Pengguna:Swarabakti/Maraton: Perbedaan antara revisi
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| name = Sejarah Indonesia |
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| pretitle = Bagian dari [[:Kategori:Sejarah Indonesia|seri]] artikel mengenai |
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| title = [[Sejarah Indonesia]] |
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| image = [[Berkas:Sejarah Indonesia.png|205px|border]] |
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Dalam [[fonetik]], '''konsonan ejektif''' merupakan jenis [[konsonan]] yang biasanya [[suara (fonetik)|nirsuara]] dan diucapkan secara [[mekanisme penyaluran udara|glotal egresif]].{{efn|Mekanisme penyaluran glotal egresif merupakan sebuah jenis [[mekanisme penyaluran udara]] dalam pengucapan konsonan yang diawali dengan penghalangan udara melalui naiknya [[glotis]]}} Dalam fonologi beberapa bahasa, konsonan ejektif mungkin saja berkontras dengan konsonan-konsonan [[aspirasi (fonetik)|beraspirasi]], bersuara atau [[konsonan tenuis|tenuis]]. Beberapa bahasa memiliki konsonan [[sonoran]] terglotalisasi dengan [[suara serak]] yang polanya menyerupai ejektif secara fonologi, sementara beberapa bahasa lainnya memiliki konsonan ejektif yang polanya menyerupai [[konsonan implosif]]. Oleh karena itu, ahli fonologi mengusulkan adanya kelas konsonan fonologis yang mencakup [[konsonan terglotalisasi]], termasuk di antaranya konsonan ejektif.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|pp=147–148}}</ref> |
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| liststyle = border-top:#aaa 1px solid;padding:0.3em; |
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| above = [[Garis waktu sejarah Indonesia|Garis waktu]] |
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==Deskripsi== |
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Dalam memproduksi bunyi ejektif, [[otot stylohyoid]] dan [[otot digastrik|digastrik]] berkontraksi hingga menyebabkan [[tulang hyoid]] beserta glotis yang terhubung dengannya terangkat, dan selagi sebuah konsonan di bagian depannya (atau di velum jika mengucap {{IPA|[kʼ]}}) diucapkan, yang menaikkan tekanan udara secara drastis di mulut sehingga ketika artikulator yang terlibat memisah, ada hembusan udara yang keluar secara tiba-tiba.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|pp=147–148}}</ref> The [[Adam's apple]] may be seen moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are more obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like “spat” consonants, but ejectives are often quite weak. In some contexts and in some languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops.<ref name=Fallon>Fallon, 2002. ''The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives''</ref> These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called ''intermediates'' in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: {{angbr IPA|C!}} = strongly ejective, {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be contrastive in any natural language. |
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| list1title = [[Prasejarah Indonesia|Prasejarah]] |
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In strict, technical terms, ejectives are [[Airstream mechanism#Glottalic initiation|glottalic egressive]] consonants. The most common ejective is {{IPA|[kʼ]}} even if it is more difficult to produce than other ejectives like {{IPA|[tʼ]}} or {{IPA|[pʼ]}} because the auditory distinction between {{IPA|[kʼ]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} is greater than with other ejectives and voiceless consonants of the same place of articulation.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|p=148}}</ref> In proportion to the frequency of [[uvular consonant]]s, {{IPA|[qʼ]}} is even more common, as would be expected from the very small oral cavity used to pronounce a [[voiceless uvular stop]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} {{IPA|[pʼ]}}, on the other hand, is quite rare. That is the opposite pattern to what is found in the [[implosive consonant]]s, in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Greenberg|1970|p=?}}</ref> |
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| list1 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Manusia Jawa]] | 1.000.000 [[Sebelum Sekarang|BP]] |
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| [[Manusia Flores]] | 94.000–12.000 BP |
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| [[Teori bencana Toba|Bencana alam Toba]] | 75.000 BP |
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| [[Kebudayaan Buni]] | 400 SM |
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}} |
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| list2title = Kemunculan kerajaan awal |
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Ejective fricatives are rare for presumably the same reason: with the air escaping from the mouth while the pressure is being raised, like inflating a leaky bicycle tire, it is harder to distinguish the resulting sound as salient as a {{IPA|[kʼ]}}. |
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| list2 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Kerajaan Kutai]] | 350–1605 |
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| [[Kerajaan Tarumanagara]] | 358–669 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kendan]] | 536–702 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kalingga]] | 594–782 |
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| [[Kerajaan Indraprahasta]] | 598–747 |
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}} |
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| list3title = Klasik |
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==Occurrence== |
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| list3 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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Ejectives occur in about 20% of the world's languages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. The occurrence of ejectives often correlates to languages in mountainous regions such as the [[North American Cordillera]] where ejectives are extremely common. They frequently occur throughout the [[Andes]] and [[Maya Mountains]]. They are also common in [[East African Rift]] and the South African Plateau, see [[Geography of Africa]]. In [[Eurasia]] they are extremely common in the [[Caucasus]] which forms an island of ejective languages. Elsewhere, they are rare. {{Harvcoltxt|Everett|2013}} argues that the geographic correlation is because of decreased air pressure making ejectives easier to produce, as well as the way ejectives help to reduce water vapor loss. |
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| [[Kerajaan Melayu]] | 671–1375 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sriwijaya]] | 671–1183 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sunda]] | 662–1579 |
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| [[Kerajaan Galuh]] | 669–1482 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sumedang Larang]] | 721–1620 |
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| [[Kerajaan Medang]] | 752–1045 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kanjuruhan]] | 800-an |
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| [[Kerajaan Bali]] | 914–1908 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kahuripan]] | 1019–1045 |
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| [[Kerajaan Sunda Galuh|Kerajaan Pajajaran]] | 1042–1482 |
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| [[Kerajaan Janggala]] | 1045–1136 |
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| [[Kerajaan Kadiri]] | 1045–1222 |
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| [[Kerajaan Singasari]] | 1222–1292 |
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| [[Kerajaan Majapahit]] | 1293–1500 |
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}} |
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| list4title = Abad perdagangan |
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Language families that distinguish ejective consonants include: |
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| list4 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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* all three families of the Caucasus : the [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] such as [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] and languages of the Cherkess family ; the [[Northeast Caucasian languages]] such as [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Avar language|Avar]] ; and the [[Kartvelian languages]] such as [[Georgian language|Georgian]] |
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| [[Penyebaran Islam di Indonesia|Penyebaran Islam]] | 1200–1600 |
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* the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] and [[Salishan languages|Salishan]] families of North America along with the many diverse families of the Pacific Northwest from central [[California]] to [[British Columbia]] |
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| [[Kerajaan Aru]] | 1225–1613 |
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*[[Mayan languages|Mayan family]] |
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| [[Kesultanan Ternate]] | 1257–1914 |
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*[[Aymaran languages|Aymaran family]] |
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| [[Kesultanan Samudera Pasai]] | 1267–1521 |
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* the southern varieties of [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] ([[Qusqu-Qullaw]]) |
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| [[Kesultanan Gowa]] | 1300-an–1945 |
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* [[Puelche language|Puelche]] and [[Tehuelche language|Tehuelche]] of the [[Chonan languages]] |
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| [[Kerajaan Pagaruyung]] | 1347–1833 |
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*[[Alacalufan languages|Alacalufan family]] |
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| [[Kekaisaran Brunei|Kesultanan Brunei]] | 1368–1888 |
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* many members of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] family (notably most of the [[Cushitic]] and [[Omotic]] languages, [[Hausa language|Hausa]], and [[South Semitic]] languages like [[Amharic language|Amharic]] and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]) |
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| [[Kesultanan Melaka]] | 1405–1511 |
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* a few [[Nilo-Saharan languages]] |
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| [[Kesultanan Sulu]] | 1405–1851 |
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* [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], [[Hadza language|Hadza]], and the [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] families of southern Africa |
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| [[Kesultanan Cirebon]] | 1445–1677 |
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* [[Itelmen language|Itelmen]] of the [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages]] |
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| [[Kesultanan Demak]] | 1475–1554 |
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* [[Yapese language|Yapese]] of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]] |
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| [[Kedatuan Giri]] | 1487–1700-an |
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According to the [[glottalic theory]], the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] had a series of ejectives (or, in some versions, [[Implosive consonant|implosives]]), but no extant Indo-European language has retained them{{ref label|Sindhi|a|a}}. Ejectives are found today in [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] only because of influence of the nearby [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] and/or [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian language]] families. |
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| [[Kesultanan Aceh]] | 1496–1903 |
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| [[Kerajaan Manado]] | 1500-1670 |
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| [[Kerajaan Siau]] | 1510-1956 |
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| [[Kolonialisme Portugis di Indonesia|Portugis]] | 1512–1850 |
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| [[Kesultanan Banten]] | 1526–1813 |
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| [[Kerajaan Larantuka]] | 1515–1904 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kalinyamat]] | 1527–1599 |
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| [[Kesultanan Johor]] | 1528–1877 |
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| [[Kesultanan Pajang]] | 1568–1586 |
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| [[Kesultanan Mataram]] | 1588–1681 |
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}} |
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| list5title = Modern awal |
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It had once been predicted that ejectives and implosives would not be found in the same language{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} but both have been found phonemically at several points of articulation in [[Nilo-Saharan languages]] ([[Gumuz language|Gumuz]], [[Me'en language|Me'en]], and [[T'wampa language|T'wampa]]), [[Mayan language]] ([[Yucatec language|Yucatec]]), [[Salishan]] ([[Lushootseed language|Lushootseed]]), and the [[Oto-Manguean]] [[Mazahua language|Mazahua]]. [[Nguni languages]], such as [[Zulu language|Zulu]] have an implosive ''b'' alongside a series of allophonically ejective stops. [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] of [[Kenya]], has ejectives, implosives, and [[click consonants]]. |
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| list5 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie di Indonesia|VOC]] | 1602–1800 |
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| [[Kesultanan Bima]] | 1620–1958 |
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| [[Kesultanan Sumbawa]] | 1674–1958 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kasepuhan]] | 1679–1815 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kanoman]] | 1679–1815 |
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| [[Kasunanan Kartasura]] | 1680–1745 |
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| [[Kesultanan Siak]] | 1723–1945 |
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| [[Kasunanan Surakarta]] | 1745–1946 |
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| [[Kesultanan Yogyakarta]] | 1755–1945 |
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| [[Kesultanan Kacirebonan]] | 1808–1815 |
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| [[Kesultanan Deli]] | 1814–1946 |
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| [[Kesultanan Lingga]] | 1824–1911 |
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}} |
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| list6title = Penjajahan imperial Eropa |
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==Types== |
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| list6 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Jeda kekuasaan Prancis dan Britania di Hindia Belanda|Jeda kekuasaan Prancis dan Britania]] | 1806–1815 |
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| [[Hindia Belanda]] | {{longitem|style=line-height:1.3em|1800–1942<br/>1945–1950}} |
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}} |
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| list7title = Kemunculan Indonesia |
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Almost all ejective consonants in the world's languages are [[Stop consonant|stop]]s or [[affricate]]s, and all ejective consonants are [[obstruent]]s. {{IPA|[kʼ]}} is the most common ejective, and {{IPA|[qʼ]}} is common among languages with [[uvular consonant|uvulars]], {{IPA|[tʼ]}} less so, and {{IPA|[pʼ]}} is uncommon. Among affricates, {{IPA|[tsʼ], [tʃʼ], [tɬʼ]}} are all quite common, and {{IPA|[kxʼ]}} and {{IPA|[ʈʂʼ]}} are not unusual ({{IPA|[kxʼ]}} is particularly common among the [[Khoisan languages]], where it is the ejective equivalent of {{IPA|/k/}}). |
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| list7 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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| [[Kebangkitan Nasional Indonesia|Kebangkitan Nasional]] | 1908–1942 |
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| [[Pendudukan Jepang di Hindia Belanda|Pendudukan Jepang]] | 1942–1945 |
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| [[Revolusi Nasional Indonesia|Revolusi Nasional]] | 1945–1949 |
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}} |
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| list8title = Kemerdekaan |
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{|class=wikitable |
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| list8 = {{Aligned table|leftright=y|fullwidth=y |
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|+Attested ejective consonants<ref>Bickford & Floyd (2006) ''Articulatory Phonetics'', Table 25.1, augmented by sources at the articles on individual consonants</ref><br><small>(excluding [[ejective click (disambiguation)|ejective click]]s and secondary articulations)</small> |
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| [[Republik Indonesia Serikat]] | 1949–1950 |
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|- align=center |
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| [[Periode demokrasi liberal di Indonesia|Demokrasi liberal]] | 1950–1957 |
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! |
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| [[Demokrasi terpimpin di Indonesia|Demokrasi terpimpin]] | 1957–1965 |
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! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]] |
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| [[Transisi ke Orde Baru|Transisi]] | 1965–1966 |
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! [[Labiodental consonant|Labio­dental]] |
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| [[Orde Baru]] | 1966–1998 |
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! [[Linguolabial consonant|Linguo­labial]] |
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| [[Era Pasca-Soeharto|Pasca-Soeharto]] | 1998–sekarang |
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! [[Dental consonant|Dental]] |
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}} |
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! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]] |
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! [[Labial–alveolar consonant|Labial–<br>alveolar]] |
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! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]] |
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! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] |
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! [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]] |
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! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] |
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! [[Velar consonant|Velar]] |
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! [[Labial–velar consonant|Labial–<br>velar]] |
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! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]] |
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! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Epi-<br>glottal]] |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]<br><small>(voiced)</small> |
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| {{IPA link|pʼ}} |
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| |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|t̪ʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|tʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|t͡pʼ}}<ref>In [[Ubyx language|Ubyx]]; allophonic with {{IPA|[tʷʼ]}} and {{IPA|[t͡ʙʼ]}}</ref> |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|ʈʼ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|cʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|kʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɡ͡kʼ (ɡʼ)}}}} |
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| {{IPA|k͡pʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|qʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɢ͡qʼ (ɢʼ)}}}} |
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| {{IPA link|ʡʼ}} |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]<br><small>(voiced)</small> |
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| |
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| {{IPA|p̪fʼ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|tθʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|tsʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|d͡tsʼ (dzʼ)}}}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|tʃʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|d͡tʃʼ (dʒʼ)}}}} |
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| {{IPA link|ʈʂʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|tɕʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|cçʼ}} |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|kxʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɡ͡kxʼ (ɡɣʼ)}}}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA|{{IPAplink|qχʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɢ͡qχʼ (ɢʁʼ)}}}} |
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| |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]] |
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| {{IPA link|ɸʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|fʼ}} |
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| |
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| {{IPA link|θʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|sʼ}} |
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|style="background:#ccc" rowspan="4"| |
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| {{IPA link|ʃʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|ʂʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|ɕʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|çʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|xʼ}} |
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|style="background:#ccc" rowspan="4"| |
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| {{IPA link|χʼ}} |
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| |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] affricate |
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|style="background:#ccc" colspan="2" rowspan="2"| |
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| |
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| {{IPA|t̪ɬ̪ʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|tɬʼ}} |
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| |
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| <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">{{PUA|{{IPA link|cʼ}}}}</span> |
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| <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">{{PUA|{{IPA link|kʼ}}}}</span> |
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| |
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|style="background:#ccc" rowspan="2"| |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Lateral consonant|Lateral]] fricative |
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| |
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| {{IPA|ɬ̪ʼ}} |
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| {{IPA link|ɬʼ}} |
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| |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Trill consonant|Trill]] |
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| colspan="7" | (theoretical) |
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|style="background:#ccc" colspan="3"| |
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| colspan="2" | |
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|- align=center |
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! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]] |
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| colspan="13" | (theoretical) |
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|style="background:#ccc" | |
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|} |
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| list9title = Menurut topik |
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A few languages have ejective fricatives. In some dialects of [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the standard affricate {{IPA|[tsʼ]}} is a fricative {{IPA|[sʼ]}}; [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] (Northwest Caucasian, now extinct) had an ejective lateral fricative {{IPA|[ɬʼ]}}; and the related [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, {{IPA|[fʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ]}}. [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] is an extreme case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar, and uvular fricatives, {{IPA|[sʼ], [ɬʼ], [xʼ], [xʷʼ], [χʼ], [χʷʼ]}}; it may be the only language with the last type. [[Totonacan languages|Upper Necaxa Totonac]] is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives (alveolar, lateral, and postalveolar {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʃʼ], [ɬʼ]}}) but lacks any ejective stop or affricate (Beck 2006). Other languages with ejective fricatives are [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]], which some sources analyze as having {{IPA|[ɸʼ], [sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ]}} (but not the analysis of the Wikipedia article), [[Keresan languages|Keres dialects]], with {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʂʼ] and [ɕʼ]}}, {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} and [[Lakota language|Lakota]], with {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [xʼ]}} .{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} [[Amharic]] is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative {{IPA|[sʼ]}}, at least historically, but it has been also analyzed as now being a sociolinguistic variant (Takkele Taddese 1992). |
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| list9 = {{flatlist| |
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* [[Arkeologi Indonesia|Arkeologi]] |
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* [[Sejarah rupiah Indonesia|Mata uang]] |
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* [[Sejarah ekonomi Indonesia|Ekonomi]] |
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* [[Sejarah militer Indonesia|Militer]] |
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}} |
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| below = {{portal-inline|Indonesia|size=tiny}} |
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An ejective retroflex stop {{IPA|[ʈʼ]}} is rare. It has been reported from [[Yawelmani language|Yawelmani]] and other [[Yokutsan languages|Yokuts languages]], [[Tolowa language|Tolowa]], and [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]]. |
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{{anchor|Voiced ejective}}Because the complete closing of the glottis required to form an ejective makes voicing impossible, the allophonic voicing of ejective phonemes causes them to lose their glottalization; this occurs in [[Blin language|Blin]] (modal voice) and [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] (creaky voice). A similar historical sound change also occurred in [[Veinakh languages|Veinakh]] and [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] in the Caucasus, it and has been postulated by the [[glottalic theory]] for Indo-European.<ref name=Fallon/> Some [[Khoisan languages]] have voiced ejective stops and [[ejective-contour click|voiced ejective clicks]]; however, they actually contain [[contour (linguistics)|mixed voicing]], and the ejective release is voiceless. |
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{{vanchor|Ejective trill}}s are rare, if they exist as distinct sounds at all. An ejective {{IPA|[rʼ]}} would necessarily be voiceless,<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 700.</ref> but the vibration of the trill, combined with a lack of the intense voiceless airflow of {{IPA|[r̥]}}, gives an impression like that of voicing. Similarly, ejective nasals such as {{IPA|[mʼ, nʼ, ŋʼ]}} (also necessarily voiceless) are possible.<ref>Barker, M. A. R. (1963a). </ref><ref>Heselwood (2013: 148)</ref> (An apostrophe is commonly seen with ''r'', ''l'' and nasals, but that is [[Americanist phonetic notation]] for a [[glottalized consonant]] and does not indicate an ejective.<!--Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'' (p. 241) was tricked by the notation into thinking Salishan languages have ejective trills, and described the Columbian <r'> as an "ejective trilled stop".-->) |
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Other ejective [[sonorant]]s are not known to occur. When sonorants are transcribed with an apostrophe in the literature as if they were ejective, they actually involve a different airstream mechanism: they are [[glottalic consonant|glottalized]] consonants and vowels whose glottalization interrupts an otherwise normal voiced pulmonic airstream, somewhat like English ''uh-uh'' (either vocalic or nasal) pronounced as a single sound. |
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==Orthography== |
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In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], ejectives are indicated with a "modifier letter apostrophe" {{angbr|'''ʼ'''}}, as in this article. A reversed apostrophe is sometimes used to represent light aspiration, as in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] linguistics {{angbr IPA|p‘ t‘ k‘}}; this usage is obsolete in the IPA. In other transcription traditions, the apostrophe represents [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]]: {{angbr IPA|pʼ}} = IPA {{angbr IPA|pʲ}}. In some [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist traditions]], an apostrophe indicates weak ejection and an exclamation mark strong ejection: {{angbr IPA|k̓ , k!}}. In the IPA, the distinction might be written {{angbr IPA|kʼ, kʼʼ}}, but it seems that no language distinguishes degrees of ejection. Transcriptions of the Caucasian languages often utilize combining dots above or below a letter to indicate an ejective. |
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In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the hooked letter [[ƙ]] is used for {{IPA|/kʼ/}}. In [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: ''p t k ts tsh kr'' for {{IPA|/pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ tʃʼ kxʼ/}}. In some conventions for [[Haida language|Haida]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]], double letters are used: ''tt kk qq ttl tts'' for {{IPA|/tʼ kʼ qʼ tɬʼ tsʼ/}} (Haida) and ''zz jj dl gg'' for {{IPA|1=/tsʼ tʃʼ <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">{{PUA|cʼ}}</span> kxʼ/}} (Hadza). |
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==List== |
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===Stops=== |
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*[[bilabial ejective]] {{audio-IPA|bilabial ejective plosive.ogg|[pʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]], Archi, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Hadza language|Hadza]], [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]], [[Lakota language|Lakota]], [[Nez Perce language|Nez Perce]], [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]]) |
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**labialized bilabial ejective {{audio-IPA|labialized bilabial ejective.ogg|[pʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe) |
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**pharyngealized bilabial ejective {{IPA|[pˤʼ]}} (in Ubykh) |
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*[[dental ejective]] {{IPA|[t̪ʼ]}} (in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], Lakota,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Tigrinya){{citation needed|date=June 2015}} |
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*[[alveolar ejective]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective plosive.ogg|[tʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Amharic, Archi, [[Avar language|Avar]], Bats, Kabardian, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Gwich’in language|Gwich’in]], Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Zulu) |
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**labialized alveolar ejective {{audio-IPA|labialized alveolar ejective.ogg|[tʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, Adyghe, [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]) |
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*[[retroflex ejective]] {{IPA|[ʈʼ]}} (in Gwich’in) |
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*[[palatal ejective]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective.ogg|[cʼ]|help=no}} (in Bats, [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Nez Perce) |
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*[[velar ejective]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective plosive.ogg|[kʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Amharic, Archi, Avar, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Gwich’in, Hausa, Kabardian, Lakota, Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Zulu) |
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**palatalized velar ejective {{audio-IPA|palatalized velar ejective.ogg|[kʲʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, [[Shapsug Adyghe dialect|Shapsug]], Ubykh) |
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**labialized velar ejective {{audio-IPA|labialized velar ejective.ogg|[kʷʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Abaza language|Abaza]], Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Archi, [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh) |
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*[[uvular ejective]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective stop.ogg|[qʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Archi, Bats, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Hakuchi Adyghe dialect|Hakuchi]], Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]) |
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**palatalized uvular ejective {{IPA|[qʲʼ]}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Ubykh) |
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**labialized uvular ejective {{audio-IPA|labialized uvular ejective.ogg|[qʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Archi, [[Hakuchi Adyghe dialect|Hakuchi]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh) |
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**pharyngealized uvular ejective {{IPA|[qˤʼ]}} (in Archi, Ubykh) |
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**labialized pharyngealized uvular ejective {{IPA|[qˤʷʼ]}} (in [[Archi language|Archi]], [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]) |
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*[[epiglottal ejective]] {{audio-IPA|epiglottal ejective.ogg|[ʡʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]]) |
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===Affricates=== |
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*[[alveolar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|[tsʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Amharic, Archi, Avar, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Gwich’in, Hadza, Hausa, Kabardian, Sandawe, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh) |
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**labialized alveolar ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡sʷʼ]}} (in Archi) |
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*[[palato-alveolar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|palato-alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|[tʃʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Amharic, Archi, Avar, Chipewyan, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], Gwich’in, Hadza, Hausa, Kabardian, Lakota, Quechua, Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh, Zulu) |
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**labialized palato-alveolar ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡ʃʷʼ]}} (in Abaza, Archi) |
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*[[retroflex ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|retroflex ejective affricate.ogg|[ʈ͡ʂʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, Adyghe, Ubykh) |
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*[[alveolo-palatal ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[t͡ɕʼ]}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Ubykh) |
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**labialized alveolo-palatal ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡ɕʷʼ]}} (in Abkhaz, Ubykh) |
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*[[palatal ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective affricate.ogg|[cçʼ]|help=no}} |
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*[[dental ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[tθʼ]}} (in Chipewyan, Gwich’in) |
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*[[velar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective affricate.ogg|[kxʼ]|help=no}} (in Hadza, Zulu) |
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*[[uvular ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective affricate.ogg|[qχʼ]|help=no}} (in Avar, [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Lillooet) |
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*[[alveolar lateral ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|[tɬʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Besleney#Language|Baslaney]], Chipewyan, Dahalo, Gwich’in, Haida, Lillooet, Nez Perce, Sandawe, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Tsez) |
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*[[palatal lateral ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[c͡ʎ̝̥ʼ]}} (in Dahalo, Hadza) |
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*[[velar lateral ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|velar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|[k͡ʟ̝̊ʼ]|help=no}} (in Archi, Gǀui) |
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**labialized velar lateral ejective affricate {{IPA|[k͡ʟ̝̊ʷʼ]}} (in Archi) |
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===Fricatives=== |
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*[[bilabial ejective fricative]] {{IPA|[ɸʼ]}} |
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*[[labiodental ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|labiodental ejective fricative.ogg|[fʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Kabardian) |
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*[[dental ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|dental ejective fricative.ogg|[θʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Chiwere language|Chiwere]]) |
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*[[alveolar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[sʼ]|help=no}} (in Chiwere, Lakota, [[Shapsug Adyghe dialect|Shapsug]], Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]) |
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*[[alveolar lateral ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar lateral ejective fricative.ogg|[ɬʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardian, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh) |
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*[[palato-alveolar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|palato-alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[ʃʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe, Lakota) |
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**labialized palato-alveolar ejective fricative {{audio-IPA|labialized palato-alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[ʃʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe) |
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*[[retroflex ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|retroflex ejective fricative.ogg|[ʂʼ]|help=no}} |
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*[[alveolo-palatal ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolo-palatal ejective fricative.ogg|[ɕʼ]|help=no}} (in Kabardian) |
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*[[palatal ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective fricative.ogg|[çʼ]|help=no}} |
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*[[velar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective fricative.ogg|[xʼ]|help=no}} (in Tlingit) |
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**labialized velar ejective fricative {{IPA|[xʷʼ]}} (in Tlingit) |
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*[[uvular ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective fricative.ogg|[χʼ]|help=no}} (in Tlingit) |
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**labialized uvular ejective fricative {{IPA|[χʷʼ]}} (in Tlingit) |
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===Trills=== |
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*[[alveolar ejective trill]] {{IPA|[rʼ]}} |
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===Clicks=== |
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*[[Glottalized click#Ejective clicks|Simple ejective clicks]] {{IPA|[ʘʼ], [ǀʼ], [ǁʼ], [ǃʼ], [ǂʼ]}} (all five in [[ǂ’Amkoe language|ǂ’Amkoe]]) |
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*[[Ejective-contour click]]s |
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::{{IPA|[ʘqʼ ǀqʼ ǁqʼ ǃqʼ ǂqʼ]}} |
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::{{IPA|[ʘ̬qʼ ǀ̬qʼ ǁ̬qʼ ǃ̬qʼ ǂ̬qʼ]}} |
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::{{IPA|[ʘqχʼ ǀqχʼ ǁqχʼ ǃqχʼ ǂqχʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘkxʼ ǀkxʼ ǁkxʼ ǃkxʼ ǂkxʼ}} ~ <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">{{IPA|ʘk{{PUA|}}ʼ ǀk{{PUA|}}ʼ ǁk{{PUA|}}ʼ ǃk{{PUA|}}ʼ ǂk{{PUA|}}ʼ]}}</span> |
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::{{IPA|[ʘ̬qχʼ ǀ̬qχʼ ǁ̬qχʼ ǃ̬qχʼ ǂ̬qχʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘ̬kxʼ ǀ̬kxʼ ǁ̬kxʼ ǃ̬kxʼ ǂ̬kxʼ}} ~ <span style="font-family:Gentium Plus, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, serif">{{IPA|ʘ̬k{{PUA|}}ʼ ǀ̬k{{PUA|}}ʼ ǁ̬k{{PUA|}}ʼ ǃ̬k{{PUA|}}ʼ ǂ̬k{{PUA|}}ʼ]}}</span> |
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==See also== |
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*[[Glottalic consonant]] |
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*[[List of phonetics topics]] |
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==Notes== |
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{{note label|Sindhi|a|a}}The [[Sindhi language]] has [[implosive consonant|implosives]]. |
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==References== |
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{{Reflist}} |
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==Bibliography== |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Beck | first1 = David | year = 2006 | title = The emergence of ejective fricatives in Upper Necaxa Totonac | url = | journal = University of Alberta Working Papers in Linguistics | volume = 1 | issue = | pages = 1–18 }} |
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*Campbell, Lyle. 1973. On Glottalic Consonants. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 39, 44–46. {{jstor|1264659}} |
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*Chirikba, V.A. Aspects of Phonological Typology. Moscow, 1991 (in Russian). |
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*{{Citation |
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|last=Everett |
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|first=Caleb |
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|year=2013 |
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|title=Evidence for Direct Geographic Influences on Linguistic Sounds: The Case of Ejectives |
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|journal=[[PLOS One]] |
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|volume=8 |
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|issue=6 |
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|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065275 |
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|doi-access=free |
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}} |
}} |
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*Fallon, Paul. 2002. ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-93800-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-93800-6}}. |
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*Hogan, J. T. (1976). "An analysis of the temporal features of ejective consonants." Phonetica 33: 275–284. {{doi|10.1159/000259776}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|last=Greenberg |
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|first=Joseph H. |
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|authorlink=Joseph Greenberg |
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|year=1970 |
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|title=Some generalizations concerning glottalic consonants, especially implosives. |
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|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |
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|volume=36 |
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|pages=123–145 |
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|doi=10.1086/465105 |
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}} |
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*{{Citation |
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|last=Ladefoged |
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|first=Peter |
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|authorlink=Peter Ladefoged |
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|year=2005 |
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|title=Vowels and Consonants |
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|edition=Second |
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|publisher=Blackwell |
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|isbn=0-631-21411-9 |
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}} |
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*{{SOWL}} |
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*Lindau, M. (1984). "Phonetic differences in glottalic consonants." Journal of Phonetics, 12: 147–155. {{doi|10.1121/1.2019283}} |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Lindsey | first1 = Geoffrey | last2 = Hayward | first2 = Katrina | last3 = Haruna | first3 = Andrew | year = 1992 | title = Hausa Glottalic Consonants: A Laryngographic Study | url = | journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | volume = 55 | issue = | pages = 511–527 | doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00003682 }} |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Taddese | first1 = Takkele | year = 1992 | title = Are sʼ and tʼ variants of an Amharic variable? A sociolinguistic analysis | url = | journal = Journal of Ethiopian Languages and Literature | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 104–21 }} |
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*{{cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = Richard | last2 = Hargus | first2 = Sharon | last3 = Davis | first3 = Katharine | year = 2002 | title = On the categorization of ejectives: data from Witsuwit'en. | url = | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 32 | issue = | pages = 43–77 | doi = 10.1017/S0025100302000142 }} |
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==External links== |
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*[http://www.paulmeier.com/nonpulmonics/ Listen to Ejective Consonant] |
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*[http://wals.info/feature/7?tg_format=map&v1=cfff&v2=c00d&v3=cd00&v4=dff0&v5=c909&v6=d00d&v7=dd00&v8=d909 WALS map] of languages with ejectives (blue and purple) |
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Revisi per 20 Juni 2020 14.56
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