Antropologi biologis

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Tengkorak primat : manusia, simpanse, orang utan dan macaque

Antropologi biologis, juga disebut antropologi jasmani (physical anthropology) adalah cabang dari antropologi yang, dalam konteks primat pada umumnya, khusus meneliti perkembangan spesies manusia. Antropologi biologis mencakup peneltian biologis dan budaya tentang keanekaragaman manusia, evolusi manusia, dan pembandingan anatomi, perilaku, sejarah dan ekologi primat pada masa lampau dan kini. Antropologi biologis terutama meneliti bukti fosil dan perkembangannya.

Latar belakang

Physical anthropology began primarily with studies of primate fossils in history, their comparison and contrast, why and when certain traits such as mandible and chin evolved or disappeared, nature and environment on walking (bipedal or not), how the environment and resources affected the fossil primates and did they use fire or not. It also primarily deals with primate classification in the hominid tree and inclusion or exclusion of fossil evidence to and from the hominid tree and the individual naming of the proposed species.

Physical anthropology closely works with paleoanthropology and the physical evidence since you need a tangible material to prove or disapprove something. It also focuses on fossil dating.

For instance, physical anthropology will focus on Australopithecus afarensis, Paranthropus boisei, Homo erectus, bipedalism (full bipedalism or combined with arboreal), use of fire (cooking gives more nutrient and energy), teeth structure and jaw strength (sagittal crest (more the crest more they ate hard foods like nuts), did they eat hard food or soft food), relative height and brain size of the species, opposable thumb, Out of Africa theory and multiregional models, species replacement or mating between hominid species if that's the case, the time the species likely appeared and/or went extinct, physical environment the species lived in (savanna, desert), radiocarbon dating, chin (one of the differences between Homo sapiens species and Homo erectus for instance), etc. It tries to give distinct characteristics and reasons to try to understand the whole picture of human evolution.

Physical anthropology uses the scientific method with extensive cross analysis and revision if necessary.

Practitioners began calling their science "biological anthropology" when the rise of genetics, and successful attempts to study non-human primates in their natural habitat, allowed anthropologists to rely on evidence other than bones.

Sejarah

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

Antropologi jasmani muncul di abad ke-18 sebagai usaha penelitian ilmiah untuk mengklasifikasi manusia dalam "ras"[1]. Antropolog jasmani terkemuka yang pertama adalah dokter asal Jerman Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) di Göttingen. Beliau mengumpulkan sejumlah besar tengkorak manusia, sehingga dapat menganggap dirinya sebagai ahli mengenai keragaman manusia. Pada tahun 1830-an dan 1840-an, antropologi jasmani main peranan utama dalam debat mengenai perbudakan, di mana karya ilmiah pakar asal Inggris James Cowles Prichard (1786–1848) yang menganggap semua manusia sebagai turunan dari spesies yang sama (monogenism) dan mengecam perbudakan, bertentangan dengan karya Samuel George Morton (1799–1851) asal Amerika yang menganggap manusia merupakan turunan dari beberapa spesies yang berbeda dan tidak kompatibel satu sama lain (polygenism). Berakhirnya perbudakan di dunia Barat membuat debat ini tidak berarti lagi.

Paul Broca

Di akhir abad ke-19 muncul aliran antropologi yang bersifat nasional. Para antropolog jasmani Prancis, dengan Paul Broca (1824–1880) sebagai tokoh terkemukanya, berpusat pada anatom tengkorak dan variasi kecil. Aliran Jerman, dengan Rudolf Virchow (1821–1902) sebagai pemuka, menekankan kemampuan bentuk manusia untuk bermutasi, pengaruh lingkungan dan penyakit terhadap tubuh manusia, dan kekurangsesuaian antara wawasan "ras", bangsa dan kebudayaan. Aliran Amerika berkonsentrasi pada penduduk asli benua Amerika Utara yang telah "diamankan" dan menggali dan mengumpulkan kerangka sebagai benda ilmiah, di sampin artefak, bahasa dan kebudayaan (dalam arti "gaya hidup"). Keempat metode penelitian ini menjadi keempat pendekatan dalam antropologi.

Istilah "antropologi biologis" mencakup data non-jasmani seperti marker genetika, perilaku para primat dll. yang di pertengahan abad ke-19 sudah diakui para ilmuwan. Kini istilah "antropologi jasmani" dan "antropologi biologis" dianggap sama artinya.

Franz Boas

In the US, after the Civil War (1861–65), physical anthropology was an arcane medical speciality. In 1897, it was the Columbia University appointment of Franz Boas (1858–1942), that propelled the field of anthropology into its modern academic structure. As a physical anthropologist, Boas was hired for his expertise in measuring schoolchildren, and collecting of Inuit skeletons. From his German education and training, Boas emphasized the mutability of the human form; and minimize race (then a biology synonym) in favor of studying culture, (see Cultural Relativism).

Aleš Hrdlička

American physical anthropology was developed by Ales Hrdlicka (1869–1943), at the Smithsonian Institution, and by Earnest Hooton (1887–1954), at Harvard University. Hrdlicka, a physician, studied physical antropology in France, under Leonce Manouvrier, before working at the Smithsonian in 1902. Hooton, a Classics PhD from the University of Wisconsin, then entered anthropology as an Oxford Rhodes Scholar, under R. R. Marett, and the anatomist Arthur Keith. Harvard University hired Hooton in 1913; for the next decades, he trained most American physical anthropologists, beginning with Harry L. Shapiro and Carleton S. Coon. As the leading US student of race in the 1930s, Earnest Hooton struggled to differentiate “good” American physical anthropology from “bad” German physical anthropology.[2] Nonetheless, despite that conflict of scientific interpretation, there was much intellectual continuity between Germans and Americans, such as Eugen Fischer, Fritz Lenz, and Erwin Baur.[3]

In 1951, in an influential report, Sherwood Washburn, a Hooton alumnus, re-invented the field with a “new physical anthropology”.[4] For the post–Second World War generation of anthropologists, physical anthropology was transformed by withdrawing from the study of racial typology to concentrate upon the study of human microevolution; away from classification, and towards evolutionary process and history. Under Washburn’s lead, anthropology expanded to comprehend paleoanthropology and primatology.[5] Consequently, contemporary anthropology is methodologically diverse, comprehending the cognate fields of animal behavior, human genetics, and medical anatomy, et cetera.

Cabang-cabang

Templat:Anthropology

Antropolog biologis yang terkenal

Lihat juga

Pranala luar

Purpustakaan

  • Michael A. Little and Kenneth A.R. Kennedy, eds. Histories of American Physical Anthropology in the Twentieth Century (Lexington Books; 2010); 259 pages; essays on the field from the late 19th to the late 20th century; topics include Sherwood L. Washburn (1911–2000) and the "new physical anthropology."

Catatan

  1. ^ J. Marks, Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History, New York, Aldine de Gruyter, 1995
  2. ^ Hooton, E. A. (1936) “Plain Statements About Race”. Science, 83:511-513.
  3. ^ Baur, E., Fischer, E., and Lenz, F. (1931) Human Heredity, Eden Paul and Cedar Paul, translators. New York: Macmillan,
  4. ^ Washburn, S. L. (1951) “The New Physical Anthropology”, Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, Series II, 13:298-304.
  5. ^ Haraway, D. (1988) “Remodelling the Human Way of Life: Sherwood Washburn and the New Physical Anthropology, 1950–1980”, in Bones, Bodies, Behavior: Essays on Biological Anthropology, of the History of Anthropology, v.5, G. Stocking, ed., Madison, Wisc., University of Wisconsin Press, pp. 206-259.
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