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[[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|thumb|375px|Linguistic map representing a [[tree model]] of the [[Romance languages]] based on the comparative method. Here the family tree has been rendered as an [[Euler diagram]] without overlapping subareas. The [[Wave model (linguistics)|wave model]] allows overlapping regions.]] |
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| name = Sejarah Indonesia |
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| pretitle = Bagian dari [[:Kategori:Sejarah Indonesia|seri]] artikel mengenai |
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| title = [[Sejarah Indonesia]] |
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| image = [[Berkas:Sejarah Indonesia.png|205px|border]] |
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In [[linguistics]], the '''comparative method''' is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with [[Genetic relationship (linguistics)|common descent]] from a shared ancestor, in order to extrapolate backwards. This is for the purpose of inferring the properties of that ancestor. The comparative method may be contrasted with the method of [[internal reconstruction]], in which the internal development of a single language is inferred by the analysis of features within that language.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|pp=31 ff}}.</ref> Ordinarily both methods are used together to reconstruct prehistoric phases of languages, to fill in gaps in the historical record of a language, to discover the development of phonological, morphological, and other linguistic systems, and to confirm or refute hypothesised relationships between languages. |
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| above = [[Garis waktu sejarah Indonesia|Garis waktu]] |
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The comparative method was developed over the 19th century. Key contributions were made by the Danish scholars [[Rasmus Christian Rask|Rasmus Rask]] and [[Karl Verner]] and the German scholar [[Jacob Grimm]]. The first linguist to offer reconstructed forms from a [[proto-language]] was [[August Schleicher]], in his ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen'', originally published in 1861.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1993|p=26}}.</ref> Here is Schleicher's explanation of why he offered reconstructed forms:<ref>{{harvnb|Schleicher|1874|p=8}}.</ref> |
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<blockquote>In the present work an attempt is made to set forth the inferred [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European original language]] side by side with its really existent derived languages. Besides the advantages offered by such a plan, in setting immediately before the eyes of the student the final results of the investigation in a more concrete form, and thereby rendering easier his insight into the nature of particular [[Indo-European languages]], there is, I think, another of no less importance gained by it, namely that it shows the baselessness of the assumption that the non-Indian Indo-European languages were derived from Old-Indian ([[Sanskrit]]).</blockquote> |
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| list1title = [[Prasejarah Indonesia|Prasejarah]] |
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== Demonstrating genetic relationship == |
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| list1 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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The comparative method aims to prove that two or more historically [[attested language]]s descend from a single [[proto-language]] by comparing lists of [[cognate]] terms. From them, regular sound correspondences between the languages are established, and a sequence of regular [[sound change]]s can then be postulated, which allows the [[Linguistic reconstruction|reconstruction]] of a proto-language. Relation is deemed certain only if at least a partial reconstruction of the common ancestor is feasible, and if regular sound correspondences can be established—with chance similarities ruled out. |
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| [[Manusia Jawa]] | 1.000.000 [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]] |
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| [[Manusia Flores]] | 94.000–12.000 BP |
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| [[Teori bencana Toba|Bencana alam Toba]] | 75.000 BP |
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| [[Kebudayaan Buni]] | 400 SM |
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}} |
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| list2title = Kerajaan awal |
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===Terminology=== |
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''Descent'' is defined as transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and after being influenced by their peers transmit it to the next generation, and so on. For example, a continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links [[Vulgar Latin]] to all of its modern descendants. |
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| [[Kerajaan Kutai]] | 350–1605 |
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| [[Kerajaan Tarumanagara]] | 358–669 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kendan]] | 536–702 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kalingga]] | 594–782 |
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| [[Kerajaan Indraprahasta]] | 598–747 |
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}} |
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| list3title = Klasik |
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Two languages are ''[[genetic (linguistics)|genetically]] related'' if they descended from the same [[Proto-language|ancestor language]].<ref>{{harvnb|Lyovin|1997|pp= 1–2}}.</ref> For example, [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[French language|French]] both come from [[Latin]] and therefore belong to the same family, the [[Romance languages]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beekes|1995|p= 25}}.</ref> Having a large component of vocabulary from a certain origin is not sufficient to establish relatedness: for example, as a result of heavy [[loanword|borrowing]] from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] into [[Persian language|Persian]], Modern Persian in fact takes more of its [[vocabulary]] from Arabic than from its direct ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]], but Persian remains a member of the Indo-Iranian family and is not considered "related" to Arabic.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|2000|p= 1341}}</ref> |
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| list3 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Kerajaan Melayu]] | 671–1375 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sriwijaya]] | 671–1183 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sunda]] | 662–1579 |
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| [[Kerajaan Galuh]] | 669–1482 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sumedang Larang]] | 721–1620 |
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| [[Kerajaan Medang]] | 752–1045 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kanjuruhan]] | 800-an |
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| [[Kerajaan Bali]] | 914–1908 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kahuripan]] | 1019–1045 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sunda Galuh|Kerajaan Pajajaran]] | 1042–1482 |
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| [[Kerajaan Janggala]] | 1045–1136 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kadiri]] | 1045–1222 |
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| [[Kerajaan Singasari]] | 1222–1292 |
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| [[Kerajaan Majapahit]] | 1293–1500 |
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}} |
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| list4title = Abad perdagangan |
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However, it is possible for languages to have different degrees of relatedness. [[English language|English]], for example, is related both to [[German language|German]] and to [[Russian language|Russian]], but is more closely related to the former than to the latter. Although all three languages share a common ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], English and German also share a more recent common ancestor, [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], while Russian does not. Therefore, English and German are considered to belong to a different subgroup, the [[Germanic languages]].<ref>{{harvnb|Beekes|1995|pp= 22, 27–29}}.</ref> |
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| list4 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Penyebaran Islam di Indonesia|Penyebaran Islam]] | 1200–1600 |
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| [[Kerajaan Aru]] | 1225–1613 |
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| [[Kesultanan Ternate]] | 1257–1914 |
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| [[Kesultanan Samudera Pasai]] | 1267–1521 |
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| [[Kesultanan Gowa]] | 1300-an–1945 |
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| [[Kerajaan Pagaruyung]] | 1347–1833 |
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| [[Kekaisaran Brunei|Kesultanan Brunei]] | 1368–1888 |
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| [[Kesultanan Melaka]] | 1405–1511 |
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| [[Kesultanan Sulu]] | 1405–1851 |
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| [[Kesultanan Cirebon]] | 1445–1677 |
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| [[Kesultanan Demak]] | 1475–1554 |
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| [[Kedatuan Giri]] | 1487–1700-an |
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| [[Kesultanan Aceh]] | 1496–1903 |
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| [[Kerajaan Manado]] | 1500-1670 |
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| [[Kerajaan Siau]] | 1510-1956 |
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| [[Kolonialisme Portugis di Indonesia|Portugis]] | 1512–1850 |
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| [[Kesultanan Banten]] | 1526–1813 |
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| [[Kerajaan Larantuka]] | 1515–1904 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kalinyamat]] | 1527–1599 |
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| [[Kesultanan Johor]] | 1528–1877 |
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| [[Kesultanan Pajang]] | 1568–1586 |
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| [[Kesultanan Mataram]] | 1588–1681 |
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}} |
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| list5title = Modern awal |
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''Shared retentions'' from the parent language are not sufficient evidence of a sub-group. For example, German and Russian both retain from Proto-Indo-European a contrast between the [[dative case]] and the [[accusative case]], which English has lost. However, this similarity between German and Russian is not evidence that German is more closely related to Russian than to English; it only means that the ''innovation'' in question—the loss of the accusative/dative distinction—happened more recently in English than the divergence of English from German. The division of related languages into sub-groups is more certainly accomplished by finding ''shared linguistic innovations'' differentiating them from the parent language, rather than shared features retained from the parent language. |
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| list5 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie di Indonesia|VOC]] | 1602–1800 |
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| [[Kesultanan Bima]] | 1620–1958 |
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| [[Kesultanan Sumbawa]] | 1674–1958 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kasepuhan]] | 1679–1815 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kanoman]] | 1679–1815 |
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| [[Kasunanan Kartasura]] | 1680–1745 |
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| [[Kesultanan Siak]] | 1723–1945 |
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| [[Kasunanan Surakarta]] | 1745–1946 |
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| [[Kesultanan Yogyakarta]] | 1755–1945 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kacirebonan]] | 1808–1815 |
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| [[Kesultanan Deli]] | 1814–1946 |
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| [[Kesultanan Lingga]] | 1824–1911 |
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}} |
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| list6title = Penjajahan imperial Eropa |
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===Origin and development of the method=== |
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[[File:Sajnovics - Demonstratio.jpg|thumb|left|Title page of Sajnovic's 1770 work.]] |
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| [[Jeda kekuasaan Prancis dan Britania di Hindia Belanda|Prancis dan Britania]] | 1806–1815 |
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Languages have been compared since antiquity. For example, in the 1st century BC the Romans were aware of the similarities between Greek and Latin, which they explained mythologically, as the result of Rome being a Greek colony speaking a debased dialect. In the 9th or 10th century AD, [[Yehuda Ibn Quraysh]] compared the phonology and morphology of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic, but attributed this resemblance to the Biblical story of Babel, with Abraham, Isaac and Joseph retaining Adam's language, with other languages at various removes becoming more altered from the original Hebrew.<ref>"The reason for this similarity and the cause of this intermixture was their close neighboring in the land and their genealogical closeness, since Terah the father of Abraham was Syrian, and Laban was Syrian. Ishmael and Kedar were Arabized from the Time of Division, the time of the confounding [of tongues] at Babel, and Abraham and Isaac and Jacob (peace be upon them) retained the Holy Tongue from the original Adam." [http://lameen.googlepages.com/ibn-quraysh.html Introduction of Risalat Yehuda Ibn Quraysh – مقدمة رسالة يهوذا بن قريش]</ref> |
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| [[Hindia Belanda]] | {{longitem|style=line-height:1.3em|1800–1949}} |
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}} |
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| list7title = Kemunculan Indonesia |
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In publications of 1647 and 1654, [[Marcus van Boxhorn]] first described a rigid methodology for historical linguistic comparisons<ref name=Driem>George van Driem [http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf The genesis of polyphyletic linguistics] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726012439/http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf |date=26 July 2011 }}</ref> and proposed the existence of an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] proto-language (which he called "Scythian") unrelated to Hebrew, but ancestral to Germanic, Greek, Romance, Persian, Sanskrit, Slavic, Celtic and Baltic languages. The Scythian theory was further developed by [[Andreas Jäger]] (1686) and [[William Wotton]] (1713), who made early forays to reconstruct this primitive common language.<!-- ?? Perhaps he just proposed to do so. --> In 1710 and 1723 [[Lambert ten Kate]] first formulated the regularity of [[sound law]]s, introducing among others, the term [[root vowel]].<ref name=Driem/> |
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| list7 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia|Kebangkitan Nasional]] | 1908–1942 |
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| [[Pendudukan Jepang di Hindia Belanda|Pendudukan Jepang]] | 1942–1945 |
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| [[Revolusi Nasional Indonesia|Revolusi Nasional]] | 1945–1949 |
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}} |
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| list8title = Kemerdekaan |
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Another early systematic attempt to prove the relationship between two languages on the basis of similarity of [[grammar]] and [[lexicon]] was made by the Hungarian [[János Sajnovics]] in 1770, when he attempted to demonstrate the relationship between [[Sami languages|Sami]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (work that was later extended to the whole [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric language family]] in 1799 by his countryman [[Samuel Gyarmathi]]),<ref name="ssix">{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|p= 6}}.</ref> But the origin of modern [[historical linguistics]] is often traced back to [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], an English [[Philology|philologist]] living in [[India]], who in 1786 made his famous {{nowrap|observation:<ref>{{cite web|last= Jones|first= Sir William|title= The Third Anniversary Discourse delivered 2 February 1786 By the President [on the Hindus]|editor-first= Guido|editor-last= Abbattista|publisher= Eliohs Electronic Library of Historiography|url= http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/jones/Jones_Discourse_3.html|accessdate= 18 December 2009}}</ref>}} |
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| list8 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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<blockquote>The [[Sanskrit|Sanscrit language]], whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]], more copious than the [[Latin language|Latin]], and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the [[Gothic language|Gothick]] and the [[Celtic languages|Celtick]], though blended with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanscrit; and the [[Old Persian language|old Persian]] might be added to the same family.</blockquote> |
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| [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] | 1949–1950 |
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| [[Periode demokrasi liberal di Indonesia|Demokrasi liberal]] | 1950–1957 |
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| [[Demokrasi terpimpin di Indonesia|Demokrasi terpimpin]] | 1957–1965 |
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| [[Transisi ke Orde Baru|Transisi]] | 1965–1966 |
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| [[Orde Baru]] | 1966–1998 |
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| [[Era Pasca-Soeharto|Pasca-Soeharto]] | 1998–sekarang |
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}} |
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| list9title = Menurut topik |
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The comparative method developed out of attempts to reconstruct the proto-language mentioned by Jones, which he did not name, but which subsequent linguists labelled [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). The first professional comparison between the [[Indo-European languages]] known then was made by the German linguist [[Franz Bopp]] in 1816. Though he did not attempt a reconstruction, he demonstrated that Greek, Latin and Sanskrit shared a common structure and a common lexicon.<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|pp= 5–6}}</ref> [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]] in 1808 first stated the importance of using the eldest possible form of a language when trying to prove its relationships;<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|p= 7}}</ref> in 1818, [[Rasmus Christian Rask]] developed the principle of regular sound-changes to explain his observations of similarities between individual words in the Germanic languages and their cognates in Greek and {{nowrap|Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|Szémerenyi|1996|p=17}}</ref>}} [[Jacob Grimm]]—better known for his ''[[Grimm's Fairy Tales|Fairy Tales]]''—in ''Deutsche Grammatik'' (published 1819–1837 in four volumes) made use of the comparative method in attempting to show the development of the [[Germanic languages]] from a common origin, the first systematic study of [[Historical linguistics|diachronic]] language change.<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|pp=7–8}}.</ref> |
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| list9 = {{flatlist| |
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* [[Arkeologi Indonesia|Arkeologi]] |
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* [[Sejarah rupiah Indonesia|Mata uang]] |
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* [[Sejarah ekonomi Indonesia|Ekonomi]] |
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* [[Sejarah militer Indonesia|Militer]] |
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}} |
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| below = {{portal-inline|Indonesia|size=tiny}} |
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Both Rask and Grimm were unable to explain apparent exceptions to the sound laws that they had discovered. Although [[Hermann Grassmann]] explained one of these anomalies with the publication of [[Grassmann's law]] in 1862,<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|p=19}}.</ref> [[Karl Verner]] made a methodological breakthrough in 1875 when he identified a pattern now known as [[Verner's law]], the first sound-law based on comparative evidence showing that a [[phonology|phonological]] change in one [[phoneme]] could depend on other factors within the same word (such as the neighbouring phonemes and the position of the [[Stress (linguistics)|accent]]<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|p=20}}.</ref>), now called ''conditioning environments''. |
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Similar discoveries made by the ''Junggrammatiker'' (usually translated as "[[Neogrammarians]]") at the [[University of Leipzig]] in the late 19th century led them to conclude that all sound changes were ultimately regular, resulting in the famous statement by [[Karl Brugmann]] and [[Hermann Osthoff]] in 1878 that "sound laws have no exceptions".<ref>{{harvnb|Szemerényi|1996|p= 21}}.</ref> This idea is fundamental to the modern comparative method, since the method necessarily assumes regular correspondences between sounds in related languages, and consequently regular sound changes from the proto-language. This ''Neogrammarian Hypothesis'' led to application of the comparative method to reconstruct [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], with [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] being at that time by far the most well-studied language family. Linguists working with other families soon followed suit, and the comparative method quickly became the established method for uncovering linguistic relationships.<ref name="ssix"/> |
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Revisi terkini sejak 23 Maret 2021 18.53
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