Kesenjangan ekonomi: Perbedaan antara revisi
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{{About||kesenjangan ekonomi antarnegara|kesenjangan internasional}} |
{{About||kesenjangan ekonomi antarnegara|kesenjangan internasional}} |
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{{See also|Kesenjangan sosial|Apartheid sosial}} |
{{See also|Kesenjangan sosial|Apartheid sosial}} |
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[[Berkas:Gini Coefficient World CIA Report.svg|thumb|300px|Perbedaan kesetaraan pendapatan nasional di seluruh dunia menurut [[koefisien Gini]] nasional. Koefisien Fini adalah angka antara 0 dan 1; 0 berarti kesetaraan sempurna (pendapatan semua orang sama dan 1 berarti kesenjangan absolut (satu orang menguasai seluruh pendapatan, sisanya berpendapatan nol).]] |
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'''Kesenjangan ekonomi''', biasa dikenal dengan istilah '''kesenjangan pendapatan''', '''kesenjangan kekayaan''', dan '''jurang antara kaya dan miskin''', mengacu pada persebaran ukuran ekonomi di antara individu dalam kelompok, kelompok dalam populasi, atau [[kesenjangan internasional|antarnegara]]. Para ekonom umumnya mengakui tiga ukuran kesenjangan ekonomi: [[kekayaan]], [[pendapatan]], dan [[konsumsi (ekonomi)|konsumsi]].<ref name="hydra"/> Persoalan kesenjangan ekonomi mencakup [[kesetaraan ekonomi]], [[kesetaraan pengeluaran]], dan [[kesetaraan kesempatan]].<ref name=WaPoLifespan>{{cite news|last=Fletcher|first=Michael A.|title=Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/research-ties-economic-inequality-to-gap-in-life-expectancy/2013/03/10/c7a323c4-7094-11e2-8b8d-e0b59a1b8e2a_story.html|accessdate=March 23, 2013|newspaper=Washington Post|date=March 10, 2013}}</ref> |
'''Kesenjangan ekonomi''', biasa dikenal dengan istilah '''kesenjangan pendapatan''', '''kesenjangan kekayaan''', dan '''jurang antara kaya dan miskin''', mengacu pada persebaran ukuran ekonomi di antara individu dalam kelompok, kelompok dalam populasi, atau [[kesenjangan internasional|antarnegara]]. Para ekonom umumnya mengakui tiga ukuran kesenjangan ekonomi: [[kekayaan]], [[pendapatan]], dan [[konsumsi (ekonomi)|konsumsi]].<ref name="hydra"/> Persoalan kesenjangan ekonomi mencakup [[kesetaraan ekonomi]], [[kesetaraan pengeluaran]], dan [[kesetaraan kesempatan]].<ref name=WaPoLifespan>{{cite news|last=Fletcher|first=Michael A.|title=Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/research-ties-economic-inequality-to-gap-in-life-expectancy/2013/03/10/c7a323c4-7094-11e2-8b8d-e0b59a1b8e2a_story.html|accessdate=March 23, 2013|newspaper=Washington Post|date=March 10, 2013}}</ref> |
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Kesenjangan ekonomi bervariasi tergantung masyarakat, waktu, struktur ekonomi, dan sistem. Istilah tersebut dapat mengacu pada persebaran pendapatan atau kekayaan lintas lapisan masyarakat pada waktu tertentu, atau pendapatan dan kekayaan seumur hidup dalam jangka panjang.<ref>Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," ''Quarterly Journal of Economics''. 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.</ref> Ada beberapa [[indeks (ekonomi)|indeks]] numerik untuk mengukur kesenjangan ekonomi. Di antara [[metrik kesenjangan pendapatan|metode pengukuran kesenjagan]] yang ada, [[koefisien Gini]] merupakan indeks yang paling terkenal. |
Kesenjangan ekonomi bervariasi tergantung masyarakat, waktu, struktur ekonomi, dan sistem. Istilah tersebut dapat mengacu pada persebaran pendapatan atau kekayaan lintas lapisan masyarakat pada waktu tertentu, atau pendapatan dan kekayaan seumur hidup dalam jangka panjang.<ref>Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," ''Quarterly Journal of Economics''. 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.</ref> Ada beberapa [[indeks (ekonomi)|indeks]] numerik untuk mengukur kesenjangan ekonomi. Di antara [[metrik kesenjangan pendapatan|metode pengukuran kesenjagan]] yang ada, [[koefisien Gini]] merupakan indeks yang paling terkenal. |
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==Tabel== |
== Tabel == |
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Tabel berikut menampilkan pola kekayaan antarnegara. Informasi di dalam tabel ini berasal dari Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", terbit tahun 2013.<ref>[http://usagainstgreed.org/GlobalWealthDatabook2013.pdf] Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013</ref> |
Tabel berikut menampilkan pola kekayaan antarnegara. Informasi di dalam tabel ini berasal dari Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", terbit tahun 2013.<ref>[http://usagainstgreed.org/GlobalWealthDatabook2013.pdf] Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013</ref> |
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| style="text-align:left" | {{flaglist|Slovenia}}||1,655||64,067||44,932||19.4||60.6||19.9||0.1||100||53.5 |
| style="text-align:left" | {{flaglist|Slovenia}}||1,655||64,067||44,932||19.4||60.6||19.9||0.1||100||53.5 |
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| style="text-align:left" | {{flaglist| |
| style="text-align:left" | {{flaglist|Slowakia}}||4,303||27,224||20,740||19.8||77.8||2.4||0||100||44.7 |
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==Lihat pula== |
== Lihat pula == |
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* [[Kesempatan setara]] |
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==Referensi== |
== Referensi == |
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==Bacaan lanjutan== |
== Bacaan lanjutan == |
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;Buku |
;Buku |
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* {{cite book|last1 = Atkinson|first1 = Anthony B.|last2 = Bourguignon|first2 = François|author-link1 = Tony Atkinson|author-link2 = François Bourguignon|title = Handbook of income distribution|publisher = Elvesier|location = Amsterdam New York|year = 2000|isbn = 9780444816313 }} |
* {{cite book|last1 = Atkinson|first1 = Anthony B.|last2 = Bourguignon|first2 = François|author-link1 = Tony Atkinson|author-link2 = François Bourguignon|title = Handbook of income distribution|publisher = Elvesier|location = Amsterdam New York|year = 2000|isbn = 9780444816313 }} |
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* [[Tony Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony B.]] (2015). ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674504769 Inequality: What Can Be Done?]'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN |
* [[Tony Atkinson|Atkinson, Anthony B.]] (2015). ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674504769 Inequality: What Can Be Done?]'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]]. ISBN 0-674-50476-3 |
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* {{cite book|last1 = Barro|first1 = Robert J.|last2 = Sala-i-Martin|first2 = Xavier|author-link1 = Robert Barro|author-link2 = Xavier Sala-i-Martin|title=Economic growth|year=2003|origyear = 1995|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|location= Massachusetts|edition = 2nd|isbn= 9780262025539 }} |
* {{cite book|last1 = Barro|first1 = Robert J.|last2 = Sala-i-Martin|first2 = Xavier|author-link1 = Robert Barro|author-link2 = Xavier Sala-i-Martin|title=Economic growth|year=2003|origyear = 1995|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|location= Massachusetts|edition = 2nd|isbn= 9780262025539 }} |
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* {{cite book|last1 = Deneulin|first1 = Séverine|last2 = Shahani|first2 = Lila|author-link1 = Séverine Deneulin|title = An introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency|publisher = Earthscan International Development Research Centre|location = Sterling, Virginia Ottawa, Ontario|year = 2009|isbn = 9781844078066 }} |
* {{cite book|last1 = Deneulin|first1 = Séverine|last2 = Shahani|first2 = Lila|author-link1 = Séverine Deneulin|title = An introduction to the human development and capability approach freedom and agency|publisher = Earthscan International Development Research Centre|location = Sterling, Virginia Ottawa, Ontario|year = 2009|isbn = 9781844078066 }} |
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* {{cite book|last1 = Sen|first1 = Amartya|last2 = Foster|first2 = James E.|author-link1 = Amartya Sen|title = On economic inequality|publisher = Clarendon Press Oxford University Press|location = Oxford New York|year = 1997|series = Radcliffe Lectures|isbn = 9780198281931 }} |
* {{cite book|last1 = Sen|first1 = Amartya|last2 = Foster|first2 = James E.|author-link1 = Amartya Sen|title = On economic inequality|publisher = Clarendon Press Oxford University Press|location = Oxford New York|year = 1997|series = Radcliffe Lectures|isbn = 9780198281931 }} |
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* {{cite book|last=von Braun|first=Joachim|last2 = Diaz-Bonilla|first2 = Eugenio|title = Globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor|publisher = Oxford University Press International Food Policy Research Institute|location = New Delhi Washington D.C|year = 2008|isbn = 9780195695281 }} |
* {{cite book|last=von Braun|first=Joachim|last2 = Diaz-Bonilla|first2 = Eugenio|title = Globalization of food, and agriculture, and the poor|publisher = Oxford University Press International Food Policy Research Institute|location = New Delhi Washington D.C|year = 2008|isbn = 9780195695281 }} |
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* {{cite book|last = von Mises|first = Ludwig|author-link = Ludwig von Mises|contribution = Chapter 35: The welfare principle versus the market principle|editor-last = von Mises|editor-first = Ludwig|editor-link = Ludwig von Mises|title = Human action: a treatise on economics|publisher = Ludwig Von Mises Institute|pages = 819–850|location = Auburn, Alabama|year = 1998|url = http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1895|ref = harv|postscript = .}} ISBN |
* {{cite book|last = von Mises|first = Ludwig|author-link = Ludwig von Mises|contribution = Chapter 35: The welfare principle versus the market principle|editor-last = von Mises|editor-first = Ludwig|editor-link = Ludwig von Mises|title = Human action: a treatise on economics|publisher = Ludwig Von Mises Institute|pages = 819–850|location = Auburn, Alabama|year = 1998|url = http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/1895|ref = harv|postscript = .}} ISBN 978-0-945466-24-6 |
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* {{cite book|last = Wilkinson|first = Richard G.|author-link = Richard G. Wilkinson|title = The impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier|publisher = Routledge|location = London|year = 2005|isbn = 9780415372695 }} |
* {{cite book|last = Wilkinson|first = Richard G.|author-link = Richard G. Wilkinson|title = The impact of inequality: how to make sick societies healthier|publisher = Routledge|location = London|year = 2005|isbn = 9780415372695 }} |
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* {{cite book|last1 = Wilkinson|first1 = Richard G.|last2 = Pickett|first2 = Kate|author-link1 = Richard G. Wilkinson|author-link2 = Kate Pickett|title = [[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better|The spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better]]|publisher = Allen Lane|location = London|year = 2009|isbn = 9781846140396 }} |
* {{cite book|last1 = Wilkinson|first1 = Richard G.|last2 = Pickett|first2 = Kate|author-link1 = Richard G. Wilkinson|author-link2 = Kate Pickett|title = [[The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better|The spirit level: why more equal societies almost always do better]]|publisher = Allen Lane|location = London|year = 2009|isbn = 9781846140396 }} |
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* Voitchovsky, Sarah. "[http://tobinproject.org/sites/tobinproject.org/files/assets/Voitchovsky_Sarah_effects_inequality_growth.pdf The effects of inequality on growth: perspectives from the theoretical literature]." Working paper. |
* Voitchovsky, Sarah. "[http://tobinproject.org/sites/tobinproject.org/files/assets/Voitchovsky_Sarah_effects_inequality_growth.pdf The effects of inequality on growth: perspectives from the theoretical literature]." Working paper. |
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==Pranala luar== |
== Pranala luar == |
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Revisi per 1 September 2016 11.29
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report.svg/300px-Gini_Coefficient_World_CIA_Report.svg.png)
Kesenjangan ekonomi, biasa dikenal dengan istilah kesenjangan pendapatan, kesenjangan kekayaan, dan jurang antara kaya dan miskin, mengacu pada persebaran ukuran ekonomi di antara individu dalam kelompok, kelompok dalam populasi, atau antarnegara. Para ekonom umumnya mengakui tiga ukuran kesenjangan ekonomi: kekayaan, pendapatan, dan konsumsi.[1] Persoalan kesenjangan ekonomi mencakup kesetaraan ekonomi, kesetaraan pengeluaran, dan kesetaraan kesempatan.[2]
Sejumlah penelitian menyebut bahwa kesenjangan adalah masalah sosial yang semakin berkembang.[3] Kesenjangan yang terlalu besar cenderung merugikan[4][5] karena kesenjangan pendapatan dan pemusatan kekayaan mampu menghambat pertumbuhan jangka panjang.[6][7][8] Penelitian statistik awal yang membandingkan kesenjangan dengan pertumbuhan ekonomi tidak menghasilkan kesimpulan apa-apa.[9] Pada tahun 2011, peneliti Dana Moneter Internasional menunjukkan bahwa kesetaraan pendapatan yang lebih besar—berkurangnya kesenjangan—meningkatkan durasi pertumbuhan ekonomi sebuah negara dengan lebih cepat dibandingkan perdagangan bebas, korupsi pemerintah rendah, investasi asing, atau utang luar negeri rendah.[10]
Kesenjangan ekonomi bervariasi tergantung masyarakat, waktu, struktur ekonomi, dan sistem. Istilah tersebut dapat mengacu pada persebaran pendapatan atau kekayaan lintas lapisan masyarakat pada waktu tertentu, atau pendapatan dan kekayaan seumur hidup dalam jangka panjang.[11] Ada beberapa indeks numerik untuk mengukur kesenjangan ekonomi. Di antara metode pengukuran kesenjagan yang ada, koefisien Gini merupakan indeks yang paling terkenal.
Tabel
Tabel berikut menampilkan pola kekayaan antarnegara. Informasi di dalam tabel ini berasal dari Credit Suisse, Research Institute's "Global Wealth Databook", terbit tahun 2013.[12]
Negara | Dewasa (Ribu) |
Kekayaan rerata per dewasa (USD) |
Kekayaan median per dewasa (USD) |
Persebaran dewasa (%) menurut kekayaan (USD) | Gini % | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
di bawah 10rb | 10rb – 100rb | 100rb – 1jt | > 1jt | Total | |||||
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4,190 | 255,066 | 57,675 | 39.5 | 17 | 37.8 | 5.7 | 100 | 107.7 |
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110,365 | 10,976 | 871 | 93.7 | 5.6 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 100 | 93.1 |
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35,912 | 3,413 | 419 | 97.4 | 2.3 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 90 |
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10,958 | 7,161 | 1,176 | 93.1 | 6.3 | 0.6 | 0.1 | 100 | 86.7 |
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2,953 | 30,868 | 6,076 | 66.8 | 29.8 | 3.2 | 0.3 | 100 | 86.3 |
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239,279 | 301,140 | 44,911 | 30.7 | 33 | 30.7 | 5.5 | 100 | 85.1 |
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6,690 | 2,913 | 479 | 93.9 | 5.8 | 0.3 | 0 | 100 | 83.8 |
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51,687 | 25,909 | 5,326 | 67 | 30.3 | 2.5 | 0.2 | 100 | 83.7 |
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31,034 | 19,613 | 3,051 | 72.3 | 24.9 | 2.6 | 0.1 | 100 | 83.6 |
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6,052 | 153,312 | 32,384 | 30.3 | 49.7 | 18.3 | 1.7 | 100 | 83.1 |
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56,730 | 8,799 | 1,849 | 88.1 | 11.1 | 0.8 | 0.1 | 100 | 82.9 |
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157,869 | 11,839 | 2,393 | 81.1 | 17.6 | 1.3 | 0.1 | 100 | 82.8 |
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49,642 | 7,772 | 1,855 | 90.5 | 8.8 | 0.6 | 0 | 100 | 82.6 |
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18,991 | 6,900 | 1,505 | 90.9 | 8.5 | 0.6 | 0 | 100 | 82.5 |
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135,385 | 23,278 | 5,117 | 66.6 | 30.5 | 2.7 | 0.2 | 100 | 82.1 |
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18,382 | 27,007 | 5,831 | 61.4 | 35.3 | 3.1 | 0.2 | 100 | 81.5 |
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12,461 | 49,032 | 11,742 | 45 | 48 | 6.6 | 0.4 | 100 | 81.4 |
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767,612 | 4,706 | 1,040 | 94.4 | 5.2 | 0.3 | 0 | 100 | 81.3 |
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6,101 | 512,562 | 95,916 | 5.2 | 46 | 38.8 | 10 | 100 | 80.6 |
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7,299 | 299,441 | 52,677 | 15.6 | 48.3 | 29.2 | 6.9 | 100 | 80.3 |
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52,710 | 7,285 | 1,852 | 90.4 | 9 | 0.6 | 0 | 100 | 80.3 |
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80,462 | 3,620 | 894 | 94.9 | 4.9 | 0.3 | 0 | 100 | 80 |
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30,464 | 26,222 | 6,228 | 60.2 | 35.8 | 3.9 | 0.2 | 100 | 79.7 |
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54 | 60,003 | 14,617 | 40 | 50 | 9.2 | 0.8 | 100 | 79.6 |
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28,265 | 15,638 | 4,032 | 72.1 | 26.1 | 1.7 | 0.1 | 100 | 79.6 |
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16,694 | 37,346 | 9,772 | 53.3 | 41.1 | 5.3 | 0.3 | 100 | 79.3 |
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1,256 | 19,899 | 4,531 | 67.5 | 28.3 | 4.2 | 0.1 | 100 | 78.7 |
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4,947 | 137,351 | 38,164 | 30 | 44.8 | 23.7 | 1.5 | 100 | 78.7 |
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388 | 2,872 | 670 | 93.8 | 6.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 78.7 |
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694 | 119,568 | 34,874 | 23.8 | 56.3 | 18.6 | 1.4 | 100 | 78.3 |
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73,380 | 35,872 | 9,718 | 53.5 | 40.6 | 5.7 | 0.3 | 100 | 78 |
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3,733 | 380,473 | 92,859 | 19.4 | 32.5 | 40.6 | 7.5 | 100 | 77.8 |
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6,761 | 203,931 | 57,450 | 28.2 | 31.8 | 37 | 3 | 100 | 77.8 |
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4,291 | 28,397 | 6,563 | 58.1 | 35.7 | 6 | 0.1 | 100 | 77.7 |
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1,181 | 10,348 | 2,649 | 81 | 17.6 | 1.4 | 0 | 100 | 77.2 |
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67,068 | 192,232 | 49,370 | 29 | 33.3 | 35.1 | 2.6 | 100 | 77.1 |
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5,813 | 3,532 | 960 | 92.3 | 7.5 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 76.1 |
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9,273 | 14,708 | 3,934 | 69.1 | 28.8 | 2.1 | 0 | 100 | 75.6 |
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2,370 | 800 | 241 | 99.1 | 0.9 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 74.8 |
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5,800 | 4,604 | 1,368 | 89.3 | 10.4 | 0.3 | 0 | 100 | 74.4 |
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6,151 | 1,817 | 548 | 96.8 | 3.2 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 74.1 |
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8,437 | 44,975 | 15,541 | 40 | 53.2 | 6.4 | 0.3 | 100 | 74 |
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3,955 | 281,764 | 90,466 | 20 | 34.2 | 41.4 | 4.4 | 100 | 73.9 |
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2,291 | 119,101 | 42,897 | 21.8 | 55.5 | 21.5 | 1.2 | 100 | 73.8 |
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30,255 | 26,056 | 9,109 | 55 | 41.5 | 3.3 | 0.1 | 100 | 73.7 |
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18,359 | 151,752 | 53,336 | 22.5 | 45.1 | 30.8 | 1.7 | 100 | 73.6 |
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12,914 | 185,588 | 83,631 | 23.3 | 30.9 | 43.6 | 2.2 | 100 | 73.2 |
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188 | 9,998 | 3,130 | 76.3 | 22.6 | 1.1 | 0 | 100 | 73.1 |
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344 | 14,250 | 4,544 | 68.8 | 29.6 | 1.6 | 0 | 100 | 73 |
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3,424 | 3,432 | 1,147 | 92.5 | 7.3 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 73 |
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16,692 | 14,044 | 5,137 | 69.3 | 29.2 | 1.4 | 0.1 | 100 | 73 |
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1,079 | 3,457 | 1,105 | 92.4 | 7.5 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 72.9 |
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3,910 | 10,934 | 3,726 | 73.2 | 25.6 | 1.3 | 0 | 100 | 72.8 |
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628 | 4,360 | 1,393 | 90 | 9.8 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 72.7 |
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2,322 | 22,292 | 7,509 | 57.3 | 38.5 | 4.2 | 0 | 100 | 72.7 |
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5,306 | 723 | 245 | 99.3 | 0.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 72.7 |
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86 | 2,721 | 959 | 94.3 | 5.7 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 72.7 |
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27,173 | 251,034 | 90,252 | 30 | 21.5 | 44.9 | 3.7 | 100 | 72.7 |
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38,350 | 79,475 | 30,938 | 25.3 | 59.5 | 14.5 | 0.7 | 100 | 72.6 |
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3,752 | 8,470 | 2,821 | 81.1 | 18 | 0.8 | 0 | 100 | 72.4 |
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295 | 16,313 | 5,478 | 65 | 32.5 | 2.5 | 0 | 100 | 72.3 |
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63 | 19,011 | 6,281 | 58.8 | 38.3 | 3 | 0 | 100 | 72.2 |
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3,246 | 28,124 | 9,532 | 54.1 | 40.2 | 5.7 | 0.1 | 100 | 72.2 |
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50 | 24,086 | 8,349 | 55 | 40.3 | 4.7 | 0.1 | 100 | 72 |
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34 | 23,613 | 8,185 | 56.3 | 39.1 | 4.6 | 0.1 | 100 | 71.9 |
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71 | 10,196 | 3,492 | 73.8 | 25.1 | 1.1 | 0 | 100 | 71.9 |
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67 | 14,473 | 5,017 | 67.5 | 30.7 | 1.7 | 0 | 100 | 71.9 |
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3,234 | 182,548 | 76,607 | 25.6 | 34.1 | 38.1 | 2.3 | 100 | 71.8 |
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8,723 | 12,350 | 4,403 | 69.8 | 28.8 | 1.4 | 0 | 100 | 71.4 |
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3,738 | 12,039 | 4,483 | 70 | 28.7 | 1.3 | 0 | 100 | 71 |
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3,488 | 183,804 | 75,573 | 20.9 | 36.5 | 40.4 | 2.2 | 100 | 70.9 |
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20,757 | 2,843 | 1,049 | 94.2 | 5.7 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 70.9 |
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1,872 | 48,415 | 18,152 | 40 | 47.8 | 12 | 0.2 | 100 | 70.8 |
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18,865 | 18,227 | 6,705 | 58.5 | 38.9 | 2.6 | 0 | 100 | 70.8 |
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908 | 864 | 324 | 99.2 | 0.8 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 70.8 |
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2,024 | 3,892 | 1,420 | 91.2 | 8.6 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 70.8 |
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3,777 | 126,791 | 51,882 | 20 | 50.6 | 28.2 | 1.3 | 100 | 70.5 |
![]() |
1,278 | 153,294 | 58,237 | 25 | 38.3 | 35 | 1.7 | 100 | 70.5 |
![]() |
8,614 | 89,074 | 38,846 | 25.8 | 54.8 | 18.7 | 0.8 | 100 | 70.1 |
![]() |
11,441 | 811 | 313 | 99.3 | 0.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 70 |
![]() |
1,719 | 11,401 | 4,393 | 70 | 28.8 | 1.2 | 0 | 100 | 69.9 |
![]() |
2,400 | 47,002 | 17,998 | 39.6 | 48.3 | 11.9 | 0.2 | 100 | 69.8 |
![]() |
15,107 | 750 | 294 | 99.4 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 69.6 |
![]() |
31,854 | 321 | 124 | 99.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 69.6 |
![]() |
998,254 | 22,230 | 8,023 | 58.4 | 39.1 | 2.4 | 0.1 | 100 | 69.5 |
![]() |
10,359 | 448 | 177 | 99.8 | 0.2 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 69.4 |
![]() |
474 | 3,801 | 1,506 | 91.6 | 8.3 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 69.2 |
![]() |
523 | 6,473 | 2,630 | 85 | 14.6 | 0.4 | 0 | 100 | 69 |
![]() |
48,124 | 295,933 | 141,850 | 21.7 | 22.9 | 50.8 | 4.6 | 100 | 69 |
![]() |
200 | 22,289 | 8,108 | 55 | 41.5 | 3.5 | 0 | 100 | 69 |
![]() |
2,781 | 2,125 | 875 | 96.3 | 3.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 68.9 |
![]() |
1,561 | 11,543 | 4,743 | 69.3 | 29.6 | 1.1 | 0 | 100 | 68.8 |
![]() |
2,897 | 681 | 273 | 99.6 | 0.4 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 68.8 |
![]() |
13,501 | 1,811 | 743 | 97.7 | 2.3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 68.6 |
![]() |
119 | 13,087 | 5,296 | 66.3 | 32.5 | 1.2 | 0 | 100 | 68.5 |
![]() |
7,452 | 21,084 | 8,823 | 55 | 41.5 | 3.5 | 0 | 100 | 68.2 |
![]() |
869 | 21,860 | 9,240 | 55 | 41.3 | 3.7 | 0 | 100 | 68.2 |
![]() |
298 | 9,868 | 4,261 | 73.8 | 25.3 | 1 | 0 | 100 | 68.1 |
![]() |
21,355 | 11,398 | 4,750 | 70 | 28.9 | 1.1 | 0 | 100 | 68.1 |
![]() |
11,501 | 2,640 | 1,104 | 95 | 4.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 68.1 |
![]() |
14,326 | 5,033 | 2,101 | 87.9 | 11.9 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 68 |
![]() |
3,352 | 36,570 | 15,305 | 40 | 52.1 | 7.8 | 0.1 | 100 | 68 |
![]() |
3,172 | 21,640 | 9,178 | 54.7 | 41.8 | 3.5 | 0 | 100 | 68 |
![]() |
3,693 | 2,450 | 1,049 | 95.6 | 4.3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.9 |
![]() |
48,220 | 243,570 | 111,524 | 18 | 28.8 | 50 | 3.2 | 100 | 67.7 |
![]() |
1,832 | 1,967 | 865 | 97 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.7 |
![]() |
7,721 | 1,273 | 543 | 98.7 | 1.3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.7 |
![]() |
508 | 3,465 | 1,488 | 92.8 | 7.2 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 67.5 |
![]() |
5,485 | 1,131 | 483 | 99 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.5 |
![]() |
987 | 15,088 | 6,459 | 60 | 38.5 | 1.5 | 0 | 100 | 67.4 |
![]() |
7,417 | 207 | 89 | 100 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.3 |
![]() |
5,301 | 882 | 380 | 99.4 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.3 |
![]() |
253 | 211,592 | 104,733 | 20 | 30 | 47.3 | 2.7 | 100 | 67.3 |
![]() |
54 | 15,905 | 7,217 | 58.8 | 39.8 | 1.5 | 0 | 100 | 67.2 |
![]() |
6,423 | 2,597 | 1,125 | 95.3 | 4.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.2 |
![]() |
10,459 | 2,603 | 1,115 | 95.2 | 4.8 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67.2 |
![]() |
138 | 6,068 | 2,753 | 85 | 14.7 | 0.3 | 0 | 100 | 67.1 |
![]() |
4,733 | 3,187 | 1,398 | 93.6 | 6.3 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 67.1 |
![]() |
92 | 34,537 | 15,132 | 40 | 53 | 6.9 | 0.1 | 100 | 67 |
![]() |
9,151 | 2,644 | 1,155 | 95 | 4.9 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 67 |
![]() |
12,192 | 4,951 | 2,193 | 88.3 | 11.6 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 66.8 |
![]() |
53,270 | 8,727 | 3,846 | 75 | 24.4 | 0.6 | 0 | 100 | 66.8 |
![]() |
2,118 | 2,173 | 987 | 96.5 | 3.5 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 66.7 |
![]() |
22,038 | 951 | 423 | 99.3 | 0.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 66.6 |
![]() |
3,618 | 5,393 | 2,411 | 86.7 | 13.1 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 66.5 |
![]() |
2,537 | 23,411 | 10,635 | 47.5 | 48.5 | 3.9 | 0 | 100 | 66.5 |
![]() |
34,180 | 2,214 | 941 | 97 | 3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 66.4 |
![]() |
4,195 | 171,821 | 95,095 | 29 | 22.3 | 47.2 | 1.6 | 100 | 66.4 |
![]() |
210 | 5,556 | 2,480 | 85 | 14.8 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 66.3 |
![]() |
242 | 41,106 | 17,842 | 35 | 55.9 | 9 | 0.1 | 100 | 66.2 |
![]() |
37,206 | 123,997 | 63,306 | 17.4 | 52.4 | 29 | 1.1 | 100 | 66.1 |
![]() |
1,855 | 14,214 | 6,433 | 61.1 | 37.6 | 1.3 | 0 | 100 | 66.1 |
![]() |
13,352 | 7,073 | 3,198 | 82.7 | 16.9 | 0.4 | 0 | 100 | 66 |
![]() |
1,787 | 24,285 | 11,338 | 45 | 50.9 | 4 | 0 | 100 | 66 |
![]() |
9,105 | 102,971 | 53,937 | 20.4 | 53.7 | 25.1 | 0.8 | 100 | 65.9 |
![]() |
3,858 | 14,364 | 6,589 | 60.3 | 38.3 | 1.4 | 0 | 100 | 65.9 |
![]() |
3,568 | 5,385 | 2,432 | 85.9 | 13.9 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 65.9 |
![]() |
61,765 | 4,857 | 2,215 | 87.8 | 12 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 65.8 |
![]() |
1,739 | 8,979 | 4,200 | 73.1 | 26.3 | 0.6 | 0 | 100 | 65.8 |
![]() |
365 | 19,525 | 9,130 | 55 | 42.6 | 2.4 | 0 | 100 | 65.8 |
![]() |
2,985 | 11,173 | 5,139 | 68.2 | 30.9 | 0.9 | 0 | 100 | 65.8 |
![]() |
390 | 315,240 | 182,768 | 15 | 22.5 | 57 | 5.5 | 100 | 65.7 |
![]() |
1,055 | 33,701 | 15,724 | 40 | 53.3 | 6.6 | 0.1 | 100 | 65.7 |
![]() |
836 | 424 | 199 | 99.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 65.7 |
![]() |
2,237 | 9,450 | 4,451 | 72.7 | 26.6 | 0.7 | 0 | 100 | 65.6 |
![]() |
7,014 | 937 | 434 | 99.3 | 0.7 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 65.5 |
![]() |
23,982 | 10,100 | 4,673 | 70 | 29.2 | 0.7 | 0 | 100 | 65.5 |
![]() |
23,811 | 1,291 | 595 | 98.9 | 1.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 65.4 |
![]() |
4,729 | 293 | 137 | 99.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 65.2 |
![]() |
6,276 | 16,344 | 7,721 | 57.1 | 41.4 | 1.5 | 0 | 100 | 65.1 |
![]() |
3,498 | 26,551 | 12,639 | 41.2 | 54.1 | 4.7 | 0 | 100 | 65.1 |
![]() |
49,117 | 241,383 | 138,653 | 20 | 20.5 | 56.5 | 3 | 100 | 65 |
![]() |
6,464 | 955 | 455 | 99.4 | 0.6 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 64.7 |
![]() |
2,692 | 3,854 | 1,874 | 91.8 | 8.1 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 64.7 |
![]() |
17,273 | 1,998 | 951 | 97.7 | 2.3 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 64.7 |
![]() |
104,135 | 1,894 | 908 | 97.9 | 2.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 64.6 |
![]() |
935 | 37,308 | 19,247 | 40 | 52.5 | 7.4 | 0.1 | 100 | 64.5 |
![]() |
7,915 | 28,379 | 14,068 | 40 | 55 | 4.9 | 0 | 100 | 64 |
![]() |
2,263 | 5,613 | 2,793 | 85.5 | 14.3 | 0.2 | 0 | 100 | 63.9 |
![]() |
4,022 | 3,168 | 1,581 | 94.3 | 5.7 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 63.8 |
![]() |
106,365 | 4,248 | 2,106 | 90.8 | 9 | 0.1 | 0 | 100 | 63.8 |
![]() |
42,750 | 411 | 207 | 99.9 | 0.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 63.6 |
![]() |
16,617 | 402,578 | 219,505 | 6.9 | 23.7 | 62.6 | 6.8 | 100 | 63.6 |
![]() |
104,315 | 216,694 | 110,294 | 9.2 | 37.7 | 50.6 | 2.5 | 100 | 63.5 |
![]() |
467 | 21,340 | 10,929 | 45 | 52.6 | 2.4 | 0 | 100 | 63.4 |
![]() |
8,387 | 255,573 | 148,141 | 17.4 | 22.1 | 57.3 | 3.2 | 100 | 62.6 |
![]() |
7,527 | 15,175 | 7,978 | 56.8 | 42 | 1.3 | 0 | 100 | 62.5 |
![]() |
5,991 | 16,818 | 8,825 | 55.2 | 43.4 | 1.4 | 0 | 100 | 62.5 |
![]() |
7,543 | 2,407 | 1,271 | 96.8 | 3.1 | 0 | 0 | 100 | 62.2 |
![]() |
330 | 71,448 | 42,898 | 18.8 | 65 | 15.9 | 0.3 | 100 | 59.5 |
![]() |
571 | 44,822 | 26,675 | 28.7 | 60 | 11.2 | 0 | 100 | 58.5 |
![]() |
286 | 51,373 | 31,527 | 26.2 | 58.7 | 15 | 0 | 100 | 58.5 |
![]() |
1,655 | 64,067 | 44,932 | 19.4 | 60.6 | 19.9 | 0.1 | 100 | 53.5 |
![]() |
4,303 | 27,224 | 20,740 | 19.8 | 77.8 | 2.4 | 0 | 100 | 44.7 |
Lihat pula
- Kesempatan setara
- Pemisahan Besar
- Indeks Pembangunan Manusia menurut kesenjangan
- Persebaran pendapatan
- Kesenjangan pendapatan di Amerika Serikat
- Daftar negara menurut kesetaraan pendapatan
- Daftar negara menurut persebaran kekayaan
- Pajak progresif
- Plutokrasi
- Kemiskinan dan siklus kemiskinan
- Pengentasan kemiskinan
- Kesenjangan sosial
Referensi
- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag
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- ^ Fletcher, Michael A. (March 10, 2013). "Research ties economic inequality to gap in life expectancy". Washington Post. Diakses tanggal March 23, 2013.
- ^ Wilkinson, Richard; Pickett, Kate (2009). The Spirit Level: Why More Equal Societies Almost Always Do Better. Allen Lane. hlm. 352. ISBN 978-1-84614-039-6.
- ^ Easterly, W (2007). "Inequality does cause underdevelopment: Insights from a new instrument" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 84 (2): 755–776. doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2006.11.002.
- ^ Castells-Quintana, David; Royuela, Vicente (2012). "Unemployment and long-run economic growth: The role of income inequality and urbanisation" (PDF). Investigaciones Regionales. 12 (24): 153–173. Diakses tanggal 17 October 2013.
- ^ Stiglitz, J (2009). "The global crisis, social protection and jobs" (PDF). International Labour Review. 148: 1–2. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913x.2009.00046.x.
- ^ Temple, J (1999). "The New Growth Evidence" (PDF). Journal of Economic Literature. 37 (1): 112–156. doi:10.1257/jel.37.1.112.
- ^ Clarke, G (1995). "More evidence on income distribution and growth" (PDF). Journal of Development Economics. 47: 403–427. doi:10.1016/0304-3878(94)00069-o.
- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag
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- ^ Kesalahan pengutipan: Tag
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- ^ Wojciech Kopczuk, Emmanuel Saez, and Jae Song find that "most of the increase in the variance of (log) annual earnings is due to increases in the variance of (log) permanent earnings with modest increases in the variance of transitory (log) earnings." Thus, in fact, the increase in earnings inequality is in lifetime income. Furthermore, they find that it remains difficult for someone to move up the earnings distribution (though they do find upward mobility for women in their lifetime). See their "Earnings Inequality and Mobility in the United States: Evidence from Social Security Data since 1937," Quarterly Journal of Economics. 125, no. 1 (2010): 91–128.
- ^ [1] Credit Suisse, Research Institute – Global Wealth Databook 2013
Bacaan lanjutan
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- Giddens, Anthony; Diamond, Patrick (2005). The new egalitarianism. Cambridge, UK Malden, Massachusetts: Polity. ISBN 9780745634319.
- Gilens, Martin (2012). Affluence and influence: Economic inequality and political power in America. Princeton, New Jersey New York: Princeton University Press Russell Sage Foundation. ISBN 9780691162423.
- Lambert, Peter J. (2001). The distribution and redistribution of income (edisi ke-3rd). Manchester New York New York: Manchester University Press Palgrave. ISBN 9780719057328.
- Lynn, Richard; Vanhanen, Tatu (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 9780275975104.
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- Salverda, Wiemer; Nolan, Brian; Smeeding, Timothy M. (2009). The Oxford handbook of economic inequality. Oxford New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199231379.
- Schmidtz, David (2006). The elements of justice. Cambridge New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521539364.
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- Artikel
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- Makalah
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Pranala luar
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png)
Media tentang Kesenjangan ekonomi di Wikimedia Commons
- Levy, Frank (2008). "Distribution of Income". Dalam David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (edisi ke-2nd). Indianapolis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.
- A portal dedicated to the topic of economic inequality
- Small Inequality Measures Calculus (and On-Line Calculator)
- The UC Atlas of Global Inequality explores some aspects of inequality using online, downloadable maps and graphics.
- Population Health Forum website – group seeking to improve health by addressing inequality.
- Russell Sage Foundation. "Social Inequality". Working Papers. Diarsipkan dari versi asli (Web page) tanggal May 29, 2006. Diakses tanggal March 2, 2006.
- Leigh, A. and Jencks, C. (2005). "Inequality and Health: Long-Run Evidence from a Panel of Countries" (PDF). Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005.
- Clarkwest, A and Jencks, C. (2003). "Inequality and Mortality in Rich Countries: Who Owns the Null Hypothesis?" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal May 28, 2006. Diakses tanggal November 30, 2005.
- The Inequality Predicament United Nations Report on the World Social Situation 2005
- Two Americas: One Rich, One Poor? Understanding Income Inequality in the United States
- Has U.S. Income Inequality Really Increased? Accessed 2007-06-11.
- Measuring Trends in Leisure: The Allocation of Time Over Five Decades studies the trade-offs between earning income and enjoying leisure
- Data from the Inequality Survey
- Decreasing Inequality Under Latin America's "Social Democratic" and "Populist" Governments: Is the Difference Real? from the Center for Economic and Policy Research
- Wealth and Poverty: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois
- Thomas Piketty's presentation Inequality & Capitalism in the Long-Run based on Capital in the Twenty-First Century
- "Wealth Gap" – A Guide (AP News – January 2014).
- Economic and Social Inequality in Asia and Pacific: 12 Things to Know Asian Development Bank
- As inequality soars, the nervous super rich are already planning their escapes. The Guardian. 23 January 2015.
- Asia’s Wealth Inequality Problem. The Diplomat. October 23, 2015.