Tembok Besar Ming: Perbedaan antara revisi
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== Bibliografi == |
== Bibliografi == |
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* {{citation|last=Atwell|first=William|chapter=The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644|editor-last=Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett|title=The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1|place=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2008|pages=585–640|isbn=978-0-521-24332-2}} |
* {{citation|last=Atwell|first=William|chapter=The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644|editor-last=Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett|title=The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1|place=Cambridge|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2008|pages=585–640|isbn=978-0-521-24332-2}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy|first=Richard Louis|last=Edmonds|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Geography; Research Paper No. 213|isbn=978-0-89065-118-6|year=1985|pages=38–40|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book|title=Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy|url=https://archive.org/details/northernfrontier00unse|first=Richard Louis|last=Edmonds|publisher=University of Chicago, Department of Geography; Research Paper No. 213|isbn=978-0-89065-118-6|year=1985|pages=38–40|ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book|last = Elliott|first=Mark C.|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7|ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book|last = Elliott|first=Mark C.|title=The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China|url = https://archive.org/details/manchuwayeightba0000mark|year=2001|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4684-7|ref=harv}} |
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* {{Cite journal |last=Hessler |first=Peter |authorlink= Peter Hessler|year=2007|title=Letter from China: Walking the Wall |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |volume= |issue=May 21, 2007 |pages=58–67|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/05/21/070521fa_fact_hessler|ref=harv}} |
* {{Cite journal |last=Hessler |first=Peter |authorlink= Peter Hessler|year=2007|title=Letter from China: Walking the Wall |journal=[[The New Yorker]] |volume= |issue=May 21, 2007 |pages=58–67|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/05/21/070521fa_fact_hessler|ref=harv}} |
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* {{citation|title=Imperial China: 900-1800|last=Mote|first=Frederick W.|author-link=Frederick Mote|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-674-01212-7|title-link=Imperial China: 900-1800}} |
* {{citation|title=Imperial China: 900-1800|last=Mote|first=Frederick W.|author-link=Frederick Mote|location=Cambridge, MA|publisher=[[Harvard University Press]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-674-01212-7|title-link=Imperial China: 900-1800}} |
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| Baris 27: | Baris 27: | ||
* {{citation|last=Wakeman|first=Frederic|author-link=Frederic Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China|year=1985|place=Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hcv6AAAACAAJ|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1}}. In two volumes. |
* {{citation|last=Wakeman|first=Frederic|author-link=Frederic Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China|year=1985|place=Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London|publisher=University of California Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hcv6AAAACAAJ|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1}}. In two volumes. |
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* {{cite journal |last1=Waldron|first1=Arthur| authorlink = Arthur Waldron | year=1983 |title=The Problem of The Great Wall of China |
* {{cite journal |last1=Waldron|first1=Arthur| authorlink = Arthur Waldron | year=1983 |title=The Problem of The Great Wall of China |
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|journal=[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]]|volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=643–663 |publisher=Harvard-Yenching Institute |doi=10.2307/2719110|jstor=2719110| ref=harv}} |
|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_harvard-journal-of-asiatic-studies_1983-12_43_2/page/643|journal=[[Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies]]|volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=643–663 |publisher=Harvard-Yenching Institute |doi=10.2307/2719110|jstor=2719110| ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book | last = Waldron | first = Arthur | authorlink = Arthur Waldron | title = The Great Wall of China : from history to myth | url = https://archive.org/details/greatwallofchina00wald | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge England New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-521-42707-4 | ref=harv}} |
* {{cite book | last = Waldron | first = Arthur | authorlink = Arthur Waldron | title = The Great Wall of China : from history to myth | url = https://archive.org/details/greatwallofchina00wald | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge England New York | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-521-42707-4 | ref=harv}} |
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* {{cite book | script-title=zh:中国长城遗迹调查报告集 |trans-title=Collected reports on surveys of the Great Wall of China | publisher = Cultural Relics Publishing House | location = Beijing | year = 1981 |language=zh}} |
* {{cite book | script-title=zh:中国长城遗迹调查报告集 |trans-title=Collected reports on surveys of the Great Wall of China | publisher = Cultural Relics Publishing House | location = Beijing | year = 1981 |language=zh}} |
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Revisi terkini sejak 10 Januari 2024 22.36
Tembok Besar Ming (明長城; Ming changcheng), dibangun oleh Dinasti Ming (1368–1644), membentuk bagian yang paling terlihat dari Tembok Besar Tiongkok saat ini. Sebuah survei arkeologis yang komprehensif, menggunakan teknologi canggih, telah menyimpulkan bahwa ukuran tembok Ming 8.850 km (5.500 mi) dari Lintasan Jiayu di barat menuju laut di Lintasan Shanhai, kemudian berputar untuk berakhir di Manchuria di Tembok Besar Hushan.[1] Ini meliputi 6.259 km (3.889 mi) bagian dari tembok sebenarnya, 359 km (223 mi) parit pertahanan, dan 2.232 km (1.387 mi) perintang defensif alami seperti perbukitan dan sungai.[1]
Meskipun tembok Ming umumnya disebut sebagai "Tembok Besar" (changcheng) pada zaman modern, pada zaman Ming mereka disebut "perintang perbatasan" (邊牆; bianqiang) oleh orang Tiongkok, karena Istilah changcheng dikatakan membangkitkan citra tirani Qin Shi Huang (260-210 SM) dan dikaitkan dengan Tembok Besar Qin.[2]
Sejarah
[sunting | sunting sumber]Tembok dan garnisun Ming awal
[sunting | sunting sumber]Pada tahun 1368, Kaisar Hongwu (Zhu Yuanzhang, berkuasa 1368-1398) menggulingkan dan mengusir Dinasti Yuan yang dipimpin bangsa Mongol dari Tiongkok dan mendirikan Dinasti Ming. Bangsa Mongol melarikan diri kembali ke Mongolia, tetapi bahkan setelah banyak kampanye militer, masalah Mongol tetap ada.[3]
Pada tahun-tahun awal masa kekuasaannya, Hongwu membayangkan kebijakan perbatasan dengan pasukan bergerak di sepanjang perbatasan utara menjaga keamanan Tiongkok. Untuk tujuan ini, dia mendirikan "delapan garnisun terluar" dekat dengan stepa dan sebuah garis dalam benteng yang lebih cocok untuk pertahanan. Garis dalam ini merupakan cikal bakal Tembok Besar Ming.[4] Pada tahun 1373, ketika pasukan Ming menghadapi kemunduran, Hongwu lebih menekankan pertahanan dan menyetujui saran Hua Yunlong (華雲龍) untuk membentuk garnisun di 130 lintasan dan titik strategis lainnya di daerah Beijing.[5] Lebih banyak posisi didirikan pada tahun-tahun hingga kematian Hongwu pada 1398, dan menara pengawas diawaki dari Laut Bohai hingga Beijing dan lebih jauh hingga stepa Mongolia.[5][6] Namun, posisi-posisi ini bukan untuk sebuah pertahanan linier melainkan pertahanan regional dengan tembok-tembok tidak memiliki fitur yang berat, dan taktik ofensif tetap menjadi kebijakan menyeluruh pada saat itu.[5]
Referensi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- ^ a b "Great Wall of China 'even longer'". BBC. April 20, 2009. Diakses tanggal April 20, 2009.
- ^ Waldron 1983, hlm. 651.
- ^ Mote 1999, hlm. 563.
- ^ Waldron 1990, hlm. 76.
- ^ a b c Waldron 1990, hlm. 78.
- ^ Spindler 2009, hlm. 69.
Bibliografi
[sunting | sunting sumber]- Atwell, William (2008), "The T'ai-ch'ang, T'ien-ch'i, and Ch'ung-chen reigns, 1620–1644", dalam Frederick W. Mote and Denis Twitchett, The Cambridge History of China Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, hlm. 585–640, ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2
- Edmonds, Richard Louis (1985). Northern Frontiers of Qing China and Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy. University of Chicago, Department of Geography; Research Paper No. 213. hlm. 38–40. ISBN 978-0-89065-118-6.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4684-7.
- Hessler, Peter (2007). "Letter from China: Walking the Wall". The New Yorker (May 21, 2007): 58–67.
- Mote, Frederick W. (1999), Imperial China: 900-1800, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-01212-7
- Owen, James (March 19, 2012). "'Lost' Great Wall of China Segment Found?". National Geographic News. Diakses tanggal June 7, 2013.
- Spindler, David (2009). "A Twice-Scorned Mongol Woman, the Raid of 1576, and the Building of the Brick Great Wall". Ming Studies. Maney Publishing. 2009 (60): 66–94. doi:10.1179/175975909x12589849512419.
- Wakeman, Frederic (1985), The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-Century China, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1. In two volumes.
- Waldron, Arthur (1983). "The Problem of The Great Wall of China". Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies. Harvard-Yenching Institute. 43 (2): 643–663. doi:10.2307/2719110. JSTOR 2719110.
- Waldron, Arthur (1990). The Great Wall of China : from history to myth. Cambridge England New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-42707-4.
- 中国长城遗迹调查报告集 [Collected reports on surveys of the Great Wall of China] (dalam bahasa Tionghoa). Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House. 1981.