Pengguna:Andrean182/Bak Pasir/Bursa Windows: Perbedaan antara revisi

← Revisi sebelumnya Revisi selanjutnya →

Konten dihapus Konten ditambahkan

Sebaris

Revisi per 19 April 2015 15.25

Bahasa Spanyol, juga disebut Kastilia, adalah Bahasa Roman yang berasal dari daerah Kastilia di Spanyol. Lebih dari 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Spanyol sebagai bahasa ibu, menjadikannya sebagai bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak dari Mandarin.^[1] Diperkirakan ada 470 juta orang yang merupakan penutur asli bahasa Spanyol dan 548 juta orang yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.^[2] Bahasa Spanyol merupakan bahasa ketiga dengan penutur terbanyak setelah Inggris dan Mandarin. ^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6] Bahasa Spanyol adalah satu dari bahasa resmi PBB dan juga Uni Eropa, Organisasi Negara-Negara Amerika, Persatuan Negara-Negara Amerika Selatan, dan banyak lagi.

Bahasa Spanyol adalah bagian dari bahasa Ibero-Roman, yang berevolusi dari beberapa dialek Latin Umum di Semenanjung Iberia setelah keruntuhan dari Kekaisaran Romawi Barat pada abad ke-5. Bahasa ini pertama kali diucapkan di Iberia utara pada abad ke-9 dan perlahan meluas dengan perluasan Kerajaan Kastilia ke Iberia pusat dan selatan.^[7] Pada awal abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke koloni Kekaisaran Spanyol, yang di antaranya adalah Amerika Selatan dan Afrika, Oseania, dan Filipina.^[8]

Semenjak awalnya, kosakata bahasa Spanyol dipengaruhi oleh hubungannya dengan bahasa Basque, begitu pun dengan bahasa Ibero-Roman yang lain, dan selanjutnya menyerap banyak kata bahasa Arab saat kepemilikan Islam atas Iberia.^[9]. Ia juga menyerap kata dari bahasa bukan Iberia, utamanya dari Oksitan, Prancis, Italia, dan Sardinia, begitu pun dari bahasa Nahuatl dan bahasa-bahasa natif Amerika. Pada masa modern, ia melanjutkan menambahkan kata-kata baru, dan semakin banyak menyerap dari bahasa Inggris. Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari 19 negara di Amerika. Di Uni Eropa, bahasa ini digunakan sebagai bahasa ibu dari 8% warganya, dengan tambahan 7% yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.^[10] Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa kedua terpopuler yang dipelajari di Amerika Serikat.^[11]

Nama bahasa

Penyebaran dari pemilihan kata *castellano* (Kastilia) (merah) dan *español* (Spanyol) (biru)

Di Spanyol dan beberapa negara berbahasa Spanyol, bahasa ini disebut castellano (Kastilia) maupun español (Spanyol). Kata castellano merujuk pada region Kastilia (Castilla) di Spanyol, tempat bahasa ini berasal, dan kontras dengan bahasa-bahasa lain yang digunakan di Spanyol, seperti Galisia, Basque, dan Katala.

Konstitusi Spanyol 1978 menggunakan kata castellano untuk menyebut bahasa resmi dari seluruh negara Spanyol, kontras dengan las demás lenguas españolas (bhs. bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain). Pasal III berbunyi:

El castellano es la lengua española oficial del Estado. ... Las demás lenguas españolas serán también oficiales en las respectivas Comunidades Autónomas...
(Bahasa) Kastilia adalah bahasa Spanyol resmi dari Negara. ... Bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain juga akan menjadi resmi di Komunitas Otonom mereka sendiri...

Real Academia Española, di samping itu, menggunakan kini kata español dalam terbitannya, tapi semenjak 1713 sampai 1923 menggunakan kata castellano.

Diccionatio panhispánico de dudas (sebuah pengantar bahasa yang diterbitankan oleh Akademi Resmi Spanyol) menyatakan bahwa meskipun Akademi Resmi Spanyol memilih menggunakan kata español dalam terbitannya saat merujuk ke bahasa Spanyol, kedua kata, español dan castellano, dipandang sama dan valid.^[12]

Dua etimologi untuk español telah disarankan. Kamus Akademi Resmi Spanyol mengasalkan kata tersebut dari kata Provençal espaignol, dan lebih jauh dari kata bahasa Latin Hispaniolus, 'sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan Hispania'.^[13] Otoritas lain^[14]^[15] mengarahkannya pada kata bahasa Latin *hispaniōne, dengan arti yang sama.

Sejarah

Bahasa Spanyol berevolusi dari bahasa Latin Umum, yang dibawa ke Semenanjung Iberia oleh para Romawi saat Perang Punisia Kedua, mulai pada 210 SM. Sebelumnya, beberapa bahasa sebelum Romawi (juga disebut bahasa-bahasa Paleohispani)—tidak terkait ke bahasa Latin, dan beberapa di antara mereka bahkan tidak terkait ke Indo-Eropa—digunakan di Semenanjung Iberia. Bahasa-bahasa ini termasuk Basque (kini masih dipakai), Iberia, [[bahasa Keltiberia]Keltiberia]], dan Kelt. Sisa-sisa bahasa Basque bisa ditemukan di kosakata bahasa Spanyol kini, utamanya di nama tempat.

Dokumen-dokumen pertama yang diketahui berisi bentuk yang kini dikenal sebagai bentuk mentah bahasa Spanyol berasal dari abad ke-9. Selama Abad Pertengahan sampai masa modern, pengaruh paling penting dalam tata bahasa Spanyol berasal dari bahasa Roman di sekelilingnya saat itu—Navarro-Argon, Llion, Aragon, Basque, Katala, Portugis, Galisia, Miranda, Oksitan, Gaskon, dan selanjutnya, bahasa Prancis dan bahasa Italia—tapi juga dipengaruhi oleh bahasa Arab dan bahasa Jermanik. Banyak kata yang diserap dari bahasa Latin Klasik melalui bahasa tertulis dan bahasa liturgi Gereja.

Dialek lokal dari bahasa Latin Umum berevolusi menjadi bahasa Spanyol di Iberia bagian utara, di daerah Álava, Cantabria, Burgos, Soria, dan La Rioja. Dialek ini selanjutnya dibawa ke kota Toledo, di mana bahasa standar tertulisnya pertama kali diciptakan pada abad ke-13.^[16] Dalam tahapan ini, bahasa Spanyol (saat itu masih dianggap bahasa Kastilia) mulai membedakan diri dari saudara dekatnya, bahasa Llion, dan, menurut beberapa pendapat, dibedakan dari pengaruh bahasa Basque yang besar. Dialek yang berbeda ini meluas perlahan ke selatan dengan adanya Reconquista, dan mendapatkan cukup banyak pengaruh tata bahasa dari bahasa Arab dari Al-Andalus, meski tidak secara langsung, melainkan dari dialek Mozarabik (sekitar 4.000 kata dari bahasa Arab (8%) ada dalam bahasa ini kini).^[17] Standar tertulis bahasa baru ini mulai diciptakan di kota Toledo, di abad ke-13 sampai 16, dan Madrid sejak 1570. ^[16]

Perkembangan fonologi bahasa Spanyol dari bahasa Latin Umum berisi banyak perubahan yang sama dari bahasa Roman Barat, termasuk pelemahan (lenisi) dari huruf mati intervokalis (menghasilkan Spanyol vida dari Latin vīta). Diftongisasi dari huruf pendek ditekan e dan o—yang terjadi pada silabel terbuka di bahasa Prancis dan Italia, tapi tidak di bahasa Katala maupun Portugis—ditemukan di baik silabel terbuka dan tertutup di bahasa Spanyol, seperti di tabel berikut:

bahasa Latin	bahasa Spanyol	bahasa Ladino	bahasa Aragon	bahasa Asturia	bahasa Galisia	bahasa Portugis	bahasa Katala	bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan	bahasa Prancis	bahasa Sardinia	bahasa Italia	bahasa Romania	bahasa Indonesia
petra	piedra	piedra (or pyedra)	piedra	piedra	pedra	pedra	pedra	pedra/pèira	pierre	perda	pietra	piatrǎ	'batu'
terra	tierra	tierra (or tyerra)	tierra	tierra	terra	terra	terra	tèrra	terre	terra	terra	țară	'tanah'
moritur	muere	muere	muere	muerre	morre	morre	mor	morís	meurt	mòrit	muore	moare	'mati (kata kerja.)'
mortem	muerte	muerte	muerte	muerte	morte	morte	mort	mòrt	mort	mòrti	morte	moarte	'kematian'

Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai palatalisasi dari huruf mati ganda bahasa Latin nn dan ll (menghasilkan año dari annum dan anillo dari anellum).

Huruf mati yang ditulis dengan u atau v di bahasa Latin yang diucapkan [w] mungkin telah mengalami "fortifikasi" ke frikatif bilabial /β/ di bahasa Latin Umum. Di bahasa Spanyol awal (tapi tidak di bahasa Katala dan Portugis), ia tercampur dengan huruf mati b (bilabial dengan alofon plosif dan frikatif). Di bahasa Spanyol modern, tidak ada perbedaan dengan pengucapan huruf b dan v, dengan pengecualian beberapa dialek bahasa Spanyol.

Dan juga pada bahasa Spanyol (begitu pun dengan dialek Gaskon dari bahasa Oksitan) ada perubahan dari huruf f- di depan kata bahasa Latin menjadi f-, ketika diikuti oleh huruf hidup yang tidak mengalami diftongisasi. Pengucapan h- tersebut, yang masih ada dalam ejaan, kini tak diucapkan di banyak versi bahasa ini, meski di beberapa dialek Andalusia dan Karibia masih diucapkan di beberapa kata. Itulah alasan kenapa ada dua variasi ejaan modern. Fernando dan Hernando (keduanya berarti Ferdinan), ferrero dan herrero (pandai besi), fierro dan hierro (besi), dan fondo dan hondo (dalam, tapi fondo berarti bawah dan hondo berarti dalam); hacer (melakukan) adalah akar dari satisfacer (memuaskan), dan hecho (dilakukan) adalah akar dari satisfecho (dipuaskan).

Bandingkan contoh berikut:

bahasa Latin	bahasa Spanyol	bahasa Ladino	bahasa Aragon	bahasa Asturia	bahasa Galisia	bahasa Portugis	bahasa Katala	bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan	bahasa Prancis	bahasa Sardinia	bahasa Italia	bahasa Romania	bahasa Indonesia
filium	hijo	fijo (or ijo)	fillo	fíu	fillo	filho	fill	filh/hilh	fils	fillu	figlio	fiu	'anak laki-laki'
facere	hacer	fazer	fer	facer	facer	fazer	fer	far/faire/har (or hèr)	faire	fairi	fare	a face	'melakukan'
febrem	fiebre	fiebre	fiebre	fiebre	febre	febre	febre	fèbre/frèbe/hrèbe (or herèbe)	fièvre	(calentura)	febbre	febră	'demam'
focum	fuego	fuego	fuego	fueu	fogo	fogo	foc	fuòc/fòc/huèc	feu	fogu	fuoco	foc	'api'

Beberapa gugus huruf mati bahasa Latin juga menghasilkan hasil berbeda di bahasa-bahasa tersebut, seperti ditampilkan dalam tabel berikut:

bahasa Latin	bahasa Spanyol	bahasa Ladino	bahasa Aragon	bahasa Asturia	bahasa Galisia	bahasa Portugis	bahasa Katala	bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan	bahasa Prancis	bahasa Sardinia	bahasa Italia	bahasa Romania	bahasa Indonesia
clāvem	llave	clave	clau	llave	chave	chave/clave	clau	clau	clé	crai	chiave	cheie	'kunci'
flamma	llama	flama	flama	flama	chama	chama/flama	flama	flama	flamme	framma	fiamma	flamă	'kobaran api'
plēnum	lleno	pleno	plen	llenu	cheo	cheio/pleno	ple	plen	plein	prenu	pieno	plin	'banyak, penuh'
octō	ocho	ocho	güeito	ocho/oito	oito	oito	vuit/huit	uèch/uòch/uèit	huit	otu	otto	opt	'delapan'
multum	mucho muy	muncho muy	muito mui	munchu mui	moito moi	muito mui (arch.)	molt	molt (arch.)	moult (arch.)	(meda)	molto	mult	'sangat, banyak'

Pada abad ke-15 dan 16, bahasa Spanyol melalui perubahan besar dalam pengucapan huruf mati sibilannya, dikenal dengan reajuste de las sibilantes, yang menghasilkan velar [x] (seperti khusus) untuk huruf ⟨j⟩ dan—di banyak daerah di Spanyol—interdental [θ] (seperti tsanawiyah) untuk huruf ⟨z⟩, dan ⟨c⟩ sebelum ⟨e⟩ atau ⟨i⟩.

Gramática de la lengua castellana yang ditulis oleh Salamanca pada 1492 oleh Antonio de Nebrija adalah tata bahasa pertama yang ditulis untuk sebuah bahasa Eropa Modern.^[19] Menurut sebuah anekdot yang populer, saat Antonio memberikannya pada Ratu Isabela I, ia menanyakannya apa kegunaan hasil itu, dan dia menjawab bahwa bahasa adalah instrumen dari sebuah kerajaan.^[20] Dalam pengenalannya ke tata bahasa tersebut, pada 18 Agustus 1492, Antonio menulis bahwa "...bahasa selalu merupakan pendamping kerajaan.".^[21]

Semenjak abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke Amerika dan Hindia Spanyol melalui Kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika. Pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini dibawa ke Sahara Barat dan Guinea Khatulistiwa dan ke daerah di Amerika Serikat yang tak pernah menjadi bagian Kerajaan Spanyol, seperti Spanish Harlem di New York.

Tata bahasa

Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa yang terinfleksi, dengan sistem jenis kelamin kata ganda dan sekitar 50 bentuk terkonjugasi dari kata kerja, tapi dengan infleksi dari kata benda, kata sifat, dan penentu (kebahasaan) yang terbatas pada jumlah dan jenis kelamin. (Lihat kata kerja bahasa Spanyol) Sintaks bahasa Spanyol bersistem pembatangan kanan, berarti bahwa sub-kata atau pemodifikasi biasa diletakkan setelah kata utama (seperti burung biru; burung = kata utama, biru = pemodifikasi). Bahasa ini menggunakan kata depan (daripada kata belakang atau infleksi kata benda untuk kasus), dan biasanya—meski tidak selalu—meletakkan kata sifat setelah kata benda, begitu pun rata-rata bahasa Roman yang lain.

Struktur kalimatnya biasanya subyek—kata benda—obyek, meski variasi pun sering. Ia adalah bahasa pro-drop atau subyek kosong—yang mengizinkan penghapusan subyek saat mereka secara pragmatis tidak dibutuhkan. Bahasa ini merupakan bahasa kata kerja terbingkai, berarti arah dari kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja sementara mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja langsung (bentuk –ing dalam bahasa Inggris) (contoh subir corriendo atau salir volando; penerjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia—'berlari naik' dan 'terbang keluar'—menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa "satelit terbingkai", dengan mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja dan arah kegiatan dalam kata kerja langsung/kata sifat).

Pembalikan subyek/kata kerja tidak dibutuhkan dalam pertanyaan. Oleh karena itu, perintah atau pertanyaan bisa tergantung pada penekanan.

Fonologi

Fonologi segmental

Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai 5 suara huruf hidup (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/), dan 17 sampai 19 suara huruf mati (jumlah tepat tergantung dialek). Variasi alofon utama di antara huruf hidup adalah pengurangan huruf hidup tinggi /i/ dan /u/ menjadi /j/ dan /w/ saat tidak ditekan dan diikuti huruf hidup yang lain. Beberapa instansi dari huruf hidup tengah /e/ dan /o/, secara leksikal ditentukan, tertukar dengan diftong /je/ dan /we/ saat ditekan, dalam proses yang lebih bagus dideskripsikan sebagai morfofonemik daripada fonologikal, karena ia tidak bisa diramalkan hanya dari fonologi.

Sistem huruf mati bahasa Spanyol berciri: (1) tiga fonem hidung (nasal), dan satu atau dua (tergantung dialek) fonem lateral, yang pada posisi suku kata akhir kehilangan kontras dan tunduk pada asimilasi dengan mengikuti konsonan; (2) tiga plosif nirsuara dan afrikat /tʃ/; (3) tiga atau empat (tergantung dialek) frikatif nirsuara; (4) satu set fonem hambat bersuara—/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, dan terkadang /ʝ/—yang bergantian antara alofon afroksiman dan plosif tengantung keadaan; dan (5) perbedaan antara suara "r" yang ditap dan digetarkan (ditulis ⟨r⟩ (ditap) dan ⟨rr⟩ (digetarkan) dalam ortografi)

Dalam tabel fonem konsonan berikut, /θ/ dan /ʎ/ ditandai dengan tanda bintang (*) untuk menunjukkan bahwa mereka hanya dipakai dalam beberapa dialek. Dalam kebanyakan dialek, mereka telah bergabung, masing-masing, dengan /s/ dan /ʝ/, disebut seseo dan yeísmo. Fonem /ʃ/ ada dalam tanda kurung () untuk menunjukkan bahwa ia hanya muncul dalam kata-kata pinjaman. Setiap fonem hambat bersuara /b/, /d/, /ʝ/, dan /ɡ/ muncul di sebelah kanan dari sepasang fonem nirsuara, untuk menunjukkan bahwa, saat fonem nirsuara mempertahankan kontras fonemik antara plosif (atau afrikat) dan frikatif, yang bersuara alternatif secara alofon (yaitu tanpa kontras fonemik) antara plosif dan pengucapan afroksiman.

**Fonem huruf mati**^[22]
	Bibir		Gigi		Langit-langit depan		Langit-langit tengah		Langit-langit belakang
Huruf mati sengau		m				n		ɲ
Huruf mati henti	p	b	t	d			tʃ	ʝ	k	ɡ
Huruf mati berkelanjutan (continuant)	f	b	θ*	d	s		(ʃ)	ʝ	x	ɡ
Huruf mati rusuk (lateral)						l		ʎ*
Huruf mati kepak (flap)						ɾ
Huruf mati getar						r

V dan B

Surat-surat ⟨v⟩ dan ⟨b⟩ biasanya mewakili fonem yang sama, /b/, yang diucapkan sebagai [b] setelah konsonan sengau atau jeda, dan sebagai [β] di tempat lain, seperti di ambos [ambos] ('keduanya'), envío [embi.o] ('aku mengirim'), acabar [akaβaɾ] ('menyelesaikan') dan mover [moβeɾ] ('bergerak'). Akademi Resmi Spanyol menganggap pengucapan /v/ dari huruf ⟨v⟩ adalah salah dan terpengaruh. Namun, beberapa pengguna bahasa Spanyol mempertahankan pengucapan /v/ suara seperti di bahasa-bahasa Eropa barat lainnya. Suara /v/ yang digunakan digunakan untuk huruf ⟨v⟩, dalam bahasa Spanyol, dengan beberapa pengguna bahasa kedua di Spanyol yang bahasa ibunya adalah bahasa Katala, di Kepulauan Balearic, di Komunitas Valencia, dan di Katalunya selatan.^[23] Di Amerika Serikat juga umum karena kedekatan dan pengaruh fonologi bahasa Inggris, dan /v/ juga kadang-kadang digunakan di Meksiko. Beberapa bagian dari Amerika Tengah juga menggunakan /v/, yang dianggak Akademi adalah pengaruh bahasa lokal setempat.

Dahulu, pengucapan /v/ tidaklah umum, tapi dianggap benar sampai abad ke-20.

Prosody

Spanish is classified by its rhythm as a syllable-timed language, meaning that each syllable has approximately the same duration regardless of stress.^[24]^[25]

Spanish intonation varies significantly according to dialect, but generally conforms to a pattern of falling tone for declarative sentences and wh-questions (who, what, why, etc.), and rising tone for yes/no questions.^[26]^[27] There are no syntactic markers to distinguish between questions and statements, and thus the recognition of declarative or interrogative depends entirely on intonation.

Stress most often occurs on any of the last three syllables of a word, with some rare exceptions at the fourth-last or earlier syllables. The tendencies of stress assignment are as follows:^[28]

In words that end with a vowel, stress most often falls on the penultimate syllable.
In words that end with a consonant, stress most often falls on the last syllable, with the following exceptions: The grammatical endings -n (for third-person-plural of verbs) and -s (whether for plural of nouns and adjectives or for second-person-singular of verbs) do not change the location of stress. Thus regular verbs ending with -n and the great majority of words ending with -s are stressed on the penult. Although a significant number of nouns and adjectives ending with -n are also stressed on the penult (e.g. joven, virgen, mitin), the great majority of nouns and adjectives ending with -n are stressed on their last syllable (e.g. capitán, almacén, jardín, corazón).
Preantepenultimate stress (stress on the fourth-to-last syllable) occurs rarely, and only on verbs with clitic pronouns attached (e.g. guardándoselos 'saving them for him/her/them').

In addition to the many exceptions to these tendencies, there are numerous minimal pairs which contrast solely on stress such as sábana ('sheet') and sabana ('savannah'), as well as límite ('boundary'), limite ('[that] he/she limits') and limité ('I limited'), or also líquido ('liquid'), liquido ('I sell off') and liquidó ('he/she sold off').

The spelling system unambiguously reflects where the stress occurs: in the absence of an accent mark, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last letter is ⟨n⟩, ⟨s⟩, or a vowel, in which cases the stress falls on the next-to-last syllable; if and only if the absence of an accent mark would give the wrong stress information, an acute accent mark appears over the stressed syllable.

Geographical distribution

Spanish is the primary language of 20 countries worldwide. It is estimated that the combined total number of Spanish speakers is between 470 and 500 million, making it the second most widely spoken language in terms of native speakers.^[30]^[31]

Spanish is the third most spoken language by total number of speakers (after Mandarin and English). Internet usage statistics for 2007 show Spanish as the third most commonly used language on the Internet, after English and Mandarin.^[32]

Europe

In Europe, Spanish is an official language of Spain, the country after which it is named and from which it originated. It is widely spoken in Gibraltar, although English is the official, international language.^[33] It is also commonly spoken in Andorra, although Catalan is the official language.^[34]

Spanish is also spoken by small communities in other European countries, such as the United Kingdom, France, and Germany.^[35] Spanish is an official language of the European Union. In Switzerland which had a massive influx of Spanish migrants in the 20th century, Spanish is the native language of 2.2% of the population.^[36]

The Americas

Hispanic America

Most Spanish speakers are in Hispanic America; of all countries with a majority of Spanish speakers, only Spain and Equatorial Guinea are outside the Americas. Nationally, Spanish is the official language—either de facto or de jure—of Argentina, Bolivia (co-official with Quechua, Aymara, Guarani, and 34 other languages), Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay (co-official with Guaraní),^[37] Peru (co-official with Quechua, Aymara, and "the other indigenous languages"^[38]), Uruguay, and Venezuela. Spanish is co-official with English in Puerto Rico.^[39]

Spanish has no official recognition in the former British colony of Belize; however, per the 2000 census, it is spoken by 43% of the population.^[40]^[41] Mainly, it is spoken by the descendants of Hispanics who have been in the region since the seventeenth century; however, English is the official language.^[42]

Due to their proximity to Spanish-speaking countries, Trinidad and Tobago and Brazil have implemented Spanish language teaching into their education systems. The Trinidad government launched the Spanish as a First Foreign Language (SAFFL) initiative in March 2005.^[43] In 2005, the National Congress of Brazil approved a bill, signed into law by the President, making it mandatory for schools to offer Spanish as an alternative foreign language course in both public and private secondary schools in Brazil.^[44] In many border towns and villages (especially in the Uruguayan-Brazilian and Paraguayan-Brazilian border areas), a mixed language known as Portuñol is spoken.^[45]

United States

According to 2006 census data, 44.3 million people of the U.S. population were Hispanic or Hispanic American by origin;^[46] 38.3 million people, 13 percent, of the population over five years old speak Spanish at home.^[47] The Spanish language has a long history and presence in the United States due to historic Spanish and later, Mexican administration over territories now forming the southwestern states as well as Florida, which was Spanish territory until 1821.

Spanish is by far the most common second language spoken and taught in the country, and with over 50 million total speakers, the United States is now the second largest Spanish-speaking country in the world after Mexico.^[48] While English is the de facto official language of the country, Spanish is often used in public services and notices at the federal and state levels. Spanish is also used in administration in the state of New Mexico.^[49] The language also has a strong influence in major metropolitan areas such as those of Los Angeles, Miami, San Antonio, New York, San Francisco, Dallas, and Phoenix; as well as more recently, Chicago, Las Vegas, Boston, Denver, Houston, Indianapolis, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Salt Lake City, Atlanta, Nashville, Orlando, Tampa, Raleigh and Baltimore-Washington, D.C. due to 20th and 21st century immigration.

Africa

Donato Ndongo-Bidyogo, writer and journalist.

In Africa, Spanish is official (along with Portuguese and French) in Equatorial Guinea, as well as an official language of the African Union. In Equatorial Guinea, Spanish is the predominant language when native and non-native speakers (around 500,000 people) are counted, while Fang is the most spoken language by number of native speakers.^[50]^[51] However, Equatorial Guinea has historically had closer and longer ties with Portugal.

Spanish is also spoken in the integral territories of Spain in North Africa, which include the Spanish cities of Ceuta and Melilla, the Plazas de soberanía, and the Canary Islands, archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa. But Ceuta and Melilla are integral territories of Spain, not Africa.

Within Northern Morocco, a former Spanish protectorate that is also geographically close to Spain, approximately 20,000 people speak Spanish as a second language, while Arabic is the de jure official language. A small number of Moroccan Jews also speak the Sephardic Spanish dialect Haketia (related to the Ladino dialect spoken in Israel). Spanish is spoken by some small communities in Angola because of the Cuban influence from the Cold War and in South Sudan among South Sudanese natives that relocated to Cuba during the Sudanese wars and returned in time for their country's independence.^[52]

In Western Sahara, formerly Spanish Sahara, Spanish was officially spoken during the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Today, Spanish in this disputed territory is maintained by populations of Sahrawi nomads numbering about 500,000 people, and is de facto official alongside Arabic in the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, although this entity receives limited international recognition.^[53]^[54]

Asia-Pacific


Juan Luna, José Rizal and La solidaridad newspaper (Ilustrados)

Spanish is present on Easter Island, as it was annexed as a Chilean province in 1888.

Spanish was an official language of the Philippines from the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to a constitutional change in 1973. During Spanish colonization (1565–1898), it was the language of government, trade and education, and spoken as a first language by Spaniards and educated Filipinos. In the mid-nineteenth century, the colonial government set up a free public education system with Spanish as the medium of instruction. This increased use of Spanish throughout the islands led to the formation of a class of Spanish-speaking intellectuals called the Ilustrados. However, Spanish was never spoken by the majority of the population.^[55]

Despite American administration after the defeat of Spain in the Spanish–American War in 1898, the usage of Spanish continued in Philippine literature and press during the early years of American rule. Gradually, however, the American government began increasingly promoting the use of English, and it characterized Spanish as a negative influence of the past. Eventually, by the 1920s, English became the primary language of administration and education.^[56] But despite a significant decrease in influence and speakers, Spanish remained an official language of the Philippines when it became independent in 1946, alongside English and Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog.

Spanish was removed from official status in 1973 under the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, but regained its status as an official language two months later under Presidential Decree No. 155, dated 15 March 1973.^[57] It remained an official language until 1987, with the ratification of the present constitution, in which it was re-designated as a voluntary and optional auxiliary language.^[58] In 2010, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo encouraged the reintroduction of Spanish-language teaching in the Philippine education system.^[59] But by 2012, the number of secondary schools at which the language was either a compulsory subject or an elective had become very limited.^[60] Today, despite government promotions of Spanish, less than 0.5% of the population report being able to speak the language proficiently.^[61] Estimates indicate that while around 3 million people can speak Spanish with varying degrees of competency, only around 439 thousand people can speak the language at a native level.^[62] Aside from standard Spanish, a Spanish-based creole language—Chavacano—developed in the southern Philippines. The number of Chavacano-speakers was estimated at 1.2 million in 1996. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Spanish.^[63] Speakers of the Zamboangueño variety of Chavacano were numbered about 360,000 in the 2000 census.^[64] The local languages of the Philippines also retain some Spanish influence, with many words being derived from Mexican Spanish, owing to the control of the islands by Spain through Mexico City until 1821, and then directly from Madrid until 1898.^[65]^[66]

Spanish was also used by the colonial governments and educated classes in the former Spanish East Indies, consisting of modern-day Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, and Micronesia, in addition to the Philippines. Spanish loan words are present in the local languages of these territories as a legacy of colonial rule.^[67]^[68] Today, Spanish is not spoken officially in any of these former Spanish territories.

Spanish speakers by country

The following table shows the number of Spanish speakers in some 79 countries.

Country	Population^[69]	Spanish as a native language speakers^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73]^[74]	Native speakers or very good speakers as a second language^[75]	Total number of Spanish speakers (including second language speakers)^[75]^[76]^[77]
Mexico	121,005,815^[78]	112.172.391 (92.7%)^[79]	119.190.728 (98.5%)^[77]
United States	318,881,992^[80]	38,417,235^[81] (13%)^[82]	41,343,921^[2] (82%^[83] of the 54.1 mill. Hispanics^[84] + 2.8 mill. non Hispanics^[85])	52,000,000^[2] (including 7.8 million students^[2] and some of the 9 million illegal Hispanics not accounted by the Census^[86])^[87]^[88]^[89]^[90]^[91]^[92]
Colombia	48,014,000^[93]	47.505.624^[94]	47.629.888 (99.2%)^[77]
Spain	46,771,341^[95]	38.352.500^[96]	46.210.085 (98.8%)^[77]
Argentina	43,131,966 ^[97]^[98]	39,500,000^[99]	42.873.174 (99.4%)^[77]
Venezuela	30,620,404^[100]	29.522.160^[101]	30.252.959 (98.8%)^[77]
Peru	31,151,643^[102]	26.198.532 (84.1%)^[103]^[104]	26.977.323 (86.6%)^[77]
Chile	18,006,407^[105]	17,724,807^[106]	17.880.362 (99.3%)^[77]
Ecuador	15,580,000^[107]	13,200,000^[108]	15.499.800 (98.1%)^[77]
Guatemala	15,806,675^[69]	9.484.005^[109]	13.656.967 (86.4%)^[77]
Brazil	201,032,714^[110]	460,018^[111]	460,018^[111]	12,460,018^[111]^[112]^[113]
Cuba	11,266,000^[69]	11,266,000^[114]	11.198.404 (99.4%)^[77]
Dominican Republic	10,404,000^[69]	9,300,000^[115]	10.362.384 (99.6%)^[77]
Bolivia	10,426,154^[116]	6.047.169 (58%)^[117]	9.164.589 (87.9%)^[77]
Honduras	8,215,313^[118]	8,007,563^[119]	8.133.160 (99.0%)^[77]
France	65,635,000^[120]	477,564 (1%^[121] of 47,756,439^[122])	1,910,258 (4%^[123] of 47,756,439^[122])	6,685,901 (14%^[124] of 47,756,439^[122])
El Salvador	6,183,002^[125]	6,168,902^[126]	6.164.453 (99.7%)^[77]
Nicaragua	6,042,000^[69]	5,551,876^[127]	5.860.740 (97.0%)^[77]
Italy	59,685,227^[128]		1,037,248 (2%^[123] of 51,862,391^[122])	5,704,863 (11%^[124] of 51,862,391^[122])
Paraguay	6,802,000^[69]	3,877,140 (57%)^[129]	4.727.390 (69.5%)^[77]
Costa Rica	4,667,096^[130]	4,581,678^[131]	4.629.759 (99.2%)^[77]
Puerto Rico	3,667,084^[132]	3.487.397 (95.1%)^[133]	3.623.079 (98.8%)^[77]
Panama	3,864,000^[134]	3,362,957^[135]	3.597.384 (93.1%)^[77]
Morocco	31,759,997^[136]	6,586^[111]	6,586	3,415,000^[111]^[137] (21.9%)^[138]
United Kingdom	63,181,775^[139]	120,000	518,480 (1%^[123] of 51,848,010^[122])	3,110,880 (6%^[124] of 51,848,010^[122])
Uruguay	3,286,314^[140]	3,136,114^[141]	3.250.165 (98.9%)^[77]
Philippines	97,866,000^[142]	3,325^[143]	438,882^[144]	3,016,773^[145]^[146]^[147]^[148]^[149]^[150]^[151]
Germany	80,327,900^[152]		644,091 (1%^[123] of 64,409,146^[122])	2,576,366 (4%^[124] of 64,409,146^[122])
Equatorial Guinea	1,622,000^[153]	1,683^[154]	918,000^[77] (90.5%)^[77]^[155]
Canada	34,605,346^[156]	439,000^[157]	909,000^[111]^[158]	1,001,853^[111]
Romania	21,355,849^[159]		182,467 (1%^[123] of 18,246,731^[122])	912,337 (5%^[124] of 18,246,731^[122])
Portugal	10,636,888^[160]		323,237 (4%^[123] of 8,080,915^[122])	808,091 (10%^[124] of 8,080,915^[122])
Netherlands	16,665,900^[161]		133,719 (1%^[123] of 13,371,980^[122])	668,599 (5%^[124] of 13,371,980^[122] )
Sweden	9,555,893^[162]	77,912 (1%^[121] of 7,791,240^[122])	77,912 (1% of 7,791,240)	467,474 (6%^[124] of 7,791,240^[122])
Australia	21,507,717^[163]	111,400^[164]	111,400	447,175^[165]
Belgium	10,918,405^[166]		89,395 (1%^[123] of 8,939,546^[122])	446,977 (5%^[124] of 8,939,546^[122])
Poland	38,092,000		324,137 (1%^[123] of 32,413,735^[122])	324,137 (1% of 32,413,735)
Austria	8,205,533		70,098 (1%^[123] of 7,009,827^[122])	280,393 (4%^[124] of 7,009,827^[122])
Ivory Coast	20,179,602			235,806 (students)^[76]
Algeria	33,769,669			223,422^[111]
Belize	333,200^[167]	173,597^[111]	173,597^[111]	195,597^[111] (62.8%)^[168]
Denmark	5,484,723		45,613 (1%^[123] of 4,561,264^[122])	182,450 (4%^[124] of 4,561,264^[122])
Israel	7,112,359		130,000^[111]	175,231^[169]
Japan	127,288,419			167,514^[76]
Ireland	4,581,269^[170]		35,220 (1%^[123] of 3,522,000^[122])	140,880 (4%^[124] of 3,522,000^[122])
Switzerland	7,581,520	86,000^[111] (1.7%)^[171]	111,000^[111]	111,000^[111]
Finland	5,244,749			133,200 (3%^[124] of 4,440,004^[122])
Bulgaria	7,262,675		130,750 (2%^[123] of 6,537,510^[122])	130,750 (2%^[124] of 6,537,510^[122])
Netherlands Antilles	223,652	10,699^[111]	10,699^[111]	125,534^[111]
Senegal	12,853,259			101,455^[76]
Czech Republic	10,513,209^[172]			90,124 (1%^[124] of 9,012,443^[122])
Hungary	9,957,731^[173]			83,206 (1%^[124] of 8,320,614^[122])
Aruba	101,484^[174]	6,800^[111]	6,800^[111]	75,402^[111]
Trinidad and Tobago	1,317,714^[175]	4,100^[111]	4,100^[111]	65,886^[111] (5%)^[176]
Cameroon	21,599,100^[177]			63,560 (students)^[76]
Andorra	84,484	33,305^[111]	33,305^[111]	54,909^[111]
Slovenia			35,194 (2%^[123] of 1,759,701^[122])	52,791 (3%^[124] of 1,759,701^[122])
New Zealand		21,645^[178]	21,645	47,322 (25,677 students)^[76]
Slovakia	5,455,407			45,500 (1%^[124] of 4,549,955^[122])
Norway	4,644,457	12,573^[179]		36,250^[76]
China	1,339,724,852^[180]			30,000 (students)^[181]
Gibraltar	29,441^[182]	22,758 (77.3%^[183])
Lithuania	2,972,949^[184]			28,297 (1%^[124] of 2,829,740^[122])
Luxembourg	524,853	4,049 (1%^[121] of 404,907^[122])	8,098 (2%^[123] of 404,907^[122])	24,294 (6%^[124] of 404,907^[122])
Russia	143,400,000^[185]	3,320^[111]	3,320^[111]	23,320^[111]
Western Sahara	513,000^[186]	n.a.^[187]		22,000^[111]
Guam				19,092^[188]
US Virgin Islands		16,788^[189]	16,788^[111]	16,788^[111]
Latvia	2,209,000^[190]			13,943 (1%^[124] of 1,447,866^[122])
Turkey	73,722,988^[191]	1,134^[111]	1,134^[111]	13,480^[111]^[192]
Cyprus				2%^[124] of 660,400^[122]
India	1,210,193,422^[193]			9,750 (students)^[194]
Estonia				9,457 (1%^[124] of 945,733^[122])
Jamaica	2,711,476^[195]	8,000^[196]	8,000^[196]	8,000^[196]
Namibia		3,870^[197]
Egypt				3,500^[198]
Malta				3,354 (1%^[124] of 335,476^[122])
European Union (excluded Spain)	460,624,488^[199]	2,397,000 (559,525 already counted)^[200]
Total	7,228,000,000 (Total World Population)^[201]	440.279.575^[2]^[202]	480.896.569 ^[2] (6,66%)	531.760.408 ^[2]^[203]^[204] (7,36%)

Dialectal variation

There are important variations—phonological, grammatical, and lexical—in the spoken Spanish of the various regions of Spain and throughout the Spanish-speaking areas of the Americas.

The variety with the most speakers is Mexican Spanish. It is spoken by more than twenty percent of the world's Spanish speakers (more than 112 million of the total of more than 500 million, according to the table above). One of its main features is the reduction or loss of unstressed vowels, mainly when they are in contact with the sound /s/.^[205]^[206]

In Spain, northern dialects are popularly thought of as closer to the standard, although positive attitudes toward southern dialects have increased significantly in the last 50 years. Even so, the speech of Madrid, which has typically southern features such as yeísmo and s-aspiration, is the standard variety for use on radio and television.^[207]^[208]^[209]^[210] The educated Madrid variety has most influenced the written standard for Spanish.^[211]

Phonology

The four main phonological divisions are based respectively on (1) the sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩, (2) the debuccalization of syllable-final /s/, (3) the phoneme /θ/ ("theta"), (4) and the phoneme /ʎ/ ("turned y"),^[212]

The sound of the spelled ⟨s⟩ is pronounced in northern Spain as a Voiceless "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant [s̺], with a weak "hushing" sound reminiscent of retroflex fricatives. In most of Hispanic America (except in Paisa Region, Colombia) is pronounced as in English, as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant [s]. This difference, because the sounds of the spelled ⟨s⟩ is one of the most common in Spanish, is usually the first to be noted by a Spanish-speaking person to differentiate Spaniards and Hispanic Americans.
The debuccalization (pronunciation as [h], or loss) of syllable-final /s/ is associated with southern Spain and lowland Americas: Central America (except central Costa Rica and Guatemala), the Caribbean, coastal areas of southern Mexico, and South America except Andean highlands. Debuccalization is frequently called "aspiration" in English, and aspiración in Spanish. When there is no debuccalization, the syllable-final /s/ is pronounced as Voiceless "apico-alveolar" "grave" sibilant or as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant in the same fashion as in the past paragraph.
The phoneme /θ/ (spelled c before e or i and spelled ⟨z⟩ elsewhere)—a voiceless dental fricative as in English thing—is maintained by a majority of Spain's population, especially in the northern and central parts of the country. This maintenance of phonemic contrast is called distinción in Spanish. In other areas—southern Spain, the Canary Islands, and the Americas—/θ/ is merged with /s/. In Spanish this merger is generally called seseo (in reference to the usual realization of the merged phoneme as [s]) or, occasionally, ceceo (referring to its interdental realization, [θ], in some parts of southern Spain). In Hispanic America the spelled ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩, and spelled ⟨z⟩ is always pronounced as a Voiceless alveolar "hissing" sibilant.
The phoneme /ʎ/ spelled ll —a palatal lateral consonant sometimes compared in sound to the lli of English million—tends to be maintained in less-urbanized areas of northern Spain and in highland areas of South America. Meanwhile, in the speech of most other Spanish-speakers, it is merged with /ʝ/ ("curly-tail j")—a non-lateral, usually voiced, usually fricative, palatal consonant—sometimes compared to English /j/ (yod) as in yacht, and spelled ⟨y⟩ in Spanish. As with other forms of allophony across world languages, this small difference of the spelled ⟨ll⟩ and the spelled ⟨y⟩ is usually not perceived (the difference is not heard) by the people who do not produce them as different phonemes. Such a phonemic merger is called yeísmo in Spanish. In Rioplatense Spanish, this merged phoneme is generally pronounced as a postalveolar fricative, either voiced [ʒ] (as in English measure or the French ⟨j⟩) in the central and western parts of the dialectal region (zheísmo), or voiceless [ʃ] (as in the French ⟨ch⟩ or Portuguese ⟨x⟩) in and around Buenos Aires (sheísmo).^[213]

Grammar

The main grammatical variations between dialects of Spanish involve differing uses of pronouns: especially those of the second person and, to a lesser extent, the object pronouns of the third person.

Voseo

Virtually all dialects of Spanish make the distinction between a formal and a familiar register in the second-person singular, and thus have two different pronouns meaning "you": usted in the formal, and either tú or vos in the familiar (and each of these three pronouns has its associated verb forms), with the choice of tú or vos varying from one dialect to another. The use of vos (and/or its verb forms) is called voseo. In a few dialects, all three pronouns are used—usted, tú, and vos—denoting respectively formality, familiarity, and intimacy.^[214]

In voseo, vos is the subject form (vos decís, "you say") and the form for the object of a preposition (voy con vos, "I'm going with you"), while the direct and indirect object forms, and the possessives, are the same as those associated with tú: Vos sabés que tus amigos te respetan ("You know your friends respect you"). Additional examples: "Vos te acostaste con el tuerto" (Gené Ulf [Arg. 1988]); "Lugar que odio [...] como te odio a vos" (Rossi María [C. Rica 1985]); "No cerrés tus ojos" (Flores Siguamonta [Guat. 1993]).

The verb forms of general voseo are the same as those used with tú except in the present tense (indicative and imperative) verbs. The forms for vos generally can be derived from those of vosotros (the traditional second-person familiar plural) by deleting the glide [i̯], or /d/, where it appears in the ending: vosotros pensáis > vos pensás; vosotros volvéis > vos volvés, pensad! (vosotros) > pensá! (vos), volved! (vosotros) > volvé! (vos) .

General voseo (River Plate Spanish)
Indicative			Subjunctive		Imperative
Present	Past	Conditional	Present	Past	Imperative
pensás	pensabas	pensarías	pienses	pensaras	pensá
volvés	volvías	volverías	*vuelvas*	volvieras	volvé
dormís	dormías	dormirías	duermas	durmieras	dormí
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation.

In Chilean voseo on the other hand, almost all verb forms are distinct from their standard tú-forms.

Chilean voseo
Indicative			Subjunctive		Imperative
Present	Past	Conditional	Present	Past	Imperative
pensái	pensabai	pensaríai	pensís	pensarai	piensa
volvís	volvíai	volveríai	volvái	volvierai	vuelve
dormís	dormíai	dormiríai	durmái	durmierai	duerme
The forms in bold coincide with standard tú-conjugation.

The use of the pronoun vos with the verb forms of tú (e.g. vos piensas) is called "pronominal voseo". And conversely, the use of the verb forms of vos with the pronoun tú (e.g. tú pensás or tú pensái) is called "verbal voseo".
In Chile, for example, verbal voseo is much more common than the actual use of the pronoun vos which is often reserved for deeply informal situations.

Distribution in Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas

Berkas:Nicaragua Voseo Aeropuerto C Sandino.jpg

The voseo pronoun is used in Central America's Nicaragua.

Although vos is not used in Spain, it occurs in many Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas as the primary spoken form of the second-person singular familiar pronoun, although with wide differences in social consideration. Generally, it can be said that there are zones of exclusive use of tuteo in the following areas: almost all of Mexico, the West Indies, Panama, most of Peru and Venezuela, coastal Ecuador and the Caribbean coast of Colombia.

Tuteo (the use of tú) as a cultured form alternates with voseo as a popular or rural form in Bolivia, in the north and south of Peru, in Andean Ecuador, in small zones of the Venezuelan Andes (and most notably in the Venezuelan state of Zulia), and in a large part of Colombia. Some researchers maintain that voseo can be heard in some parts of eastern Cuba, and others assert that it is absent from the island.^[215]

Tuteo exists as the second-person usage with an intermediate degree of formality alongside the more familiar voseo in Chile, in the Venezuelan state of Zulia, on the Caribbean coast of Colombia (Montería, Sincelejo, Cartagena, Barranquilla, Riohacha and Valledupar), in the Azuero Peninsula in Panama, in the Mexican state of Chiapas, and in parts of Guatemala.

Areas of generalized voseo include Argentina, Costa Rica, eastern Bolivia, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Colombian departments of Antioquia (the second largest in population), Caldas, Risaralda, Quindio, and parts of The Valle del Cauca department.^[214]

Ustedes

Ustedes functions as formal and informal second person plural in over 90% of the Spanish-speaking world, including all of Hispanic America, the Canary Islands, and some regions of Andalusia. In Seville, Cadiz, and other parts of western Andalusia, the familiar form is constructed as ustedes vais, using the traditional second-person plural form of the verb. Most of Spain maintains the formal/familiar distinction with ustedes and vosotros respectively.

Usted

Usted is the usual second-person singular pronoun in a formal context, used to convey respect toward someone who is a generation older or is of higher authority ("you, sir"/"you, ma'am"). It is also used in a familiar context by many speakers in Colombia and Costa Rica, and in parts of Ecuador and Panama, to the exclusion of tú or vos. This usage is sometimes called ustedeo in Spanish.

In Central America, especially in Honduras, usted is often used as a formal pronoun to convey respect between the members of a romantic couple. Usted is also used in this way, as well as between parents and children, in the Andean regions of Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela.

Third-person object pronouns

Most speakers use (and the Real Academia Española prefers) the pronouns lo and la for direct objects (masculine and feminine respectively, regardless of animacy, meaning "him", "her", or "it"), and le for indirect objects (regardless of gender or animacy, meaning "to him", "to her", or "to it"). This usage is sometimes called "etymological", as these direct and indirect object pronouns are a continuation, respectively, of the accusative and dative pronouns of Latin, the ancestor language of Spanish.

Deviations from this norm (more common in Spain than in the Americas) are called "leísmo", "loísmo", or "laísmo", according to which respective pronoun—le, lo, or la—has expanded beyond the etymological usage (i.e. le as a direct object, or lo or la as an indirect object).

Vocabulary

Some words can be different, even significantly so, in different Hispanophone countries. Most Spanish speakers can recognize other Spanish forms, even in places where they are not commonly used, but Spaniards generally do not recognize specifically American usages. For example, Spanish mantequilla, aguacate and albaricoque (respectively, 'butter', 'avocado', 'apricot') correspond to manteca, palta, and damasco, respectively, in Argentina, Chile (except manteca), Paraguay, Peru (except manteca and damasco), and Uruguay.

The everyday Spanish words coger ('to take'), pisar ('to step on') and concha ('seashell') are considered extremely rude in parts of Hispanic America, where the meaning of coger and pisar is also "to have sex" and concha means "vagina". The Puerto Rican word for "bobby pin" (pinche) is an obscenity in Mexico, but in Nicaragua it simply means "stingy", and in Spain refers to a chef's helper. Other examples include taco, which means "swearword" (among other meanings) in Spain, "traffic jam" in Chile and "heels" (shoe) in Argentina and Peru but is known to the rest of the world as a Mexican dish.

Pija in many countries of Hispanic America and Spain itself is an obscene slang word for "penis", while in Spain the word also signifies "posh girl" or "snobby". Coche, which means "car" in Spain, central Mexico and Argentina, for the vast majority of Spanish-speakers actually means "baby-stroller" or "pushchair", while carro means "car" in some Hispanic American countries and "cart" in others, as well as in Spain. Papaya is the slang term for "vagina" in parts of Cuba and Venezuela, where the fruit is instead called fruta bomba and lechosa, respectively.^[216] Also, in Argentina, one would say piña when talking about punching someone else, whereas in other countries, piña refers to a pineapple.

Relation to other languages

Spanish is closely related to the other West Iberian Romance languages, including Asturian, Aragonese, Galician, Ladino, Leonese, Mirandese and Portuguese.

It is generally acknowledged that Portuguese- and Spanish-speakers can communicate, although with varying degrees of difficulty.^[217]^[218]^[219]^[220] Meanwhile, mutual intelligibility of the written Spanish and Portuguese languages is somewhat higher, given that the difficulties of the spoken forms are based more on phonology than on grammatical and lexical dissimilarities. Ethnologue gives estimates of the lexical similarity between related languages in terms of precise percentages. For Spanish and Portuguese, that figure is 89%. Italian, on the other hand—although its phonology is more similar to that of Spanish—is said to have a lexical similarity of 82%. Mutual intelligibility between Spanish and French or between Spanish and Romanian is lower still, given lexical similarity ratings of 75% and 71% respectively.^[221] And comprehension of Spanish by French speakers who have not studied the language is much lower, at an estimated 45%. In general, thanks to the common features of the writing systems of the Romance languages, interlingual comprehension of the written word is greater than that of oral communication.

The following table compares the forms of some common words in several Romance languages:

Latin	Spanish	Galician	Portuguese	Astur-Leonese	Aragonese	Catalan	French	Italian	Romanian	English
nos	nosotros	nós¹	nós¹	nós, nosotros	nusatros	nosaltres (arch. nós)	nous²	noi³	noi	'we'
frater germanum (lit. "true brother")	hermano	irmán	irmão	hermanu	chirmán	germà (arch. frare)⁴	frère	fratello	frate	'brother'
dies martis (Classical) feria tertia (Ecclesiastical)	martes	martes/terza feira	terça-feira	martes	martes	dimarts	mardi	martedì	marți	'Tuesday'
cantiō(nem) canticum	canción cántico	canción/cançom⁵ cántico	canção	canción (or canciu)	canta	cançó	chanson	canzone	cântec	'song'
magis plus	más (arch. plus)	máis	mais (arch. chus or plus)	más	más (or més)	més (arch. pus or plus)	plus	più	mai/plus	'more'
manum sinistram	mano izquierda⁶ (arch. mano siniestra)	man esquerda⁶	mão esquerda⁶ (arch. mão sẽestra)	manu izquierda⁶ (or esquierda; also manzorga)	man cucha	mà esquerra⁶ (arch. mà sinistra)	main gauche	mano sinistra	mâna stângă	'left hand'
nihil nullam rem natam (lit. "no thing born")	nada	nada (also ren and res)	nada (neca and nula rés in some expressions; arch. rem)	nada (also un res)	cosa	res	rien/nul	niente/nulla	nimic/nul	'nothing'
cāseus formaticus	queso	queixo	queijo	quesu	queso	formatge	fromage	formaggio/cacio	caș⁷	'cheese'

1. Also nós outros in early modern Portuguese (e.g. The Lusiads), and nosoutros in Galician.
2. Alternatively nous autres in French.
3. Also noialtri in Southern Italian dialects and languages.
4. Medieval Catalan (e.g. Llibre dels fets).
5. Depending on the written norm used (see Reintegracionism).
6. From Basque esku, "hand" + erdi, "half, incomplete". Notice that this negative meaning also applies for Latin sinistra(m) ("dark, unfortunate").
7. Note that Romanian caș (from Latin cāsevs) means a type of cheese. The universal term for cheese in Romanian is brânză (from unknown etymology).^[222]

Judaeo-Spanish

Info lebih lanjut: Judaeo-Spanish

Judaeo-Spanish, also known as Ladino,^[223] is a variety of Spanish which preserves many features of medieval Spanish and Portuguese is spoken by descendants of the Sephardi Jews who were expelled from Spain in the fifteenth century.^[223] Conversely, in Portugal the vast majority of the Portuguese Jews converted and became 'New Christians'. Therefore, its relationship to Spanish is comparable with that of the Yiddish language to German. Ladino speakers today are almost exclusively Sephardi Jews, with family roots in Turkey, Greece, or the Balkans, and living mostly in Israel, Turkey, and the United States, with a few communities in Hispanic America.^[223] Judaeo-Spanish lacks the Native American vocabulary which was acquired by standard Spanish during the Spanish colonial period, and it retains many archaic features which have since been lost in standard Spanish. It contains, however, other vocabulary which is not found in standard Spanish, including vocabulary from Hebrew, French, Greek and Turkish, and other languages spoken where the Sephardim settled.

Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction because many native speakers today are elderly as well as elderly olim (immigrants to Israel) who have not transmitted the language to their children or grandchildren. However, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardi communities, especially in music. In the case of the Latin American communities, the danger of extinction is also due to the risk of assimilation by modern Castilian.

A related dialect is Haketia, the Judaeo-Spanish of northern Morocco. This too tended to assimilate with modern Spanish, during the Spanish occupation of the region.

Writing system

Templat:Spanish language

Spanish is written in the Latin script, with the addition of the character ⟨ñ⟩ (eñe, representing the phoneme /ɲ/, a letter distinct from ⟨n⟩, although typographically composed of an ⟨n⟩ with a tilde) and the digraphs ⟨ch⟩ (che, representing the phoneme /t͡ʃ/) and ⟨ll⟩ (elle, representing the phoneme /ʎ/). However, the digraph ⟨rr⟩ (erre fuerte, 'strong r', erre doble, 'double r', or simply erre), which also represents a distinct phoneme /r/, is not similarly regarded as a single letter. Since 1994 ⟨ch⟩ and ⟨ll⟩ have been treated as letter pairs for collation purposes, though they remain a part of the alphabet. Words with ⟨ch⟩ are now alphabetically sorted between those with ⟨cg⟩ and ⟨ci⟩, instead of following ⟨cz⟩ as they used to. The situation is similar for ⟨ll⟩.^[224]^[225]

Thus, the Spanish alphabet has the following 27 letters and 2 digraphs:

A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, Ñ, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z.^[226]

Ch,^[227] Ll.^[228]

The letters k and w are used only in words and names coming from foreign languages (kilo, folklore, whisky, kiwi, etc.).

With the exclusion of a very small number of regional terms such as México (see Toponymy of Mexico), pronunciation can be entirely determined from spelling. Under the orthographic conventions, a typical Spanish word is stressed on the syllable before the last if it ends with a vowel (not including ⟨y⟩) or with a vowel followed by ⟨n⟩ or an ⟨s⟩; it is stressed on the last syllable otherwise. Exceptions to this rule are indicated by placing an acute accent on the stressed vowel.

The acute accent is used, in addition, to distinguish between certain homophones, especially when one of them is a stressed word and the other one is a clitic: compare el ('the', masculine singular definite article) with él ('he' or 'it'), or te ('you', object pronoun) with té ('tea'), de (preposition 'of') versus dé ('give' [formal imperative/third-person present subjunctive]), and se (reflexive pronoun) versus sé ('I know' or imperative 'be').

The interrogative pronouns (qué, cuál, dónde, quién, etc.) also receive accents in direct or indirect questions, and some demonstratives (ése, éste, aquél, etc.) can be accented when used as pronouns. Accent marks used to be omitted in capital letters (a widespread practice in the days of typewriters and the early days of computers when only lowercase vowels were available with accents), although the Real Academia Española advises against this and the orthographic conventions taught at schools enforce the use of the accent.

When u is written between g and a front vowel e or i, it indicates a "hard g" pronunciation. A diaeresis ü indicates that it is not silent as it normally would be (e.g., cigüeña, 'stork', is pronounced [θiˈɣweɲa]; if it were written *cigueña, it would be pronounced *[θiˈɣeɲa]).

Interrogative and exclamatory clauses are introduced with inverted question and exclamation marks (¿ and ¡, respectively).

Organizations

Royal Spanish Academy

Arms of the Royal Spanish Academy

The Real Academia Española (Royal Spanish Academy), founded in 1713,^[229] together with the 21 other national ones (see Association of Spanish Language Academies), exercises a standardizing influence through its publication of dictionaries and widely respected grammar and style guides.^[230] Because of influence and for other sociohistorical reasons, a standardized form of the language (Standard Spanish) is widely acknowledged for use in literature, academic contexts and the media.

Association of Spanish Language Academies

The Association of Spanish Language Academies (Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española, or ASALE) is the entity which regulates the Spanish language. It was created in Mexico in 1951 and represents the union of all the separate academies in the Spanish-speaking world. It comprises the academies of 22 countries, ordered by date of Academy foundation: Spain (1713),^[232] Colombia (1871),^[233] Ecuador (1874),^[234] Mexico (1875),^[235] El Salvador (1876),^[236] Venezuela (1883),^[237] Chile (1885),^[238] Peru (1887),^[239] Guatemala (1887),^[240] Costa Rica (1923),^[241] Philippines (1924),^[242] Panama (1926),^[243] Cuba (1926),^[244] Paraguay (1927),^[245] Dominican Republic (1927),^[246] Bolivia (1927),^[247] Nicaragua (1928),^[248] Argentina (1931),^[249] Uruguay (1943),^[250] Honduras (1949),^[251] Puerto Rico (1955),^[252] and United States (1973).^[253]

Cervantes Institute

The Instituto Cervantes (Cervantes Institute) is a worldwide non-profit organization created by the Spanish government in 1991. This organization has branched out in over 20 different countries with 54 centers devoted to the Spanish and Hispanic American culture and Spanish Language. The ultimate goals of the Institute are to promote the education, the study and the use of Spanish universally as a second language, to support the methods and activities that would help the process of Spanish language education, and to contribute to the advancement of the Spanish and Hispanic American cultures throughout non-Spanish-speaking countries.

Official use by international organizations

Spanish is recognised as one of the official languages of the United Nations, the European Union, the World Trade Organization, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the African Union, the Union of South American Nations, the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat, the Latin Union, the Caricom and the North American Free Trade Agreement.

References

^ http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Instituto Cervantes (2014): cervantes.es (pages 8 to 12)
^ Ethnologue: Mandarin 1026 mill. (848 mill. L1 + 178 mill. L2), English 840 mill. (335 mill. L1 + 505 mill. L2), Spanish 488 mill. (399 mill. L1 + 89,5 mill. L2), Hindi 380 mill. (260 mill. L1 + 120 mill. L2)
^ krysstal.com (Kryss Katsiavriades y Talaat Qureshi)
^ George Weber, 1997: Mandarin 1,120 mill., English 480 mill., Spanish 320 mill., Russian 285 mill., French 265 mill., Hindi 250 mill. (ignatius.edu).
^ Instituto Cervantes: (cervantes.es, El País)
^ La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: El mundo, 2010-11-07
^ "Spanish languages "Becoming the language for trade" in Spain and". sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-01-18. Diakses tanggal 2010-05-11.
^ Dworkin, Steven N. (2012). A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. hlm. 83. ISBN 0199541140.
^ http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf
^ "Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S". Infoplease.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 2005, pg. 271-272.
^ "Diccionario de la lengua española" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Buscon.rae.es. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Manual de gramática histórica española (Espasa-Calpe, 1968), §66.2
^ Lloyd A. Kasten and Florian J. Cody, Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish (2nd ed., Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 2001)
^ ^a ^b Penny, Ralph (2002). A History Of The Spanish Language (edisi ke-2). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 20–21.
^ "Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language". Oxford University Press. Diakses tanggal 24 July 2008.
^ "Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel | Books | The Guardian". London: Books.guardian.co.uk. December 12, 2003. Diakses tanggal 2009-07-18.
^ "Spanish Language Facts". Encyclopedia.com. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ Crow, John A. (2005). Spain: the root and the flower. University of California Press. hlm. 151. ISBN 978-0-520-24496-2.
^ Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan. Random House Inc. hlm. 78. ISBN 978-0-8129-7055-5.
^ Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003)
^ "Se da de forma espontánea en hablantes valencianos o mallorquines y en los de algunas zonas del sur de Cataluña". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. 1st Ed. (Octobre 2005). Grapheme v.
^ Cressey (1978)
^ Abercrombie (1967)
^ John B. Dabor, Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1997), Ch. 7
^ "John B. Dalbor's Voice Files to Accompany Spanish Pronunciation". Auburn.edu. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ Eddington (2000)
^ "Instituto Cervantes 06-07" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ "Most widely spoken Languages in the World". Nations Online. Diakses tanggal 2009-08-27.
^ "CIA The World Factbook United States". Cia.gov. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Internet World Users by Language". Miniwatts Marketing Group. 2008.
^ "CIA World Factbook — Gibraltar". Cia.gov. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Background Note: Andorra". U.S. Department of State: Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. January 2007. Diakses tanggal 2007-08-20.
^ "BBC Education — Languages Across Europe — Spanish". Bbc.co.uk. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ "Swiss Federal Statistical Office > Languages". Diakses tanggal 2014-03-10.
^ Constitución de la República del Paraguay, Article 140
^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article 48
^ "Puerto Rico Elevates English". the New York Times. 29 January 1993. Diakses tanggal 2007-10-06.
^ "Population Census, Major Findings" (PDF). Belize: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Budget Management. 2000. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2007-06-21. Diakses tanggal 2007-12-20.
^ "Belize Population and Housing Census 2000". CR: UCR. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ "Belize". World Factbook. CIA. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "FAQ". The Secretariat for The Implementation of Spanish. Trinidad and Tobago: Government of the Republic. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-11-03. Diakses tanggal 2012-01-10.
^ "Brazilian Law 11.161". Presidência da República. 2005-08-05. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-31.
^ Lipski, John M (2006). Face, Timothy L; Klee, Carol A, ed. "Too close for comfort? the genesis of "portuñol/portunhol"" (PDF). Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project: 1–22. Diakses tanggal 2008-12-29.
^ U.S. Census Bureau Hispanic or Latino by specific origin.
^ U.S. Census Bureau (2007). "United States. S1601. Language Spoken at Home". 2005-2007 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates. Diakses tanggal September 3, 2009.
^ "Más 'speak spanish' que en España". Diakses tanggal October 6, 2007. (in Spanish)
^ Crawford, John (1992). Language loyalties: a source book on the official English controversy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 62.
^ "Equatorial Guinea (2000)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ "CIA World Factbook - Equatorial Guinea". CIA. 20 September 2007. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ Los cubanos, la élite de Sudán del Sur (dalam bahasa Spanish), FR: Radio France International, 2011-07-06, diakses tanggal 20 December 2011
^ "Como saharauis queremos conservar el español" (dalam bahasa Spanish). 2008-03-03. Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15.
^ "Historia de un país" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15.
^ "Estadisticas: El idioma español en Filipinas" (dalam bahasa Spanish). ES: Busco enlaces. 2000-11-15. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ Ocampo, Ambeth (December 4, 2007). "The loss of Spanish". Makati City, Philippines: Philippine Daily Inquirer (INQUIRER.net). Opinion. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal July 26, 2010. Diakses tanggal July 26, 2010.
^ "Presidential Decree No. 155 : PHILIPPINE LAWS, STATUTES and CODES : CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY". Chanrobles.com. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ Article XIV, Sec 7: "For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."
^ Rodríguez-Ponga, Rafael. "New Prospects for the Spanish Language in the Philippines". Diakses tanggal 1 March 2015.
^ Legaspi, Amita O. (July 3, 2012). "PNoy (President Benigno Aquino III) and Spain's Queen Sofia welcome return of Spanish language in Philippine schools". GMA News.
^ Medium projection, PH: National Statistics Office, 2010
^ "El español, una lengua viva: Informe 2012" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish). hlm. 6 and 10. Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15. (439,000 native speakers + 2,557,773 limited competency + 20,492 students.)
^ Spanish creole: Quilis, Antonio (1996), La lengua española en Filipinas (PDF), Cervantes virtual, hlm. 54 and 55
^ Rubino (2008)
^ 1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, The corpus juris, Article XV, Section 3(3), diakses tanggal 2008-04-06
^ "Spanish Influence on Language, Culture, and Philippine History". Diakses tanggal 15 March 2015.
^ Engelberg, Stefan. "The Influence of German on the Lexicon of Palauan and Kosraean (Dissertation)" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 23 August 2012.
^ "Spanish language in Philippines". Diakses tanggal 1 March 2015.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "2013 estimate" (MS Excel PDF). 1950–2100. UN. Diakses tanggal 29 December 2014. Total population (both sexes combined) by major area, region and country, annually for 1950-2100 (thousands).
^ Books of the year, Britannica, 2009
^ es:Anexo:Hablantes de español como lengua materna en el 2003 (según el Britannica Book).
^ Ethnologue (edisi ke-14th)
^ Joshua Project, 2000
^ People's List, US: Census Bureau . ^{[sumber tepercaya?]}
^ ^a ^b Eurobarometer (PDF), EU: Page TS2: Population older than 15 years old of each country. page T74: Speakers who speak Spanish very well. Page T46: Speakers who speak well enough in order to be able to have a conversation. es:Anexo:Hablantes de español en la U.E. según el Eurobarómetro (2012), 2012
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Spanish students for countries out of Europe according to "Cifras", Anuario (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish) (06-07), ES: Instituto Cervantes (there aren't concrete sources about Spanish speakers as a second language except to Europe and Latin America countries).
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w Demografía de la lengua española (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES, hlm. 28 , to countries with official Spanish status.
^ 2015 population estimate (dalam bahasa Spanish), MX: CONAPO estimate
^ "MX", The World Factbook, USA: CIA : Spanish only 92.7%
^ (4 ,July ,2014) Population clock, US: Census Bureau
^ Spanish speakers older than 5 years old (Table, US: Census Bureau, 2013 )
^ Data Access and Dissemination Systems (DADS). "American FactFinder - Results". census.gov.
^ Taylor, Paul. "(2011)". pewhispanic.org. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Census Bureau (2013)". Census.gov. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ Gonzalez, Ana (2013-08-13). "(2011)". pewresearch.org. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ There are 9 million illegal Hispanics in USA, some of them aren't in the census (Pálidos de hambre (editorial) (dalam bahasa Spanish), Impre, 2009-04-19 )
^ Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española, El castellano
^ Ansón, José Ma, José Ma. Ansón: "Casi cincuenta millones" hablan español en EE. UU., El Castellano
^ "La amenaza al idioma español - Voces de Univision". Univision.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ Rodríguez Barilari, Elbio, Congresos de la lengua (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES
^ Más de 70 expertos participaran en la III Acta Internacional de la Lengua Española (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: ABC de Sevilla, 2008-03-29
^ CNN en español restructures its programming, The New York Times, 2011-03-13 (The United States is now the second-largest Spanish-speaking country in the world, with more Spanish speakers than Spain, and exceeded only by Mexico).
^ "Reloj animado" (dalam bahasa Spanish). CO: DANE. Diakses tanggal 2010-09-01.
^ There are 508,376 speakers of American Indian languages ("CO", Ethnologue )
^ "Datos básicos" (dalam bahasa Spanish). ES: INE. 2001-05-28. Diakses tanggal 2014-01-01.
^ 82.0% speak Spanish as a first language (Eurobarometer (PDF), Europa, 2012 )
^ "Argentinian census INDEC estimate for 2015". Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ 40,872,286 people is the census population result for 2010 Censo, AR: INDEC, 2010
^ "Argentina". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.
^ "Proyecciones de Población". ine.gov.ve.
^ "Languages", VE, Ethnologue, There are 1,098,244 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main languages: Chinese 400,000, Portuguese 254,000, Wayuu 199,000, Arabic 110,000)
^ Quispe Fernández, Ezio (2015). "Cifras" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish). PE: INEI.
^ "Census", The World factbook, US: CIA, 2007, Spanish (official) 84.1%, Quechua (official) 13%, Aymara 1.7%, Ashaninka 0.3%, other native languages (includes a large number of minor Amazonian languages) 0.7%, other 0.2%
^ "PE", Country, Ethnologue, There are 5,782,260 people who speak other language as mother tongue (main languages: Quechua (among 32 Quechua's varieties) 4,773,900, Aymara (2 varieties) 661 000, Chinese 100,000).
^ "Informes" (PDF). Proyecciones (dalam bahasa Spanish). CL: INE. 2015. hlm. 36. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ "CL", Country, Ethnologue, There are 281,600 people who speak another language, mainly Mapudungun (250.000)
^ "Estimate", Census (SWF), EC: INEC
^ Ethnologue (1999-02-19). "(2011)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "GT", The World factbook, CIA, Spanish (official) 60%, Amerindian languages 40%
^ IBGE divulga as estimativas populacionais dos municípios em 2 011 (dalam bahasa Portuguese), BR, 2013
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj El español en el mundo (PDF), ES: Instituto Cervantes, 2012, hlm. 6
^ Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, president of Brazil: Near 9 million students are learning Spanish and the forecast is 12 million in 2010, CO: OEI
^ Español en Brasil (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Instituto Cervantes, More than 1 million of Spanish students in the private school and almost 11 million estimated for 2010 in the public school
^ "Cuba". Country (report). Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ Ethnologue (1999-02-19). "(2011)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "(2010)". INE. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ According to the 1992 Census, 58 per cent of the population speaks Spanish as its mother tongue. unicef.org
^ "INE (2011)". Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ There are 207,750 people who speak another language, mainly Garifuna (98,000).: Ethnologue
^ "INSEE estimate to 1/11/2012". Insee.fr. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ ^a ^b ^c Eurobarometr 2012 (page T40): Native speakers.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap Eurobarometr 2012 (page TS2): Population older than 15. (age scale used for the Eurobarometer survey)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Eurobarometr 2012 (page T74): Non native people who speak Spanish very well.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x Eurobarometr 2012 (page T64): Non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.
^ Census 2010 estimation (page 32)
^ There are 14,100 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main language, Kekchí with 12,300 speakers): Ethnologue.
^ There are 490,124 people who speak another language, mainly Mískito (154,000).: Ethnologue
^ "Resident population and population change". Istat.it. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ According to the 1992 census, 50% use both Spanish and the indigenous language Guarani at home, 37% speak Guarani only, 7% speak Spanish only.findarticles.com. About 75 percent can speak Spanish.pressreference.com
^ "Primera variación del año registró un 0,68%". INEC. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ There are 85,418 people who speak another language
^ "2012 US. census Bureau" (PDF).
^ 95.10% of the population speaks Spanish (US. Census Bureau)
^ Census INE estimate for 2013 (véase "Proyección de Población por municipio 2008-2020")
^ There are 501,043 people who speak another language as mother tongue: PA, Ethnologue
^ "Morocco census". Hcp.ma. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ El español en el contexto Sociolingüístico marroquí: Evolución y perspectivas (page 39): Between 4 and 7 million people have Spanish knowledge (M. Ammadi, 2002)
^ "(2005)" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). realinstitutoelcano.org. 2008-09-26. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Census 2011". U.K. Gov. Census. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ "2011 Uruguayan Census". 2011.
^ There are 150,200 people who speak another language as mother tongue, UY, Ethnologue
^ Medium projection, PH: National Statistics Office, 2010
^ Spanish immigrants in the world according to (INE (1/1/2013))
^ "native knowledge speakers" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Realinstitutoelcano.org. 2009-02-18. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ 1,816,773 Spanish + 1,200,000 Spanish creole: Quilis, Antonio (1996), La lengua española en Filipinas (PDF), Cervantes virtual, hlm. 54 and 55
^ Ten Reasons (PDF), ES: Mepsyd, hlm. 23
^ Philippines, Spanish differences
^ Spanish in the world 2012 (Instituto Cervantes): 3,017,265 Spanish speakers. 439,000 with native knowladge, 2,557,773 with limited knowladge (page 6), and 20,492 Spanish students (page 10).
^ Nestor Diaz: More than 2 million Spanish speakers and around 3 million with Chavacano speakers (2010-04-24). "FILIPINAS / Vigoroso regreso del español". Aresprensa.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ The figure of 2 900 000 Spanish speakers is in Thompson, RW, Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations, hlm. 45
^ World wide Spanish language, Sispain
^ German census, DE: Destatis, 2011-12-31
^ "Equatorial Guinea census". Population statistics. 2010. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ Spanish according to INE 2011
^ 14% of the population speaks Spanish natively and other 74% as a second language: "Anuario", CVC (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Cervantes, 2007
^ Statcan, CA: GC
^ "www12.statcan.gc.ca/census". 2.statcan.gc.ca. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ elcorreo.ca
^ "Eurostat (1/1/2012 estimate)". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ Eurostat 1/1/2010
^ "Netherland Census ClockPop". Cbs.nl. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ 2012 census^{[pranala nonaktif]}
^ "2011 Census". Censusdata.abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013". Abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.
^ Page 32 of the "Demografía de la lengua española"
^ "Eurostat estimate to 1/1/2011". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ statisticsbelize.org.bz (2009 mid-year)^{[pranala nonaktif]}
^ Page 32 of Demografía de la lengua española (52,1% native speakers + 11,7% with some Spanish knowladge))
^ Pages 34, 35 of the "Demografía de la lengua española", page 35.
^ [1]^{[pranala nonaktif]}
^ "all-about-switzerland.info". all-about-switzerland.info. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ "czso.cz" (dalam bahasa Cheska). czso.cz. 2013-12-31. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "(2012)". ksh.hu. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Resultado 2010 - Persona". Censo2010.aw. 2010-10-06. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ [2]^{[pranala nonaktif]}
^ http://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_41.pdf
^ Evolution de la population par sexe de 1976 à 2012 en: Annuaire Statistique du Cameroun 2010. Consultado el 23-08-2012.
^ "New Zealand census (2006)". Stats.govt.nz. 2009-02-13. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "cvc.cervantes.es". cvc.cervantes.es. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Press Release on Major Figures of the 2010 National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ 25,000 Spanish students in the university + 5,000 in the "Instituto Cervantes"cervantes.es (page 4)
^ "Statistics - FAQ's". Gibraltar.gov.gi. 2012-11-12. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ www.um.es (5.2. Datos descriptivos de los usos de español e inglés, Gráfico 2). 77.3% of the Gibraltar population speak Spanish with their mother more, or equal than English.
^ "(2013)". db1.stat.gov.lt. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Демография". Gks.ru. 2011-12-27. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "2009 estimate" (PDF). UN. 2008. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ The Spanish 1970 census claims 16.648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara ([3]) but probably most of them were people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation
^ Page 34 of the Demografía de la Lengua Española
^ "2010 Census". Census.gov. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.
^ "Population - Key Indicators | Latvijas statistika". Csb.gov.lv. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.
^ "::Welcome to Turkish Statistical Institute(TurkStat)'s Web Pages::". TurkStat. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ 8,000 (Page 37 of the Demografía de la lengua española) + 4,346 Spanish Students (according to the Instituto Cervantes)
^ "Census of India : Provisional Population Totals : India :Census 2011". Censusindia.gov.in. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "cervantes.es (page 6)" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Jamaican Population". Statinja.gov.jm. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ ^a ^b ^c Languages of Jamaica,
^ El español en Namibia, 2005. Instituto Cervantes.
^ "cvc.cervantes.es" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ "Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.
^ Demografía de la lengua española, page 37 (2,397,000 people speak Spanish as a native language in the E.U. excluded Spain, but It is already counted population who speak Spanish as a native language in France (477,564), Sweden (77,912) and Luxemburg (4,049)).
^ "International Programs - People and Households - U.S. Census Bureau". Census.gov. 2013-04-12. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.
^ Instituto Cervantes and British Council (420 million Spanish native speakers)
^ "The 30 Most Spoken Languages in the World". KryssTal. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16.
^ "500 millones de razones para saber español | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS". Elpais.com. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16.
^ Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2, pp.154-155, URL
^ Lope Blanch, Juan M. (1972) En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano, pp.53 a 73, Estudios sobre el español de México, editorial Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México URL.
^ Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House Inc. 2006.
^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (edisi ke-4th). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006.
^ Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 1998.
^ Encarta World English Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. 2007. Diakses tanggal 2008-08-05.
^ Penny, Ralph (2000). Variation and Change in Spanish. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 199. ISBN 0-521-78045-4. whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard.
^ The IPA symbol "turned y" (ʎ), with its "tail" leaning to the right, resembles, but is technically different from, the Greek letter lambda (λ), whose tail leans to the left.
^ Charles B. Chang, "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish". Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54-63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.
^ ^a ^b "Real Academia Española" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Buscon.rae.es. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ Katia Salamanca de Abreu, review of Humberto López Morales, Estudios sobre el español de Cuba (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in Thesaurus, 28 (1973), 138-146.
^ "3 Guys From Miami: Fruta Bomba". Cuban-food-usa.com. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.
^ Jensen 1989
^ Penny 2000: 14
^ Dalby 1998: 501
^ Ginsburgh and Weber 2011: 90
^ "Spanish". Ethnologue.
^ Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin brandeum (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *brandea. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish manteca, Portuguese manteiga, probably from Latin mantica ('sack'), Italian formaggio and French fromage from formaticus. Romanian Explanatory Dictionary
^ ^a ^b ^c Alfassa, Shelomo (December 1999). "Ladinokomunita". Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture. Diakses tanggal 4 February 2010.
^ Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 1st ed.
^ Real Academia Española, Explanation at Spanish Pronto (Spanyol), (Inggris)
^ "Abecedario". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Real Academia Española. 2005. Diakses tanggal 2008-06-23.
^ "Ch". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española.
^ "Ll". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española.
^ "Scholarly Societies Project". Lib.uwaterloo.ca. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ Batchelor, Ronald Ernest (1992). Using Spanish: a guide to contemporary usage. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 318. ISBN 0-521-26987-3.
^ "Association of Spanish Language Academies" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Asale. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Real Academia Española". Spain: RAE. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Colombiana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Colombia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Ecuador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Mexicana de la Lengua". Mexico. 2010-09-22. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua". El Salvador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Venezolana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Venezuela. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Chilena de la Lengua". Chile. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Peruana de la Lengua". Peru. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Guatemala. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Costarricense de la Lengua". Costa Rica. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Philippines. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Panameña de la Lengua". Panama. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Cubana de la Lengua". Cuba. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.
^ "Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española". Paraguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Dominicana de la Lengua". República Dominicana. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Boliviana de la Lengua". Bolivia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Nicaragua. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Argentina de Letras". Argentina. 2010-03-25. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Nacional de Letras del Uruguay". Uruguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Hondureña de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Honduras. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española". Puerto Rico. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ "Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española". United States. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.
^ A First Spanish Reader, by Erwin W. Roessler and Alfred Remy

Bibliography

Abercrombie, David (1967). "Elements of General Phonetics". Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
Cressey, William Whitney (1978). Spanish Phonology and Morphology: A Generative View. Georgetown University Press. ISBN 0878400451.
Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11568-7.
Eddington, David (2000). "Spanish Stress Assignment within the Analogical Modeling of Language" (PDF). Language. Language. 76 (1): 92–109. doi:10.2307/417394. JSTOR 417394.
Ginsburgh, Victor; Weber, Shlomo (2011). How Many Languages Do We Need?: The Economics of Linguistic Diversity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13689-9.
Harris, James (1967). "Sound Change in Spanish and the Theory of Markedness". Language. Language. 45 (3): 538–52. doi:10.2307/411438. JSTOR 411438.
Jensen, John B. (1989). "On the Mutual Intelligibility of Spanish and Portuguese". Hispania. 72 (4): 848–852. JSTOR 343562.
Martínez-Celdrán, Eugenio; Fernández-Planas, Ana Ma.; Carrera-Sabaté, Josefina (2003). "Castilian Spanish". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (2): 255–59. doi:10.1017/S0025100303001373.
Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2010), A Course in Phonetics (edisi ke-6th), Boston, Massachusetts: Wadsworth Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4282-3126-9
Moreno Fernández, Francisco; Otero, Jaime (2008), Atlas de la lengua española en el mundo, Barcelona: Ariel
Penny, Ralph (2000). Variation and Change in Spanish. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78045-4.
Population by age, both sexes, annual; estimate for 2012 (XLS), UN
Rubino, Carl (2008), "Zamboangueño Chavacano and the Potentive Mode.", dalam Michaelis, Susanne, Roots of Creole Structures: Weighing the Contribution of Substrates and Superstrates, Amsterdam: Benjamins, hlm. 279–299, ISBN 9027252556

External links

Cari tahu mengenai Andrean182/Bak Pasir/Bursa Windows pada proyek-proyek Wikimedia lainnya:
	Definisi dan terjemahan dari Wiktionary
	Gambar dan media dari Commons
	Buku dari Wikibuku
	Entri basisdata #Q1321 di Wikidata
	Panduan wisata di Spanish phrasebook dari Wikivoyage

Andrean182/Bak Pasir/Bursa Windows di Curlie (dari DMOZ)
Diccionario (official Spanish language dictionary) (dalam bahasa Spanish), Real Academia Española .
"Spanish", Languages, The BBC .
Spanish to English Speng.
Spanish evolution from Latin, Mertsahinoglu .
Size and nature of the Spanish vocabulary, About .
Free Spanish to English translation, UK: Transfree .
USA Foreign Service Institute Spanish basic course

[1] ttp://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size

[InstitutoCervantes-2] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Instituto Cervantes (2014): cervantes.es (pages 8 to 12)

[3] Ethnologue: Mandarin 1026 mill. (848 mill. L1 + 178 mill. L2), English 840 mill. (335 mill. L1 + 505 mill. L2), Spanish 488 mill. (399 mill. L1 + 89,5 mill. L2), Hindi 380 mill. (260 mill. L1 + 120 mill. L2)

[krystal-4] rysstal.com (Kryss Katsiavriades y Talaat Qureshi)

[5] George Weber, 1997: Mandarin 1,120 mill., English 480 mill., Spanish 320 mill., Russian 285 mill., French 265 mill., Hindi 250 mill. (ignatius.edu).

[6] Instituto Cervantes: (cervantes.es, El País)

[7] La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: El mundo, 2010-11-07

[8] "Spanish languages "Becoming the language for trade" in Spain and". sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2013-01-18. Diakses tanggal 2010-05-11.

[Dworkin83-9] Dworkin, Steven N. (2012). A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press. hlm. 83. ISBN 0199541140.

[10] ttp://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf

[11] "Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S". Infoplease.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[12] Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 2005, pg. 271-272.

[13] "Diccionario de la lengua española" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Buscon.rae.es. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[14] Ramón Menéndez Pidal, Manual de gramática histórica española (Espasa-Calpe, 1968), §66.2

[15] Lloyd A. Kasten and Florian J. Cody, Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish (2nd ed., Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 2001)

[Penny1-16] Penny, Ralph (2002). A History Of The Spanish Language (edisi ke-2). Cambridge University Press. hlm. 20–21.

[17] "Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language". Oxford University Press. Diakses tanggal 24 July 2008.

[18] "Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel | Books | The Guardian". London: Books.guardian.co.uk. December 12, 2003. Diakses tanggal 2009-07-18.

[19] "Spanish Language Facts". Encyclopedia.com. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[20] Crow, John A. (2005). Spain: the root and the flower. University of California Press. hlm. 151. ISBN 978-0-520-24496-2.

[21] Thomas, Hugh (2005). Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan. Random House Inc. hlm. 78. ISBN 978-0-8129-7055-5.

[22] Martínez-Celdrán, Fernández-Planas & Carrera-Sabaté (2003)

[23] "Se da de forma espontánea en hablantes valencianos o mallorquines y en los de algunas zonas del sur de Cataluña". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. 1st Ed. (Octobre 2005). Grapheme v.

[24] Cressey (1978)

[25] Abercrombie (1967)

[26] John B. Dabor, Spanish Pronunciation: Theory and Practice (3rd ed.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1997), Ch. 7

[27] "John B. Dalbor's Voice Files to Accompany Spanish Pronunciation". Auburn.edu. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[28] Eddington (2000)

[29] "Instituto Cervantes 06-07" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[nationsonline-30] "Most widely spoken Languages in the World". Nations Online. Diakses tanggal 2009-08-27.

[31] "CIA The World Factbook United States". Cia.gov. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[32] "Internet World Users by Language". Miniwatts Marketing Group. 2008.

[33] "CIA World Factbook — Gibraltar". Cia.gov. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[34] "Background Note: Andorra". U.S. Department of State: Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. January 2007. Diakses tanggal 2007-08-20.

[35] "BBC Education — Languages Across Europe — Spanish". Bbc.co.uk. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[36] "Swiss Federal Statistical Office > Languages". Diakses tanggal 2014-03-10.

[37] Constitución de la República del Paraguay, Article 140

[38] Constitución Política del Perú, Article 48

[39] "Puerto Rico Elevates English". the New York Times. 29 January 1993. Diakses tanggal 2007-10-06.

[Belizecen-40] "Population Census, Major Findings" (PDF). Belize: Central Statistical Office, Ministry of Budget Management. 2000. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2007-06-21. Diakses tanggal 2007-12-20.

[41] "Belize Population and Housing Census 2000". CR: UCR. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[42] "Belize". World Factbook. CIA. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[43] "FAQ". The Secretariat for The Implementation of Spanish. Trinidad and Tobago: Government of the Republic. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2010-11-03. Diakses tanggal 2012-01-10.

[44] "Brazilian Law 11.161". Presidência da República. 2005-08-05. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-31.

[45] Lipski, John M (2006). Face, Timothy L; Klee, Carol A, ed. "Too close for comfort? the genesis of "portuñol/portunhol"" (PDF). Selected Proceedings of the 8th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project: 1–22. Diakses tanggal 2008-12-29.

[46] U.S. Census Bureau Hispanic or Latino by specific origin.

[US_Spanish-47] U.S. Census Bureau (2007). "United States. S1601. Language Spoken at Home". 2005-2007 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates. Diakses tanggal September 3, 2009.

[Más_'speak_spanish'_que_en_España-48] "Más 'speak spanish' que en España". Diakses tanggal October 6, 2007. (in Spanish)

[49] Crawford, John (1992). Language loyalties: a source book on the official English controversy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. hlm. 62.

[50] "Equatorial Guinea (2000)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[51] "CIA World Factbook - Equatorial Guinea". CIA. 20 September 2007. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[52] Los cubanos, la élite de Sudán del Sur (dalam bahasa Spanish), FR: Radio France International, 2011-07-06, diakses tanggal 20 December 2011

[53] "Como saharauis queremos conservar el español" (dalam bahasa Spanish). 2008-03-03. Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15.

[54] "Historia de un país" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15.

[55] "Estadisticas: El idioma español en Filipinas" (dalam bahasa Spanish). ES: Busco enlaces. 2000-11-15. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[56] Ocampo, Ambeth (December 4, 2007). "The loss of Spanish". Makati City, Philippines: Philippine Daily Inquirer (INQUIRER.net). Opinion. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal July 26, 2010. Diakses tanggal July 26, 2010.

[57] "Presidential Decree No. 155 : PHILIPPINE LAWS, STATUTES and CODES : CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY". Chanrobles.com. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[58] Article XIV, Sec 7: "For purposes of communication and instruction, the official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and, until otherwise provided by law, English. The regional languages are the auxiliary official languages in the regions and shall serve as auxiliary media of instruction therein. Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."

[59] Rodríguez-Ponga, Rafael. "New Prospects for the Spanish Language in the Philippines". Diakses tanggal 1 March 2015.

[60] Legaspi, Amita O. (July 3, 2012). "PNoy (President Benigno Aquino III) and Spain's Queen Sofia welcome return of Spanish language in Philippine schools". GMA News.

[61] Medium projection, PH: National Statistics Office, 2010

[62] "El español, una lengua viva: Informe 2012" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish). hlm. 6 and 10. Diakses tanggal 2015-03-15. (439,000 native speakers + 2,557,773 limited competency + 20,492 students.)

[63] Spanish creole: Quilis, Antonio (1996), La lengua española en Filipinas (PDF), Cervantes virtual, hlm. 54 and 55

[64] Rubino (2008)

[65] 1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines, The corpus juris, Article XV, Section 3(3), diakses tanggal 2008-04-06

[66] "Spanish Influence on Language, Culture, and Philippine History". Diakses tanggal 15 March 2015.

[67] Engelberg, Stefan. "The Influence of German on the Lexicon of Palauan and Kosraean (Dissertation)" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 23 August 2012.

[68] "Spanish language in Philippines". Diakses tanggal 1 March 2015.

[UN_2013_estimate-69] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f "2013 estimate" (MS Excel PDF). 1950–2100. UN. Diakses tanggal 29 December 2014. Total population (both sexes combined) by major area, region and country, annually for 1950-2100 (thousands).

[70] Books of the year, Britannica, 2009

[71] s:Anexo:Hablantes de español como lengua materna en el 2003 (según el Britannica Book).

[72] Ethnologue (edisi ke-14th)

[73] Joshua Project, 2000

[74] People's List, US: Census Bureau . ^{[sumber tepercaya?]}

[Eurob2012-75] Eurobarometer (PDF), EU: Page TS2: Population older than 15 years old of each country. page T74: Speakers who speak Spanish very well. Page T46: Speakers who speak well enough in order to be able to have a conversation. es:Anexo:Hablantes de español en la U.E. según el Eurobarómetro (2012), 2012

[SpanishStudents-76] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g Spanish students for countries out of Europe according to "Cifras", Anuario (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish) (06-07), ES: Instituto Cervantes (there aren't concrete sources about Spanish speakers as a second language except to Europe and Latin America countries).

[DemografíaLengEsp-77] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w Demografía de la lengua española (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES, hlm. 28 , to countries with official Spanish status.

[78] 2015 population estimate (dalam bahasa Spanish), MX: CONAPO estimate

[79] "MX", The World Factbook, USA: CIA : Spanish only 92.7%

[80] (4 ,July ,2014) Population clock, US: Census Bureau

[81] Spanish speakers older than 5 years old (Table, US: Census Bureau, 2013 )

[82] Data Access and Dissemination Systems (DADS). "American FactFinder - Results". census.gov.

[83] Taylor, Paul. "(2011)". pewhispanic.org. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[84] "Census Bureau (2013)". Census.gov. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[85] Gonzalez, Ana (2013-08-13). "(2011)". pewresearch.org. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[86] There are 9 million illegal Hispanics in USA, some of them aren't in the census (Pálidos de hambre (editorial) (dalam bahasa Spanish), Impre, 2009-04-19 )

[87] Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española, El castellano

[88] Ansón, José Ma, José Ma. Ansón: "Casi cincuenta millones" hablan español en EE. UU., El Castellano

[89] "La amenaza al idioma español - Voces de Univision". Univision.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[90] Rodríguez Barilari, Elbio, Congresos de la lengua (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES

[91] Más de 70 expertos participaran en la III Acta Internacional de la Lengua Española (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: ABC de Sevilla, 2008-03-29

[92] CNN en español restructures its programming, The New York Times, 2011-03-13 (The United States is now the second-largest Spanish-speaking country in the world, with more Spanish speakers than Spain, and exceeded only by Mexico).

[93] "Reloj animado" (dalam bahasa Spanish). CO: DANE. Diakses tanggal 2010-09-01.

[94] There are 508,376 speakers of American Indian languages ("CO", Ethnologue )

[95] "Datos básicos" (dalam bahasa Spanish). ES: INE. 2001-05-28. Diakses tanggal 2014-01-01.

[96] 82.0% speak Spanish as a first language (Eurobarometer (PDF), Europa, 2012 )

[97] "Argentinian census INDEC estimate for 2015". Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[98] 40,872,286 people is the census population result for 2010 Censo, AR: INDEC, 2010

[99] "Argentina". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.

[100] "Proyecciones de Población". ine.gov.ve.

[101] "Languages", VE, Ethnologue, There are 1,098,244 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main languages: Chinese 400,000, Portuguese 254,000, Wayuu 199,000, Arabic 110,000)

[102] Quispe Fernández, Ezio (2015). "Cifras" (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish). PE: INEI.

[103] "Census", The World factbook, US: CIA, 2007, Spanish (official) 84.1%, Quechua (official) 13%, Aymara 1.7%, Ashaninka 0.3%, other native languages (includes a large number of minor Amazonian languages) 0.7%, other 0.2%

[104] "PE", Country, Ethnologue, There are 5,782,260 people who speak other language as mother tongue (main languages: Quechua (among 32 Quechua's varieties) 4,773,900, Aymara (2 varieties) 661 000, Chinese 100,000).

[105] "Informes" (PDF). Proyecciones (dalam bahasa Spanish). CL: INE. 2015. hlm. 36. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[106] "CL", Country, Ethnologue, There are 281,600 people who speak another language, mainly Mapudungun (250.000)

[107] "Estimate", Census (SWF), EC: INEC

[108] Ethnologue (1999-02-19). "(2011)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[109] "GT", The World factbook, CIA, Spanish (official) 60%, Amerindian languages 40%

[110] IBGE divulga as estimativas populacionais dos municípios em 2 011 (dalam bahasa Portuguese), BR, 2013

[eldiae6-111] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj El español en el mundo (PDF), ES: Instituto Cervantes, 2012, hlm. 6

[112] Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, president of Brazil: Near 9 million students are learning Spanish and the forecast is 12 million in 2010, CO: OEI

[113] Español en Brasil (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Instituto Cervantes, More than 1 million of Spanish students in the private school and almost 11 million estimated for 2010 in the public school

[114] "Cuba". Country (report). Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[115] Ethnologue (1999-02-19). "(2011)". Ethnologue. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[116] "(2010)". INE. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[117] According to the 1992 Census, 58 per cent of the population speaks Spanish as its mother tongue. unicef.org

[118] "INE (2011)". Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[119] There are 207,750 people who speak another language, mainly Garifuna (98,000).: Ethnologue

[120] "INSEE estimate to 1/11/2012". Insee.fr. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[Eurobarometer_2012_nativespeakers-121] Eurobarometr 2012 (page T40): Native speakers.

[Eurobarometer_2012_population-122] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai ^aj ^ak ^al ^am ^an ^ao ^ap Eurobarometr 2012 (page TS2): Population older than 15. (age scale used for the Eurobarometer survey)

[Eurobarometer_2012_goodspeakers-123] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o Eurobarometr 2012 (page T74): Non native people who speak Spanish very well.

[Eurobarometer_2012_speakers-124] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x Eurobarometr 2012 (page T64): Non native people who speak Spanish well enough in order to be able to have a conversation.

[125] Census 2010 estimation (page 32)

[126] There are 14,100 people who speak other language as their mother tongue (main language, Kekchí with 12,300 speakers): Ethnologue.

[127] There are 490,124 people who speak another language, mainly Mískito (154,000).: Ethnologue

[128] "Resident population and population change". Istat.it. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[129] According to the 1992 census, 50% use both Spanish and the indigenous language Guarani at home, 37% speak Guarani only, 7% speak Spanish only.findarticles.com. About 75 percent can speak Spanish.pressreference.com

[130] "Primera variación del año registró un 0,68%". INEC. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[131] There are 85,418 people who speak another language

[132] "2012 US. census Bureau" (PDF).

[133] 95.10% of the population speaks Spanish (US. Census Bureau)

[134] Census INE estimate for 2013 (véase "Proyección de Población por municipio 2008-2020")

[135] There are 501,043 people who speak another language as mother tongue: PA, Ethnologue

[136] "Morocco census". Hcp.ma. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[137] El español en el contexto Sociolingüístico marroquí: Evolución y perspectivas (page 39): Between 4 and 7 million people have Spanish knowledge (M. Ammadi, 2002)

[138] "(2005)" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). realinstitutoelcano.org. 2008-09-26. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[139] "Census 2011". U.K. Gov. Census. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[140] "2011 Uruguayan Census". 2011.

[141] There are 150,200 people who speak another language as mother tongue, UY, Ethnologue

[142] Medium projection, PH: National Statistics Office, 2010

[INE2013-143] Spanish immigrants in the world according to (INE (1/1/2013))

[144] "native knowledge speakers" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Realinstitutoelcano.org. 2009-02-18. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[145] 1,816,773 Spanish + 1,200,000 Spanish creole: Quilis, Antonio (1996), La lengua española en Filipinas (PDF), Cervantes virtual, hlm. 54 and 55

[146] Ten Reasons (PDF), ES: Mepsyd, hlm. 23

[147] Philippines, Spanish differences

[148] Spanish in the world 2012 (Instituto Cervantes): 3,017,265 Spanish speakers. 439,000 with native knowladge, 2,557,773 with limited knowladge (page 6), and 20,492 Spanish students (page 10).

[149] Nestor Diaz: More than 2 million Spanish speakers and around 3 million with Chavacano speakers (2010-04-24). "FILIPINAS / Vigoroso regreso del español". Aresprensa.com. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[150] The figure of 2 900 000 Spanish speakers is in Thompson, RW, Pluricentric languages: differing norms in different nations, hlm. 45

[151] World wide Spanish language, Sispain

[152] German census, DE: Destatis, 2011-12-31

[153] "Equatorial Guinea census". Population statistics. 2010. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[154] Spanish according to INE 2011

[155] 14% of the population speaks Spanish natively and other 74% as a second language: "Anuario", CVC (PDF) (dalam bahasa Spanish), ES: Cervantes, 2007

[156] Statcan, CA: GC

[157] "www12.statcan.gc.ca/census". 2.statcan.gc.ca. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[158] rreo.ca

[159] "Eurostat (1/1/2012 estimate)". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[160] Eurostat 1/1/2010

[161] "Netherland Census ClockPop". Cbs.nl. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[162] 2012 census^{[pranala nonaktif]}

[163] "2011 Census". Censusdata.abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[164] "2071.0 - Reflecting a Nation: Stories from the 2011 Census, 2012–2013". Abs.gov.au. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.

[165] Page 32 of the "Demografía de la lengua española"

[166] "Eurostat estimate to 1/1/2011". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2012-04-02. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[167] statisticsbelize.org.bz (2009 mid-year)^{[pranala nonaktif]}

[Demografía_de_la_lengua_española-168] Page 32 of Demografía de la lengua española (52,1% native speakers + 11,7% with some Spanish knowladge))

[169] Pages 34, 35 of the "Demografía de la lengua española", page 35.

[170] [1]^{[pranala nonaktif]}

[171] "all-about-switzerland.info". all-about-switzerland.info. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[172] "czso.cz" (dalam bahasa Cheska). czso.cz. 2013-12-31. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[173] "(2012)". ksh.hu. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[174] "Resultado 2010 - Persona". Censo2010.aw. 2010-10-06. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[175] [2]^{[pranala nonaktif]}

[176] ttp://cvc.cervantes.es/lengua/anuario/anuario_06-07/pdf/paises_41.pdf

[177] Evolution de la population par sexe de 1976 à 2012 en: Annuaire Statistique du Cameroun 2010. Consultado el 23-08-2012.

[178] "New Zealand census (2006)". Stats.govt.nz. 2009-02-13. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[179] "cvc.cervantes.es". cvc.cervantes.es. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[180] "Press Release on Major Figures of the 2010 National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[181] 25,000 Spanish students in the university + 5,000 in the "Instituto Cervantes"cervantes.es (page 4)

[182] "Statistics - FAQ's". Gibraltar.gov.gi. 2012-11-12. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[183] www.um.es (5.2. Datos descriptivos de los usos de español e inglés, Gráfico 2). 77.3% of the Gibraltar population speak Spanish with their mother more, or equal than English.

[184] "(2013)". db1.stat.gov.lt. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[185] "Демография". Gks.ru. 2011-12-27. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[UN_2009_estimate-186] "2009 estimate" (PDF). UN. 2008. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[187] The Spanish 1970 census claims 16.648 Spanish speakers in Western Sahara ([3]) but probably most of them were people born in Spain who left after the Moroccan annexation

[188] Page 34 of the Demografía de la Lengua Española

[189] "2010 Census". Census.gov. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.

[190] "Population - Key Indicators | Latvijas statistika". Csb.gov.lv. Diakses tanggal 2013-06-14.

[191] "::Welcome to Turkish Statistical Institute(TurkStat)'s Web Pages::". TurkStat. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[192] 8,000 (Page 37 of the Demografía de la lengua española) + 4,346 Spanish Students (according to the Instituto Cervantes)

[193] "Census of India : Provisional Population Totals : India :Census 2011". Censusindia.gov.in. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[194] "cervantes.es (page 6)" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[195] "Jamaican Population". Statinja.gov.jm. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[tango-196] Languages of Jamaica,

[197] El español en Namibia, 2005. Instituto Cervantes.

[198] "cvc.cervantes.es" (PDF). Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[199] "Eurostat - Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. 2013-10-17. Diakses tanggal 2014-03-24.

[200] Demografía de la lengua española, page 37 (2,397,000 people speak Spanish as a native language in the E.U. excluded Spain, but It is already counted population who speak Spanish as a native language in France (477,564), Sweden (77,912) and Luxemburg (4,049)).

[201] "International Programs - People and Households - U.S. Census Bureau". Census.gov. 2013-04-12. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-20.

[420millnative-202] Instituto Cervantes and British Council (420 million Spanish native speakers)

[krysstal1-203] "The 30 Most Spoken Languages in the World". KryssTal. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16.

[elpais1-204] "500 millones de razones para saber español | Edición impresa | EL PAÍS". Elpais.com. Diakses tanggal 2013-01-16.

[205] Eleanor Greet Cotton, John M. Sharp (1988) Spanish in the Americas, Volume 2, pp.154-155, URL

[206] Lope Blanch, Juan M. (1972) En torno a las vocales caedizas del español mexicano, pp.53 a 73, Estudios sobre el español de México, editorial Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México URL.

[207] Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House Inc. 2006.

[208] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (edisi ke-4th). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2006.

[209] Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary. MICRA, Inc. 1998.

[210] Encarta World English Dictionary. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. 2007. Diakses tanggal 2008-08-05.

[211] Penny, Ralph (2000). Variation and Change in Spanish. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 199. ISBN 0-521-78045-4. whatever might be claimed by other centres, such as Valladolid, it was educated varieties of Madrid Spanish that were mostly regularly reflected in the written standard.

[212] The IPA symbol "turned y" (ʎ), with its "tail" leaning to the right, resembles, but is technically different from, the Greek letter lambda (λ), whose tail leans to the left.

[213] Charles B. Chang, "Variation in palatal production in Buenos Aires Spanish". Selected Proceedings of the 4th Workshop on Spanish Sociolinguistics, ed. Maurice Westmoreland and Juan Antonio Thomas, 54-63. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project, 2008.

[rae.es_site-214] "Real Academia Española" (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Buscon.rae.es. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[215] Katia Salamanca de Abreu, review of Humberto López Morales, Estudios sobre el español de Cuba (New York: Editorial Las Américas, 1970), in Thesaurus, 28 (1973), 138-146.

[216] "3 Guys From Miami: Fruta Bomba". Cuban-food-usa.com. Diakses tanggal 2010-04-21.

[217] Jensen 1989

[218] Penny 2000: 14

[219] Dalby 1998: 501

[220] Ginsburgh and Weber 2011: 90

[ethnologue-221] "Spanish". Ethnologue.

[222] Often considered to be a substratum word. Other theories suggest, on the basis of what is used to make cheese, a derivation from Latin brandeum (originally meaning a linen covering, later a thin cloth for relic storage) through an intermediate root *brandea. For the development of the meaning, cf. Spanish manteca, Portuguese manteiga, probably from Latin mantica ('sack'), Italian formaggio and French fromage from formaticus. Romanian Explanatory Dictionary

[Ladino-223] Alfassa, Shelomo (December 1999). "Ladinokomunita". Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture. Diakses tanggal 4 February 2010.

[224] Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 1st ed.

[225] Real Academia Española, Explanation at Spanish Pronto (Spanyol), (Inggris)

[226] "Abecedario". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (dalam bahasa Spanyol). Real Academia Española. 2005. Diakses tanggal 2008-06-23.

[227] "Ch". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española.

[228] "Ll". Diccionario de la lengua española de la Real Academia Española.

[229] "Scholarly Societies Project". Lib.uwaterloo.ca. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[230] Batchelor, Ronald Ernest (1992). Using Spanish: a guide to contemporary usage. Cambridge University Press. hlm. 318. ISBN 0-521-26987-3.

[231] "Association of Spanish Language Academies" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Asale. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[232] "Real Academia Española". Spain: RAE. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[233] "Academia Colombiana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Colombia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[234] "Academia Ecuatoriana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Ecuador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[235] "Academia Mexicana de la Lengua". Mexico. 2010-09-22. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[236] "Academia Salvadoreña de la Lengua". El Salvador. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[237] "Academia Venezolana de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Venezuela. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[238] "Academia Chilena de la Lengua". Chile. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[239] "Academia Peruana de la Lengua". Peru. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[240] "Academia Guatemalteca de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Guatemala. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[241] "Academia Costarricense de la Lengua". Costa Rica. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[242] "Academia Filipina de la Lengua Española" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Philippines. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[243] "Academia Panameña de la Lengua". Panama. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[244] "Academia Cubana de la Lengua". Cuba. Diakses tanggal 2010-11-06.

[245] "Academia Paraguaya de la Lengua Española". Paraguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[246] "Academia Dominicana de la Lengua". República Dominicana. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[247] "Academia Boliviana de la Lengua". Bolivia. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[248] "Academia Nicaragüense de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Nicaragua. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[249] "Academia Argentina de Letras". Argentina. 2010-03-25. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[250] "Academia Nacional de Letras del Uruguay". Uruguay. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[251] "Academia Hondureña de la Lengua" (dalam bahasa Spanish). Honduras. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[252] "Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española". Puerto Rico. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[253] "Academia Norteamericana de la Lengua Española". United States. Diakses tanggal 2011-02-05.

[254] A First Spanish Reader, by Erwin W. Roessler and Alfred Remy

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

[81]

[82]

[83]

[84]

[85]

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89]

[90]

[91]

[92]

[93]

[94]

[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

@@ Baris 1: / Baris 1: @@
-'''Bahasa Spanyol''', juga disebut '''Kastilia''', adalah [[Bahasa Roman]] yang berasal dari daerah [[Kastilia]] di [[Spanyol]]. Lebih dari 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Spanyol sebagai [[bahasa ibu]], menjadikannya sebagai bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak dari [[Mandarin]].<ref>http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size</ref> Diperkirakan ada 470 juta orang yang merupakan penutur asli bahasa Spanyol dan 548 juta orang yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref name="InstitutoCervantes">[[Instituto Cervantes]] (2014): [http://www.spainglobal.com/files/El-espanol-lengua-viva-2014.pdf cervantes.es] (pages 8 to 12)</ref> Bahasa Spanyol merupakan bahasa ketiga dengan penutur terbanyak setelah [[bahasa Inggris|Inggris]] dan Mandarin..<ref>Ethnologue: [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/cmn Mandarin] '''1026 mill.''' (848 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 178 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/eng English] '''840 mill.''' (335 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 505 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/spa Spanish] '''488 mill.''' (399 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 89,5 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hin Hindi] '''380 mill.''' (260 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 120 mill. [[Second language|L2]])</ref><ref name="krystal">[http://www.krysstal.com/spoken.html krysstal.com (Kryss Katsiavriades y Talaat Qureshi)]</ref><ref>George Weber, 1997: Mandarin 1,120 mill., English 480 mill., Spanish 320 mill., Russian 285 mill., French 265 mill., Hindi 250 mill. ([http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm ignatius.edu]).</ref><ref>Instituto Cervantes: ([http://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2008/noticias/noticia_08-06-17.htm cervantes.es], [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/espanol/segundo/idioma/estudia/mundo/Instituto/Cervantes/elpepucul/20070426elpepucul_8/Tes  ''El País''])</ref>Bahasa Spanyol adalah satu dari bahasa resmi [[Persatuan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] dan juga [[Uni Eropa]], Organisasi Negara-Negara Amerika, Persatuan Negara-Negara Amerika Selatan, dan banyak lagi.
+'''Bahasa Spanyol''', juga disebut '''Kastilia''', adalah [[Bahasa Roman]] yang berasal dari daerah [[Kastilia]] di [[Spanyol]]. Lebih dari 400 juta orang menggunakan bahasa Spanyol sebagai [[bahasa ibu]], menjadikannya sebagai bahasa kedua dengan penutur asli terbanyak dari [[Mandarin]].<ref>http://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size</ref> Diperkirakan ada 470 juta orang yang merupakan penutur asli bahasa Spanyol dan 548 juta orang yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref name="InstitutoCervantes">[[Instituto Cervantes]] (2014): [http://www.spainglobal.com/files/El-espanol-lengua-viva-2014.pdf cervantes.es] (pages 8 to 12)</ref> Bahasa Spanyol merupakan bahasa ketiga dengan penutur terbanyak setelah [[bahasa Inggris|Inggris]] dan Mandarin. <ref>Ethnologue: [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/cmn Mandarin] '''1026 mill.''' (848 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 178 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/eng English] '''840 mill.''' (335 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 505 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/spa Spanish] '''488 mill.''' (399 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 89,5 mill. [[Second language|L2]]), [http://www.ethnologue.com/language/hin Hindi] '''380 mill.''' (260 mill. [[First language|L1]] + 120 mill. [[Second language|L2]])</ref><ref name="krystal">[http://www.krysstal.com/spoken.html krysstal.com (Kryss Katsiavriades y Talaat Qureshi)]</ref><ref>George Weber, 1997: Mandarin 1,120 mill., English 480 mill., Spanish 320 mill., Russian 285 mill., French 265 mill., Hindi 250 mill. ([http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm ignatius.edu]).</ref><ref>Instituto Cervantes: ([http://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2008/noticias/noticia_08-06-17.htm cervantes.es], [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/espanol/segundo/idioma/estudia/mundo/Instituto/Cervantes/elpepucul/20070426elpepucul_8/Tes  ''El País''])</ref> Bahasa Spanyol adalah satu dari bahasa resmi [[Persatuan Bangsa-Bangsa|PBB]] dan juga [[Uni Eropa]], Organisasi Negara-Negara Amerika, Persatuan Negara-Negara Amerika Selatan, dan banyak lagi.
 Bahasa Spanyol adalah bagian dari bahasa Ibero-Roman, yang berevolusi dari beberapa dialek [[Bahasa Latin Umum|Latin Umum]] di [[Semenanjung Iberia]] setelah keruntuhan dari [[Kekaisaran Romawi Barat]] pada abad ke-5. Bahasa ini pertama kali diucapkan di Iberia utara pada abad ke-9 dan perlahan meluas dengan perluasan [[Kerajaan Kastilia]] ke Iberia pusat dan selatan.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/07/castillayleon/1289123856.html | title = La RAE avala que Burgos acoge las primeras palabras escritas en castellano | language = Spanish| publisher = El mundo | place = ES | date = 2010-11-07}}</ref> Pada awal abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke koloni [[Kekaisaran Spanyol]], yang di antaranya adalah [[Amerika Selatan]] dan [[Afrika]], [[Oseania]], dan [[Filipina]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html|archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20130118163355/http://sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com/index.html|archivedate= 2013-01-18|title=Spanish languages "Becoming the language for trade" in Spain and |publisher=sejours-linguistiques-en-espagne.com|date=|accessdate=2010-05-11}}</ref>
-Semenjak awalnya, kosakata bahasa Spanyol dipengaruhi oleh hubungannya dengan [[bahasa Basque]], begitu pun dengan bahasa Ibero-Roman yang lain, dan selanjutnya menyerap banyak kata [[bahasa Arab]] saat [[Al-Andalus|kepemilikan Islam atas Iberia]].<ref name="Dworkin83">{{cite book|last=Dworkin|first=Steven N.|title=A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0199541140|page=83|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83}}</ref>. Ia juga menyerap kata dari bahasa bukan Iberia, utamanya dari [[bahasa Oksitan|Oksitan]], [[bahasa Prancis|Prancis]], [[bahasa Italia|Italia]], dan [[bahasa Sardinia|Sardinia]], begitu pun dari [[bahasa Nahuatl]] dan bahasa-bahasa naif Amerika]]. Pada masa modern, ia melanjutkan menambahkan kata-kata baru, dan semakin banyak menyerap dari [[bahasa Inggris]].
+Semenjak awalnya, kosakata bahasa Spanyol dipengaruhi oleh hubungannya dengan [[bahasa Basque]], begitu pun dengan bahasa Ibero-Roman yang lain, dan selanjutnya menyerap banyak kata [[bahasa Arab]] saat [[Al-Andalus|kepemilikan Islam atas Iberia]].<ref name="Dworkin83">{{cite book|last=Dworkin|first=Steven N.|title=A History of the Spanish Lexicon: A Linguistic Perspective|year=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0199541140|page=83|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=V4f8ZpJAhgIC&pg=PA83}}</ref>. Ia juga menyerap kata dari bahasa bukan Iberia, utamanya dari [[bahasa Oksitan|Oksitan]], [[bahasa Prancis|Prancis]], [[bahasa Italia|Italia]], dan [[bahasa Sardinia|Sardinia]], begitu pun dari [[bahasa Nahuatl]] dan bahasa-bahasa natif Amerika. Pada masa modern, ia melanjutkan menambahkan kata-kata baru, dan semakin banyak menyerap dari [[bahasa Inggris]].
-Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari 19 negara di Amerika. Di [[Uni Eropa]], bahasa ini digunakan sebagai bahasa ibu dari 8% warganya, dengan tambahan 7% yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref>http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf</ref> Spanish is the most popular second language learned in the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |title=Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S |publisher=Infoplease.com |date= |accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>
+Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa resmi dari 19 negara di Amerika. Di [[Uni Eropa]], bahasa ini digunakan sebagai bahasa ibu dari 8% warganya, dengan tambahan 7% yang menggunakannya sebagai bahasa kedua.<ref>http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_386_en.pdf</ref> Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa kedua terpopuler yang dipelajari di [[Amerika Serikat]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0905275.html |title=Most Studied Foreign Languages in the U.S |publisher=Infoplease.com |date= |accessdate=2012-08-20}}</ref>
 == Nama bahasa ==
@@ Baris 15: / Baris 15: @@
 (Bahasa) Kastilia adalah bahasa Spanyol resmi dari Negara.&nbsp;... Bahasa-bahasa Spanyol yang lain juga akan menjadi resmi di Komunitas Otonom mereka sendiri...}}
-[[Akademi Resmi Spanyol|Real Academia Española]], di samping itu, menggunakan kini kata ''español'' dalam publikasinya, tapi semenjak 1713 sampai 1923 menggunakan kata ''castellano''.
+[[Akademi Resmi Spanyol|Real Academia Española]], di samping itu, menggunakan kini kata ''español'' dalam terbitannya, tapi semenjak 1713 sampai 1923 menggunakan kata ''castellano''.
-''Diccionatio panhispánico de dudas'' (sebuah pengantar bahasa yang dipublikasikan oleh Akademi Resmi Spanyol) menyatakan bahwa meskipun Akademi Resmi Spanyol memilih menggunakan kata ''español'' dalam publikasinya saat merujuk ke bahasa Spanyol, kedua kata, ''español'' dan ''castellano'', dipandang sama dan valid.<ref>Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 2005, pg. 271-272.</ref>
+''Diccionatio panhispánico de dudas'' (sebuah pengantar bahasa yang diterbitankan oleh Akademi Resmi Spanyol) menyatakan bahwa meskipun Akademi Resmi Spanyol memilih menggunakan kata ''español'' dalam terbitannya saat merujuk ke bahasa Spanyol, kedua kata, ''español'' dan ''castellano'', dipandang sama dan valid.<ref>Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas, 2005, pg. 271-272.</ref>
 Dua etimologi untuk ''español'' telah disarankan. Kamus Akademi Resmi Spanyol mengasalkan kata tersebut dari kata [[bahasa Oksitan|Provençal]] ''espaignol'', dan lebih jauh dari kata bahasa Latin ''Hispaniolus'', 'sesuatu yang berkaitan dengan Hispania'.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/ |title=Diccionario de la lengua española |language= es |publisher=Buscon.rae.es |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> Otoritas lain<ref>Ramón Menéndez Pidal, ''Manual de gramática histórica española'' (Espasa-Calpe, 1968), §66.2</ref><ref>Lloyd A. Kasten and Florian J. Cody, ''Tentative Dictionary of Medieval Spanish'' (2nd ed., Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, 2001)</ref> mengarahkannya pada kata bahasa Latin *''hispaniōne'', dengan arti yang sama.
 == Sejarah ==
+{{Main|Sejarah bahasa Spanyol}}
- [[File:Cantar de mio Cid f. 1r (rep).jpg|thumb|upright|A page of {{lang|es|''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]''}}, the oldest preserved Spanish [[epic poem]], in medieval Spanish.]]
+ [[File:Cantar de mio Cid f. 1r (rep).jpg|thumb|upright|Satu halaman dari ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]'', puisi tertua yang ditemukan dengan bahasa Spanyol lama.]]
-The Spanish language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]] (colloquial Latin), which was brought to the [[Iberian Peninsula]] by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] during the [[Second Punic War]], beginning in 210 BC. Previously, several pre-Roman languages (also called [[Paleohispanic languages]])—unrelated to Latin, and some of them unrelated even to Indo-European—were spoken in the Iberian Peninsula. These languages included [[Basque language|Basque]] (still spoken today), [[Iberian language|Iberian]], [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]] and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]. Traces of Basque especially, can be found in the Spanish vocabulary today, mainly in place names.
+Bahasa Spanyol berevolusi dari [[bahasa Latin Umum]], yang dibawa ke [[Semenanjung Iberia]] oleh para [[Romawi]] saat [[Perang Punisia Kedua]], mulai pada 210 SM. Sebelumnya, beberapa bahasa sebelum Romawi (juga disebut bahasa-bahasa Paleohispani)—tidak terkait ke bahasa Latin, dan beberapa di antara mereka bahkan tidak terkait ke Indo-Eropa—digunakan di Semenanjung Iberia. Bahasa-bahasa ini termasuk [[bahasa Basque|Basque]] (kini masih dipakai), [[bahasa Iberia|Iberia]], [[bahasa Keltiberia]Keltiberia]], dan [[bahasa Kelt|Kelt]]. Sisa-sisa bahasa Basque bisa ditemukan di kosakata bahasa Spanyol kini, utamanya di nama tempat.
+Dokumen-dokumen pertama yang diketahui berisi bentuk yang kini dikenal sebagai bentuk mentah bahasa Spanyol berasal dari abad ke-9. Selama [[Abad Pertengahan]] sampai masa modern, pengaruh paling penting dalam tata bahasa Spanyol berasal dari [[bahasa Roman]] di sekelilingnya saat itu—[[Navarro-Argon]], [[bahasa Llion|Llion]], [[bahasa Aragon|Aragon]], [[bahasa Basque|Basque]], [[bahasa Katala|Katala]], [[bahasa Portugis|Portugis]], [[bahasa Galisia|Galisia]], [[bahasa Miranda|Miranda]], [[bahasa Oksitan|Oksitan]], Gaskon, dan selanjutnya, [[bahasa Prancis]] dan [[bahasa Italia]]—tapi juga dipengaruhi oleh [[bahasa Arab]] dan [[bahasa Jermanik]]. Banyak kata yang diserap dari [[bahasa Latin|bahasa Latin Klasik]] melalui bahasa tertulis dan bahasa liturgi Gereja.
-The first documents to record what is today regarded as the precursor of modern Spanish are from the 9th century (see ''[[Glosas Emilianenses]]''). Throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and into the [[modern era]], by far the most important influence on the Spanish lexicon came from neighboring [[Romance languages]]—[[Navarro-Aragonese]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]], [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Mirandese language|Mirandese]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], [[Gascon dialect|Gascon]], and later, [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]—but also from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and a few words from the [[Germanic languages]]. Many words were borrowed from [[Latin language|Latin]] through the influence of [[Classical Latin|written language]] and the liturgical language of the Church.
-Local [[sociolect]]s of Vulgar Latin evolved into Spanish in the north of Iberia, in an area defined by [[Álava]], [[Cantabria]], [[Burgos]], [[Soria]] and [[La Rioja (autonomous community)|La Rioja]]. The dialect was later brought to the city of [[Toledo (Spain)|Toledo]], where the written standard of Spanish was first developed, in the 13th century.<ref name=Penny1>{{cite book |title= A History Of The Spanish Language|last=Penny|first= Ralph|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition= 2|pages= 20–21}}</ref> In this formative stage, Spanish (Castilian) developed a strongly differing variant from its close cousin, [[Leonese Language|Leonese]], and, according to some authors, was distinguished by a heavy Basque influence (see [[Iberian Romance languages]]). This distinctive dialect progressively spread south with the advance of the {{lang|es|''[[Reconquista]]''}}, and so gathered a sizable lexical influence from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] of [[Al-Andalus]], much of it indirectly, through the Romance [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic dialects]] (some 4,000 [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-derived words, make up around 8% of the language today).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=|accessdate=24 July 2008}}</ref> The written standard for this new language began to be developed in the cities of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], in the 13th to 16th centuries, and [[Madrid]], from the 1570s.<ref name=Penny1 />
+Dialek lokal dari bahasa Latin Umum berevolusi menjadi bahasa Spanyol di Iberia bagian utara, di daerah [[Álava]], [[Cantabria]], [[Burgos]], [[Soria]], dan [[La Rioja]]. Dialek ini selanjutnya dibawa ke kota [[Toledo]], di mana bahasa standar tertulisnya pertama kali diciptakan pada abad ke-13.<ref name=Penny1>{{cite book |title= A History Of The Spanish Language|last=Penny|first= Ralph|authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2002|publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition= 2|pages= 20–21}}</ref> Dalam tahapan ini, bahasa Spanyol (saat itu masih dianggap bahasa Kastilia) mulai membedakan diri dari saudara dekatnya, [[bahasa Llion]], dan, menurut beberapa pendapat, dibedakan dari pengaruh bahasa Basque yang besar. Dialek yang berbeda ini meluas perlahan ke selatan dengan adanya ''[[Reconquista]]'', dan mendapatkan cukup banyak pengaruh tata bahasa dari [[bahasa Arab]] dari [[Al-Andalus]], meski tidak secara langsung, melainkan dari dialek [[Mozarabik]] (sekitar 4.000 kata dari bahasa Arab (8%) ada dalam bahasa ini kini).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O29-SPANISH.html|title=Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|date=|accessdate=24 July 2008}}</ref> Standar tertulis bahasa baru ini mulai diciptakan di kota [[Toledo]], di abad ke-13 sampai 16, dan [[Madrid]] sejak 1570. <ref name=Penny1 />
+Perkembangan fonologi bahasa Spanyol dari bahasa Latin Umum berisi banyak perubahan yang sama dari [[bahasa Roman Barat]], termasuk pelemahan ([[lenisi]]) dari huruf mati intervokalis (menghasilkan Spanyol ''vida'' dari Latin ''vīta''). Diftongisasi dari huruf pendek ditekan {{smallcaps|e}} dan {{smallcaps|o}}—yang terjadi pada silabel terbuka di bahasa Prancis dan Italia, tapi tidak di bahasa Katala maupun Portugis—ditemukan di baik silabel terbuka dan tertutup di bahasa Spanyol, seperti di tabel berikut:
-The development of the [[Spanish phonology|Spanish sound system]] from that of [[Vulgar Latin]] exhibits most of the changes that are typical of [[Western Romance languages]], including [[lenition]] of intervocalic consonants (thus Latin {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|vīta}}}} > Spanish {{lang|es|''vida''}}). The [[Vowel breaking|diphthongization]] of Latin stressed short {{smallcaps|e}} and {{smallcaps|o}}—which occurred in [[Syllable coda|open syllables]] in French and Italian, but not at all in Catalan or Portuguese—is found in both open and closed syllables in Spanish, as shown in the following table:
 {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
 |-
+!bahasa Latin||bahasa Spanyol||bahasa Ladino||bahasa Aragon||bahasa Asturia||bahasa Galisia||bahasa Portugis||bahasa Katala||bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan||bahasa Prancis||bahasa Sardinia||bahasa Italia||bahasa Romania|||bahasa Indonesia
-!Latin||Spanish||Ladino||Aragonese||Asturian||Galician||Portuguese||Catalan||Gascon / Occitan||French||Sardinian||Italian||Romanian|||English
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|petra}}||''p'''ie'''dra''||''p'''ie'''dra'' (or ''p'''ye'''dra'')||''p'''ie'''dra''||''p'''ie'''dra''||''pedra''||''pedra''||''pedra''||''pedra''/''pèira||''p'''ie'''rre''||''perda''||''p'''ie'''tra''||''p'''ia'''trǎ''||'stone'
+|{{smallcaps|petra}}||''p'''ie'''dra''||''p'''ie'''dra'' (or ''p'''ye'''dra'')||''p'''ie'''dra''||''p'''ie'''dra''||''pedra''||''pedra''||''pedra''||''pedra''/''pèira||''p'''ie'''rre''||''perda''||''p'''ie'''tra''||''p'''ia'''trǎ''||'batu'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|terra}}||''t'''ie'''rra''||''t'''ie'''rra'' (or ''t'''ye'''rra'')||''t'''ie'''rra''||''t'''ie'''rra''||''terra''||''terra''||''terra''||''tèrra''||''terre''||''terra''||''terra''||''țară''||'land'
+|{{smallcaps|terra}}||''t'''ie'''rra''||''t'''ie'''rra'' (or ''t'''ye'''rra'')||''t'''ie'''rra''||''t'''ie'''rra''||''terra''||''terra''||''terra''||''tèrra''||''terre''||''terra''||''terra''||''țară''||'tanah'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|moritur}}||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''rre''||''morre''||''morre''||''mor''||''morís''||''m'''eu'''rt''||''mòrit''||''m'''uo'''re''||''m'''oa'''re''||'dies (v.)'
+|{{smallcaps|moritur}}||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''re''||''m'''ue'''rre''||''morre''||''morre''||''mor''||''morís''||''m'''eu'''rt''||''mòrit''||''m'''uo'''re''||''m'''oa'''re''||'mati (kata kerja.)'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|mortem}}||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''morte''||''morte''||''mort''||''mòrt''||''mort''||''mòrti''||''morte''||''m'''oa'''rte''||'death'
+|{{smallcaps|mortem}}||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''m'''ue'''rte''||''morte''||''morte''||''mort''||''mòrt''||''mort''||''mòrti''||''morte''||''m'''oa'''rte''||'kematian'
 |}
-[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|Chronological map showing linguistic evolution in southwest Europe]]
+[[File:Linguistic map Southwestern Europe.gif|thumb|Peta garis waktu menunjukkan evolusi kebahasaan di Eropa Timur Laut]]
-Spanish is marked by the [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalization]] of the Latin double consonants {{smallcaps|nn}} and {{smallcaps|ll}} (thus Latin
+Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai [[palatalisasi]] dari huruf mati ganda bahasa Latin {{smallcaps|nn}} dan {{smallcaps|ll}} (menghasilkan ''año'' dari {{smallcaps|annum}} dan ''anillo'' dari {{smallcaps|anellum}}).
-{{lang|la|{{smallcaps|annum}}}} > Spanish {{lang|es|''año''}}, and Latin {{lang|la|{{smallcaps|anellum}}}} > Spanish
-{{lang|es|''anillo''}}).
-The consonant written ''u'' or ''v'' in Latin and pronounced {{IPA|[w]}} in Classical Latin had probably "[[Fortition|fortified]]" to a bilabial fricative {{IPA|/β/}} in Vulgar Latin. In early Spanish (but not in Catalan or Portuguese) it merged with the consonant written ''b'' (a bilabial with plosive and fricative allophones). In modern Spanish, there is [[betacism|no]] difference between the pronunciation of orthographic ''b'' and ''v'', with some exceptions in Caribbean Spanish.{{Citation needed|date=March 2015}}
+Huruf mati yang ditulis dengan ''u'' atau ''v'' di bahasa Latin yang diucapkan [w] mungkin telah mengalami "[[fortifikasi]]" ke frikatif bilabial /β/ di bahasa Latin Umum. Di bahasa Spanyol awal (tapi tidak di bahasa Katala dan Portugis), ia tercampur dengan huruf mati ''b'' (bilabial dengan alofon plosif dan frikatif). Di bahasa Spanyol modern, tidak ada perbedaan dengan pengucapan huruf ''b'' dan ''v'', dengan pengecualian beberapa dialek bahasa Spanyol.
-Peculiar to Spanish (as well as to the neighboring [[Gascon language|Gascon]] dialect of [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and attributed to a Basque [[substratum]]) was the mutation of Latin initial ''f'' into ''h-'' whenever it was followed by a vowel that did not diphthongize. The ''h-'', still preserved in spelling, is now silent in most varieties of the language, although in some Andalusian and Caribbean dialects it is still aspirated in some words. This is the reason why there are modern spelling variants ''Fernando'' and ''Hernando'' (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), ''ferrero'' and ''herrero'' (both Spanish for "smith"), ''fierro'' and ''hierro'' (both Spanish for "iron"), and ''fondo'' and ''hondo'' (both Spanish for "deep", but ''fondo'' means "bottom" while ''hondo'' means "deep"); ''hacer'' (Spanish for "to make") is the root word of ''satisfacer'' (Spanish for "to satisfy"), and ''hecho'' ("made") is the root word of ''satisfecho'' (Spanish for "satisfied").
+Dan juga pada bahasa Spanyol (begitu pun dengan dialek Gaskon dari [[bahasa Oksitan]]) ada perubahan dari huruf ''f-'' di depan kata bahasa Latin menjadi ''f-'', ketika diikuti oleh huruf hidup yang tidak mengalami diftongisasi. Pengucapan ''h-'' tersebut, yang masih ada dalam ejaan, kini tak diucapkan di banyak versi bahasa ini, meski di beberapa dialek Andalusia dan Karibia masih diucapkan di beberapa kata. Itulah alasan kenapa ada dua variasi ejaan modern. ''Fernando'' dan ''Hernando'' (keduanya berarti ''Ferdinan''), ''ferrero'' dan ''herrero'' (''pandai besi''), ''fierro'' dan ''hierro'' (''besi''), dan ''fondo'' dan ''hondo'' (''dalam'', tapi ''fondo'' berarti ''bawah'' dan ''hondo'' berarti ''dalam''); ''hacer'' (''melakukan'') adalah akar dari ''satisfacer'' (''memuaskan''), dan ''hecho'' (''dilakukan'') adalah akar dari ''satisfecho'' (''dipuaskan'').
+Bandingkan contoh berikut:
-Compare the examples in the following table:
 {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
 |-
+!bahasa Latin||bahasa Spanyol||bahasa Ladino||bahasa Aragon||bahasa Asturia||bahasa Galisia||bahasa Portugis||bahasa Katala||bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan||bahasa Prancis||bahasa Sardinia||bahasa Italia||bahasa Romania|||bahasa Indonesia
-!Latin||Spanish||Ladino||Aragonese||Asturian||Galician||Portuguese||Catalan||Gascon / Occitan||French||Sardinian||Italian||Romanian||English
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|filium}}||'''''h'''ijo''||''fijo'' (or ''ijo'')||''fillo''||''fíu''||''fillo''||''filho''||''fill''||''filh''/'''''h'''ilh''||''fils''||''fillu''||''figlio''||''fiu''||'son'
+|{{smallcaps|filium}}||'''''h'''ijo''||''fijo'' (or ''ijo'')||''fillo''||''fíu''||''fillo''||''filho''||''fill''||''filh''/'''''h'''ilh''||''fils''||''fillu''||''figlio''||''fiu''||'anak laki-laki'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|facere}}||'''''h'''acer''||''fazer''||''fer''||''facer''||''facer''||''fazer''||''fer''||''far''/''faire''/'''''h'''ar'' (or '''''h'''èr'')||''faire''||''fairi''||''fare''||''a face''||'to do'
+|{{smallcaps|facere}}||'''''h'''acer''||''fazer''||''fer''||''facer''||''facer''||''fazer''||''fer''||''far''/''faire''/'''''h'''ar'' (or '''''h'''èr'')||''faire''||''fairi''||''fare''||''a face''||'melakukan'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|febrem}}||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''febre''||''febre''||''febre''||''fèbre''/''frèbe''/'''''h'''rèbe'' (or <br>'''''h'''erèbe'')||''fièvre''||(''calentura'')||''febbre''||''febră''||'fever'
+|{{smallcaps|febrem}}||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''fiebre''||''febre''||''febre''||''febre''||''fèbre''/''frèbe''/'''''h'''rèbe'' (or <br>'''''h'''erèbe'')||''fièvre''||(''calentura'')||''febbre''||''febră''||'demam'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|focum}}||''fuego''||''fuego''||''fuego''||''fueu''||''fogo''||''fogo''||''foc''||''fuòc''/''fòc''/'''''h'''uèc''||''feu''||''fogu''||''fuoco''||''foc''||'fire'
+|{{smallcaps|focum}}||''fuego''||''fuego''||''fuego''||''fueu''||''fogo''||''fogo''||''foc''||''fuòc''/''fòc''/'''''h'''uèc''||''feu''||''fogu''||''fuoco''||''foc''||'api'
 |}
+Beberapa gugus huruf mati bahasa Latin juga menghasilkan hasil berbeda di bahasa-bahasa tersebut, seperti ditampilkan dalam tabel berikut:
-Some [[consonant cluster]]s of Latin also produced characteristically different results in these languages, as shown in the examples in the following table:
 {|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
 |-
+!bahasa Latin||bahasa Spanyol||bahasa Ladino||bahasa Aragon||bahasa Asturia||bahasa Galisia||bahasa Portugis||bahasa Katala||bahasa Gaskon/Oksitan||bahasa Prancis||bahasa Sardinia||bahasa Italia||bahasa Romania|||bahasa Indonesia
-!Latin||Spanish||Ladino||Aragonese||Asturian||Galician||Portuguese||Catalan||Gascon / Occitan||French||Sardinian||Italian||Romanian||English
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|'''cl'''āvem}}||'''''ll'''ave''||''clave''||''clau''||'''''ll'''ave''||''chave''||''chave''/''clave''||''clau''||''clau''||''clé''||''crai''||''chiave''||''cheie''||'key'
+|{{smallcaps|'''cl'''āvem}}||'''''ll'''ave''||''clave''||''clau''||'''''ll'''ave''||''chave''||''chave''/''clave''||''clau''||''clau''||''clé''||''crai''||''chiave''||''cheie''||'kunci'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|'''fl'''amma}}||'''''ll'''ama||''flama''||''flama''||'''''fl'''ama''||''chama''||''chama''/''flama''||''flama''||''flama''||''flamme''||''framma''||''fiamma''||''flamă''||'flame'
+|{{smallcaps|'''fl'''amma}}||'''''ll'''ama||''flama''||''flama''||'''''fl'''ama''||''chama''||''chama''/''flama''||''flama''||''flama''||''flamme''||''framma''||''fiamma''||''flamă''||'kobaran api'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|'''pl'''ēnum}}||'''''ll'''eno''||''pleno''||''plen''||'''''ll'''enu''||''cheo''||''cheio''/''pleno''||''ple''||''plen''||''plein''||''prenu''||''pieno''||''plin''||'plenty,full'
+|{{smallcaps|'''pl'''ēnum}}||'''''ll'''eno''||''pleno''||''plen''||'''''ll'''enu''||''cheo''||''cheio''/''pleno''||''ple''||''plen''||''plein''||''prenu''||''pieno''||''plin''||'banyak, penuh'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|o'''ct'''ō}}||''o'''ch'''o''||''o'''ch'''o''||''güeito''||''o'''ch'''o''/''oito''||''oito''||''oito''||''vuit''/''huit''||''uè'''ch'''''/''uò'''ch'''''/''uèit''||''huit''||''otu''||''otto''||''opt''||'eight'
+|{{smallcaps|o'''ct'''ō}}||''o'''ch'''o''||''o'''ch'''o''||''güeito''||''o'''ch'''o''/''oito''||''oito''||''oito''||''vuit''/''huit''||''uè'''ch'''''/''uò'''ch'''''/''uèit''||''huit''||''otu''||''otto''||''opt''||'delapan'
 |-
-|{{smallcaps|mu'''lt'''um}}||''mu'''ch'''o''<br />''mu'''y'''''||''mu'''nch'''o''<br />''mu'''y'''''||''muito''<br />''mu'''i'''''||''mu'''nch'''u''<br />''mu'''i'''''||''moito''<br />''mo'''i'''''||''muito''<br />''mu'''i'''''&nbsp;(arch.)||''molt''||''molt''&nbsp;(arch.)||''moult''&nbsp;(arch.)||(''meda'')||''molto''||''mult''||'much,<br />very,<br />many'
+|{{smallcaps|mu'''lt'''um}}||''mu'''ch'''o''<br />''mu'''y'''''||''mu'''nch'''o''<br />''mu'''y'''''||''muito''<br />''mu'''i'''''||''mu'''nch'''u''<br />''mu'''i'''''||''moito''<br />''mo'''i'''''||''muito''<br />''mu'''i'''''&nbsp;(arch.)||''molt''||''molt''&nbsp;(arch.)||''moult''&nbsp;(arch.)||(''meda'')||''molto''||''mult''||'sangat,<br />banyak'
 |}
-[[File:Juan de Zúñiga dibujo con orla.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Antonio de Nebrija]], author of ''[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]'', the first grammar of modern European languages.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |title=Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel &#124; Books &#124; The Guardian |publisher=Books.guardian.co.uk |date= December 12, 2003|accessdate=2009-07-18 | location=London}}</ref>]]
+[[File:Juan de Zúñiga dibujo con orla.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Antonio de Nebrija]], penulis ''[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]'', tata bahasa pertama dari bahas Eropa modern.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1105510,00.html |title=Harold Bloom on Don Quixote, the first modern novel &#124; Books &#124; The Guardian |publisher=Books.guardian.co.uk |date= December 12, 2003|accessdate=2009-07-18 | location=London}}</ref>]]
-In the 15th and 16th centuries, Spanish underwent a dramatic change in the pronunciation of its [[sibilant consonants]], known in Spanish as the ''{{lang|es|[[:es:Reajuste de las sibilantes del idioma español|reajuste de las sibilantes]]}}'', which resulted in the distinctive velar {{IPA|[x]}} pronunciation of the letter {{angle bracket|j}} and—in a large part of Spain—the characteristic interdental {{IPA|[θ]}} ("th-sound") for the letter {{angle bracket|z}} (and for {{angle bracket|c}} before {{angle bracket|e}} or {{angle bracket|i}}). See [[History of Spanish#Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants|History of Spanish (Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants)]] for details.
+Pada abad ke-15 dan 16, bahasa Spanyol melalui perubahan besar dalam pengucapan huruf mati sibilannya, dikenal dengan ''reajuste de las sibilantes'', yang menghasilkan velar [x] (seperti ''kh''usus) untuk huruf {{angle bracket|j}} dan—di banyak daerah di Spanyol—interdental [θ] (seperti ''ts''anawiyah) untuk huruf {{angle bracket|z}}, dan {{angle bracket|c}} sebelum {{angle bracket|e}} atau {{angle bracket|i}}.
-The {{lang|es|''[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]''}}, written in [[Salamanca]] in 1492 by [[Antonio de Nebrija|Elio Antonio de Nebrija]], was the first grammar written for a modern European language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |title=Spanish Language Facts |publisher=Encyclopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> According to a popular anecdote, when Nebrija presented it to [[Isabella I of Castile|Queen Isabella I]], she asked him what was the use of such a work, and he answered that language is the instrument of empire.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |title=Spain: the root and the flower |page=151 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&pg=PA151&dq=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&cd=5#v=onepage&q= |year=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24496-2 }}</ref>  In his introduction to the grammar, dated August 18, 1492, Nebrija wrote that "... language was always the companion of empire."<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan |page=78 |year=2005 |publisher=Random House Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7055-5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&pg=PA78&dq=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&d=5#v=onepage&q= }}</ref>
+[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]] yang ditulis oleh [[Salamanca]] pada 1492 oleh [[Antonio de Nebrija]] adalah tata bahasa pertama yang ditulis untuk sebuah bahasa Eropa Modern.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Spanish_language.aspx#1O29-SPANISH |title=Spanish Language Facts |publisher=Encyclopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2010-11-06}}</ref> Menurut sebuah anekdot yang populer, saat Antonio memberikannya pada Ratu Isabela I, ia menanyakannya apa kegunaan hasil itu, dan dia menjawab bahwa bahasa adalah instrumen dari sebuah kerajaan.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crow |first=John A. |title=Spain: the root and the flower |page=151 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=g2NKy8QCxw4C&pg=PA151&dq=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&cd=5#v=onepage&q= |year=2005 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24496-2 }}</ref>  Dalam pengenalannya ke tata bahasa tersebut, pada 18 Agustus 1492, Antonio menulis bahwa "...bahasa selalu merupakan pendamping kerajaan.".<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=Rivers of Gold: the rise of the Spanish empire, from Columbus to Magellan |page=78 |year=2005 |publisher=Random House Inc. |isbn=978-0-8129-7055-5|url=http://books.google.com/?id=b38f7b1WmOwC&pg=PA78&dq=Nebrija+first+spanish+grammar+Isabel&d=5#v=onepage&q= }}</ref>
+Semenjak abad ke-16, bahasa ini dibawa ke [[Amerika]] dan [[Hindia Spanyol]] melalui [[Kolonisasi Spanyol di Amerika]]. Pada abad ke-20, bahasa ini dibawa ke [[Sahara Barat]] dan [[Guinea Khatulistiwa]] dan ke daerah di [[Amerika Serikat]] yang tak pernah menjadi bagian Kerajaan Spanyol, seperti Spanish Harlem di [[New York]].
-From the sixteenth century onwards, the language was taken to [[Americas|America]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] via [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization of America]]. [[Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra]], author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', is such a well-known reference in the world that Spanish is often called ''la lengua de Cervantes'' ("the language of Cervantes").<ref>{{cite journal|title=La lengua de Cervantes| language =Spanish| url = http://www.cepc.es/rap/Publicaciones/Revistas/2/REP_031-032_288.pdf| publisher =Ministerio de la Presidencia de España|format=PDF| accessdate =2008-08-24|ref=harv}}{{dead link|date=February 2011}}</ref>
+== Tata bahasa ==
-In the twentieth century, Spanish was introduced to [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Western Sahara]], and to areas of the United States that had not been part of the Spanish Empire, such as [[Spanish Harlem]] in [[New York City]]. For details on borrowed words and other external influences upon Spanish, see [[Influences on the Spanish language]].
+{{Main|Tata bahasa Spanyol}}
+[[File:Cervates jauregui.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Miguel de Cervantes]] penulis ''[[Don Quixote]]'', yang dianggap sebagai Noer Eropa modern pertama.]]
+Bahasa Spanyol adalah bahasa yang terinfleksi, dengan sistem [[jenis kelamin kata]] ganda dan sekitar 50 bentuk ter[[konjugasi]] dari [[kata kerja]], tapi dengan infleksi dari [[kata benda]], [[kata sifat]], dan [[penentu (kebahasaan)]] yang terbatas pada jumlah dan [[jenis kelamin kata|jenis kelamin]]. (Lihat [[kata kerja bahasa Spanyol]]) [[Sintaks]] bahasa Spanyol bersistem pembatangan kanan, berarti bahwa sub-kata atau pemodifikasi biasa diletakkan setelah kata utama (seperti burung biru; burung = kata utama, biru = pemodifikasi). Bahasa ini menggunakan [[kata depan]] (daripada kata belakang atau infleksi kata benda untuk [[kasus (tata bahasa)|kasus]]), dan biasanya—meski tidak selalu—meletakkan [[kata sifat]] setelah [[kata benda]], begitu pun rata-rata bahasa Roman yang lain.
-== Grammar ==
-{{Main|Spanish grammar}}
-[[File:Cervates jauregui.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Miguel de Cervantes]] author of ''[[Don Quixote]]'', considered the first modern European novel.]]
+Struktur kalimatnya biasanya subyek—kata benda—obyek, meski variasi pun sering. Ia adalah bahasa pro-drop atau subyek kosong—yang mengizinkan penghapusan subyek saat mereka secara pragmatis tidak dibutuhkan. Bahasa ini merupakan bahasa kata kerja terbingkai, berarti ''arah'' dari kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja sementara ''mode'' kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja langsung (bentuk –ing dalam bahasa Inggris) (contoh ''subir corriendo'' atau ''salir volando''; penerjemahan dalam bahasa Indonesia—'berlari naik' dan 'terbang keluar'—menunjukkan bahwa bahasa Indonesia merupakan bahasa "satelit terbingkai", dengan mode kegiatan diekspresikan dalam kata kerja dan arah kegiatan dalam kata kerja langsung/kata sifat).
-Spanish is a relatively [[Inflection|inflected]] language, with a two-[[Grammatical gender|gender]] noun system and about fifty [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]] forms per [[verb]], but with inflection of [[noun]]s, [[adjective]]s, and [[determiner (linguistics)|determiners]] limited to [[Grammatical number|number]] and [[Grammatical gender|gender]]. (For a detailed overview of verbs, see [[Spanish verbs]] and [[Spanish irregular verbs]].) Spanish [[syntax]] is considered [[Branching (linguistics)|right-branching]], meaning that subordinate or [[Grammatical modifier|modifying]] [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituents]] tend to be placed after their head words. The language uses [[Preposition and postposition|prepositions]] (rather than postpositions or inflection of nouns for [[Grammatical case|case]]), and usually—though not always—places [[adjective]]s after [[noun]]s, as do most other Romance languages.
+Pembalikan subyek/kata kerja tidak dibutuhkan dalam pertanyaan. Oleh karena itu, perintah atau pertanyaan bisa tergantung pada penekanan.
-Its sentence structure is generally [[subject–verb–object]], although variations are common. It is a "[[Pro-drop language|pro-drop]]", or "[[Null-subject language|null-subject]]" language—that is, it allows the deletion of subject pronouns when they are [[Pragmatics|pragmatically]] unnecessary. Spanish is described as a "[[Verb framing|verb-framed]]" language, meaning that the ''direction'' of motion is expressed in the verb while the ''mode'' of locomotion is expressed adverbially (e.g. ''subir corriendo'' or ''salir volando''; the respective English equivalents of these examples—'to run up' and 'to fly out'—show that English is, by contrast, "satellite-framed", with mode of locomotion expressed in the verb and direction in an adverbial modifier).
+== Fonologi ==
-Subject/verb inversion is not required in questions, and thus the recognition of declarative or interrogative may depend entirely on intonation.
+{{Main|Fonologi bahasa Spanyol}}
-== Phonology ==
+=== Fonologi segmental ===
+[[File:Spanish vowel chart.svg|thumb|250px|Diagram huruf hidup bahasa Spanyol, from {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Johnson|2010|p=227}}]]
-{{Main|Spanish phonology}}
+Bahasa Spanyol mempunyai 5 suara huruf hidup (/a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/), dan 17 sampai 19 suara huruf mati (jumlah tepat tergantung dialek). Variasi alofon utama di antara huruf hidup adalah pengurangan huruf hidup tinggi /i/ dan /u/ menjadi /j/ dan /w/ saat tidak ditekan dan diikuti huruf hidup yang lain. Beberapa instansi dari huruf hidup tengah /e/ dan /o/, secara leksikal ditentukan, tertukar dengan diftong /je/ dan /we/ saat ditekan, dalam proses yang lebih bagus dideskripsikan sebagai morfofonemik daripada fonologikal, karena ia tidak bisa diramalkan hanya dari fonologi.
+Sistem huruf mati bahasa Spanyol berciri: (1) tiga fonem hidung (nasal), dan satu atau dua (tergantung dialek) fonem lateral, yang pada posisi suku kata akhir kehilangan kontras dan tunduk pada asimilasi dengan mengikuti konsonan; (2) tiga plosif nirsuara dan afrikat /tʃ/; (3) tiga atau empat (tergantung dialek) frikatif nirsuara; (4) satu set fonem hambat bersuara—/b/, /d/, /ɡ/, dan terkadang /ʝ/—yang bergantian antara alofon afroksiman dan plosif tengantung keadaan; dan (5) perbedaan antara suara "r" yang ditap dan digetarkan (ditulis {{angle bracket|r}} (ditap) dan {{angle bracket|rr}} (digetarkan) dalam ortografi)
-=== Segmental phonology ===
-[[File:Spanish vowel chart.svg|thumb|250px|Spanish vowel chart, from {{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|Johnson|2010|p=227}}]]
-The Spanish [[Phoneme|phonemic]] inventory consists of five vowel phonemes ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}) and 17 to 19 consonant phonemes (the exact number depending on the dialect). The main [[Allophone|allophonic]] variation among vowels is the reduction of the high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to glides—{{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively—when unstressed and adjacent to another vowel. Some instances of the mid vowels {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}, determined lexically, alternate with the diphthongs {{IPA|[je]}} and {{IPA|[we]}} respectively when stressed, in a process that is better described as [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] rather than phonological, as it is not predictable from phonology alone.
-The Spanish consonant system is characterized by (1) three [[nasal stop|nasal]] phonemes, and one or two (depending on the dialect) [[lateral consonant|lateral]] phoneme(s), which in syllable-final position [[Archiphonemic|lose their contrast]] and are subject to [[Assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] to a following consonant; (2) three [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Plosive|stops]] and the [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] {{IPA|/tʃ/}}; (3) three or four (depending on the dialect) [[Voicelessness|voiceless]] [[Fricative consonant|fricatives]]; (4) a set of voiced [[obstruents]]—{{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, and sometimes {{IPA|/ʝ/}}—which alternate between [[Approximant consonant|approximant]] and [[plosive]] allophones depending on the environment; and (5) a phonemic distinction between the "[[Flap consonant|tapped]]" and "[[Trill consonant|trilled]]" ''r''-sounds (single {{angle bracket|r}} and double {{angle bracket|rr}} in orthography).
+Dalam tabel fonem konsonan berikut, /θ/ dan /ʎ/ ditandai dengan tanda bintang (*) untuk menunjukkan bahwa mereka hanya dipakai dalam beberapa dialek. Dalam kebanyakan dialek, mereka telah bergabung, masing-masing, dengan /s/ dan /ʝ/, disebut  ''seseo'' dan ''yeísmo''. Fonem /ʃ/ ada dalam tanda kurung () untuk menunjukkan bahwa ia hanya muncul dalam kata-kata pinjaman. Setiap fonem hambat bersuara /b/, /d/, /ʝ/, dan /ɡ/ muncul di sebelah kanan dari ''sepasang'' fonem nirsuara, untuk menunjukkan bahwa, saat fonem ''nirsuara'' mempertahankan kontras fonemik antara plosif (atau afrikat) dan frikatif, yang ''bersuara'' alternatif secara alofon (yaitu tanpa kontras fonemik) antara plosif dan pengucapan afroksiman.
-In the following table of consonant phonemes, {{IPA|/θ/}} and {{IPA|/ʎ/}} are marked with an asterisk (*) to indicate that they are preserved only in some dialects. In most dialects they have been merged, respectively, with {{IPA|/s/}} and {{IPA|/ʝ/}}, in the mergers called, respectively, ''[[ceceo|seseo]]'' and ''[[yeísmo]]''. The phoneme {{IPA|/ʃ/}} is in parentheses () to indicate that it appears only in [[loanwords]]. Each of the voiced obstruent phonemes {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, {{IPA|/ʝ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} appears to the right of a ''pair'' of voiceless phonemes, to indicate that, while the ''voiceless'' phonemes maintain a phonemic contrast between plosive (or affricate) and fricative, the ''voiced'' ones alternate [[Allophone|allophonically]] (i.e. without phonemic contrast) between plosive and approximant pronunciations.
 {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto; text-align: center;"
-|+ '''Consonant phonemes'''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Martínez-Celdrán|Fernández-Planas|Carrera-Sabaté|2003|p=255}}</ref>
+|+ '''Fonem huruf mati'''<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Martínez-Celdrán|Fernández-Planas|Carrera-Sabaté|2003|p=255}}</ref>
 |-
 !
-! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
+! colspan=2 | Bibir
-! colspan=2 | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
+! colspan=2 | Gigi
-! colspan=2 | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
+! colspan=2 | Langit-langit depan
-! colspan=2 | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
+! colspan=2 | Langit-langit tengah
-! colspan=2 | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
+! colspan=2 | Langit-langit belakang
 |-
+! Huruf mati sengau
-! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
 |  style="border-right:0; width:25px;"| ||  style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPAlink|m}}
 | colspan=2|
@@ Baris 132: / Baris 130: @@
 | colspan=2 |
 |-
+! Huruf mati henti
-! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]
 |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|p}}||rowspan=2 style="border-left: 0;"|{{IPAlink|b}}
 |  style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPAlink|t̪|t}}|| rowspan="2"  style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPAlink|d̪|d}}
@@ Baris 139: / Baris 137: @@
 |  style="border-right:0; width:25px;"|{{IPAlink|k}}|| rowspan="2"  style="border-left:0; width:25px;"|{{IPAlink|ɡ}}
 |-
+! Huruf mati berkelanjutan (continuant)
-! [[Continuant]]
 |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|f}}
 |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|θ}}*
@@ Baris 146: / Baris 144: @@
 |style="border-right: 0;"|{{IPAlink|x}}
 |-
+! Huruf mati rusuk (lateral)
-! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]
 | colspan=2 |
 | colspan=2 |
@@ Baris 153: / Baris 151: @@
 | colspan=2 |
 |-
+! Huruf mati kepak (flap)
-! [[Flap consonant|Flap]]
 | colspan=2 |
 | colspan=2 |
@@ Baris 160: / Baris 158: @@
 | colspan=2 |
 |-
+! Huruf mati getar
-! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
 | colspan=2 |
 | colspan=2 |
@@ Baris 168: / Baris 166: @@
 |}
-;''V'' and ''B''
+;''V'' dan ''B''
-The letters {{angle bracket|v}} and {{angle bracket|b}} normally represent the same phoneme, {{IPA|/b/}}, which is realized as {{IPA|[b]}} after a [[nasal consonant]] or a pause, and as {{IPA|[β]}} elsewhere, as in ''ambos'' {{IPA|[ˈambos]}} ('both') ''envío'' {{IPA|[emˈbi.o]}} ('I send'), ''acabar'' {{IPA|[akaˈβaɾ]}} ('to finish') and ''mover'' {{IPA|[moˈβeɾ]}} ('to move'). The [[Royal Spanish Academy]] considers the {{IPA|/v/}} pronunciation for the letter {{angle bracket|v}} to be incorrect and affected. However, some Spanish speakers maintain the pronunciation of the {{IPA|/v/}} sound as it is in other western European languages. The sound {{IPA|/v/}} is used for the letter {{angle bracket|v}}, in the Spanish language, by a few second-language speakers in Spain whose native language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], in the [[Balearic Islands]], in the [[Valencian Community]], and in southern [[Catalonia]].<ref>"''Se da de forma espontánea en hablantes valencianos o mallorquines y en los de algunas zonas del sur de Cataluña''". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. 1st Ed. (Octobre 2005). [http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=v Grapheme v].</ref> In the USA it is also common because of the proximity and influence of English phonology, and the {{IPA|/v/}} is also occasionally used in Mexico. Some parts of Central America also use {{IPA|/v/}}, which the Royal Academy attributes to the interference of local indigenous languages.
+Surat-surat {{angle bracket|v}} dan {{angle bracket|b}} biasanya mewakili fonem yang sama, /b/, yang diucapkan sebagai [b] setelah konsonan sengau atau jeda, dan sebagai [β] di tempat lain, seperti di ''ambos'' [ambos] ('keduanya'), ''envío'' [embi.o] ('aku mengirim'), ''acabar'' [akaβaɾ] ('menyelesaikan') dan ''mover'' [moβeɾ] ('bergerak'). Akademi Resmi Spanyol menganggap pengucapan /v/ dari huruf {{angle bracket|v}} adalah salah dan terpengaruh. Namun, beberapa pengguna bahasa Spanyol mempertahankan pengucapan /v/ suara seperti di bahasa-bahasa Eropa barat lainnya. Suara /v/ yang digunakan digunakan untuk huruf {{angle bracket|v}}, dalam bahasa Spanyol, dengan beberapa pengguna bahasa kedua di Spanyol yang bahasa ibunya adalah [[bahasa Katala]], di [[Kepulauan Balearic]], di Komunitas Valencia, dan di Katalunya selatan.<ref>"''Se da de forma espontánea en hablantes valencianos o mallorquines y en los de algunas zonas del sur de Cataluña''". Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. 1st Ed. (Octobre 2005). [http://buscon.rae.es/dpdI/SrvltConsulta?lema=v Grapheme v].</ref> Di Amerika Serikat juga umum karena kedekatan dan pengaruh fonologi bahasa Inggris, dan /v/ juga kadang-kadang digunakan di Meksiko. Beberapa bagian dari Amerika Tengah juga menggunakan /v/, yang dianggak Akademi adalah pengaruh bahasa lokal setempat.
+Dahulu, pengucapan /v/ tidaklah umum, tapi dianggap benar sampai abad ke-20.
-Historically, the {{IPA|/v/}} pronunciation was uncommon, but considered correct well into the twentieth century.
 === Prosody ===