekutif Kekaisaran Romawi ==
 {{Main|Konstitusi Kekaisaran Romawi|Magistratus eksekutif Kekaisaran Romawi}}
-[[File:Bust of augustus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Augustus, Kaisar Romawi yang pertama]]<!--
+[[File:Bust of augustus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Augustus, Kaisar Romawi yang pertama]]
-The executive magistrates of the Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient [[Roman Empire]]. The powers of an emperor (his ''[[imperium]]'') existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's ''imperium'' were the "tribunician powers" (''potestas tribunicia'') and the "proconsular powers" (''imperium proconsulare'').<ref name="Abbott, 342">Abbott, 342</ref> In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.<ref name="Abbott, 341">Abbott, 341</ref>
+Para magistratus eksekutif [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] adalah pejabat-pejabat pilihan rakyat. The powers of an emperor (his ''[[imperium]]'') existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's ''imperium'' were the "tribunician powers" (''potestas tribunicia'') and the "proconsular powers" (''imperium proconsulare'').<ref name="Abbott, 342">Abbott, 342</ref> In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.<ref name="Abbott, 341">Abbott, 341</ref>
 By virtue of his proconsular powers, the emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to.<ref name="Abbott, 344">Abbott, 344</ref> Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the [[Roman Senate]] and the [[Roman assemblies]] including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.<ref name="Abbott, 345">Abbott, 345</ref> The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's [[tribune|tribunician powers]] gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus,<ref name="Abbott, 357">Abbott, 357</ref><ref name="Abbott, 356">Abbott, 356</ref> as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate.<ref name="Abbott, 357">Abbott, 357</ref> When an emperor was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct,<ref name="Abbott, 357">Abbott, 357</ref> and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor.<ref name="Abbott, 357">Abbott, 357</ref> The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality (''[[Censorship]]'') and to conduct a [[census]]. As part of the census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership.<ref name="Abbott, 354">Abbott, 354</ref> The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents.<ref name="Abbott, 349">Abbott, 349</ref> In addition, the emperor controlled the [[Religion in ancient Rome|religious institutions]], since, as emperor, he was always ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'', and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.<ref name="Abbott, 345">Abbott, 345</ref>