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{{Sejarah Belanda}}
{{Sejarah Belanda}}
'''Sejarah Belanda''' adalah sejarah bangsa bahari yang tumbuh dan berkembang di daerah dataran rendah [[delta sungai]] yang bermuara ke [[Laut Utara]] di kawasan barat laut Eropa. Catatan sejarah Belanda bermula dengan kurun waktu empat abad manakala daerah ini menjadi tapal batas wilayah [[Belanda pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi|Kekaisaran Romawi]] yang dijaga bala tentara. Daerah tapal batas ini kian lama kian terdesak oleh serbuan [[suku bangsa Jermanik|suku-suku bangsa Jermanik]] yang berpindah ke arah barat. Seiring runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dan bermulanya [[Abad Pertengahan]], tiga [[suku bangsa Jermanik]] terbesar tampil menjadi kaum penguasa daerah ini, yakni [[Frisii|suku bangsa Frisi]] di sebelah utara dan kawasan pesisir, [[Bahasa Saxon Hilir Belanda|suku bangsa Saksen Hilir]] di sebelah timur laut, dan [[suku Franka|suku bangsa Franka]] di sebelah selatan.
'''Sejarah Negeri Belanda''' adalah sejarah bangsa maritim yang tumbuh dan berkembang di daerah tanah rendah [[delta sungai]] yang bermuara ke [[Laut Utara]] di kawasan barat laut benua Eropa. Catatan sejarah Negeri Belanda bermula dengan kurun waktu empat abad manakala daerah ini menjadi perbatasan wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] yang dijaga militer. Daerah perbatasan ini kian lama kian terdesak serbuan [[suku Jermanik|suku-suku rumpun Jermanik]] yang berpindah ke arah barat. Seiring runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dan bermulanya [[Abad Pertengahan]], tiga suku terbesar dari rumpun bangsa Jermanik tampil menguasai daerah ini, yakni [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] di sebelah utara serta kawasan pesisir, [[Bahasa Saxon Hilir Belanda|orang Saksen Hilir]] di sebelah timur laut, dan [[orang Franka]] di sebelah selatan.


Pada Abad Pertengahan, kaum keturunan [[wangsa Karoling]] berjaya menguasai daerah ini, dan memperluas ruang lingkup kekuasaan mereka ke hampir seluruh kawasan barat Eropa. Negeri [[Belanda]] kala itu merupakan bagian dari [[Lorraine Hilir|Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir]] di dalam wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] yang didirikan dan diperintah oleh suku bangsa Franka. Selama beberapa abad, wilayah Belanda terbagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah swapraja feodal seperti [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]], [[Kabupaten Holland|Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[Friesland]], [[Kadipaten Geldern|Gelre]], dan berbagai swapraja feodal lainnya dengan tapal batas yang berubah-ubah. Belum ada wilayah kesatuan yang sama dengan wilayah negara Belanda sekarang ini.
Pada Abad Pertengahan, [[wangsa Karoling]] berhasil menguasai daerah ini, dan memperluas wilayah kekuasaan mereka hingga mencakup hampir seluruh kawasan barat Eropa. [[Belanda|Negeri Belanda]] kala itu merupakan bagian dari [[Lorraine Hilir|Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir]] di dalam wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] yang didirikan dan diperintah orang Franka. Selama beberapa abad, Negeri Belanda terbagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah swapraja feodal, antara lain [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]], [[Graafschap Holland|Holland]], [[Zeeland]], [[Friesland]], dan [[Kadipaten Geldern|Gelre]], dengan garis perbatasan yang terus-menerus berubah. Belum ada wilayah kesatuan yang setara dengan wilayah negara Belanda sekarang ini.
Pada 1433, [[Philippe yang Baik|Adipati Burgundia]] berhasil menguasai seluruh dataran rendah di Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir, dan mendirikan swapraja feodal [[Belanda Bourgogne|Belanda Burgundi]] yang meliputi wilayah Belgia, Luksemburg, dan sebagian wilayah Perancis.
Pada 1433, [[Philippe yang Baik|Adipati Burgundia]] berhasil menguasai seluruh daerah tanah rendah di Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir, dan mendirikan swapraja [[Negeri Belanda Burgundia]]. Wilayah swapraja ini meliputi kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda, Belgia, Luksemburg, dan sebagian Prancis.


Raja-raja Spanyol yang beragama Katolik menindak keras penyebaran mazhab Protestan, yang menimbulkan perseteruan antarkelompok masyarakat di dua kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negara Belgia dan daerah [[Holandia|Holland]] di negara Belanda. Tindakan tegas Kerajaan Spanyol ini memicu [[Pemberontakan Belanda|pemberontakan rakyat Belanda]] yang mengakibatkan swapraja Belanda Burgundi pecah menjadi [[Belanda Spanyol]] dan [[Republik Belanda|Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi]]. Belanda Spanyol adalah wilayah berpenduduk Kristen Katolik penutur bahasa Perancis dan bahasa Belanda (kurang lebih meliputi wilayah negara Belgia dan negara Luksemburg sekarang ini), sementara Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi adalah wilayah utara berpenduduk penutur bahasa Belanda yang mayoritas beragama Kristen Protestan dan minoritas beragama Kristen Katolik. Wilayah Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi inilah yang di kemudian hari menjadi wilayah negara Belanda modern.
Raja-raja Spanyol yang beragama Katolik menindak keras penyebaran agama Kristen Protestan, yang menimbulkan perseteruan antarkelompok masyarakat di dua kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negara Belgia dan daerah [[Holandia|Holland]] di Negeri Belanda. [[Pemberontakan Belanda|Pemberontakan rakyat Belanda]] yang berkobar sesudahnya mengakibatkan swapraja Negeri Belanda Burgundia pecah menjadi [[Belanda Spanyol|Negeri Belanda Spanyol]] dan [[Republik Belanda|Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi]]. Negeri Belanda Spanyol adalah wilayah di sebelah selatan yang warganya memeluk agama Kristen Katolik dan menuturkan bahasa Prancis maupun bahasa Belanda (kurang lebih meliputi wilayah negara Belgia dan negara Luksemburg sekarang ini), sementara Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi adalah wilayah di sebelah utara yang mayoritas warganya beragama Kristen Protestan dan hanya sedikit yang beragama Kristen Katolik penutur bahasa Belanda. Wilayah Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi inilah yang menjadi cikal bakal Negeri Belanda modern.


Pada [[masa Keemasan Belanda|Zaman Keemasan Belanda]] yang mencapai puncaknya sekitar tahun 1667, terjadi perkembangan di bidang perniagaan, industri, seni rupa, dan [[Daftar tokoh dari Zaman Keemasan Belanda#Ilmu pengetahuan dan filsafat|ilmu pengetahuan]]. Negara Belanda berkembang menjadi sebuah [[imperium Belanda|imperium]] yang makmur dengan wilayah-wilayah jajahan yang tersebar di seluruh dunia, dan [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie|Kongsi Dagang Hindia Timur]] atau Kompeni Belanda muncul sebagai salah satu perusahaan dagang nasional tertua dan terpenting yang berasaskan kewirausahaan dan perniagaan.
Pada [[masa Keemasan Belanda|Zaman Keemasan Negeri Belanda]] yang mencapai puncaknya sekitar tahun 1667, terjadi perkembangan di bidang usaha dagang, industri, seni rupa, dan [[Daftar tokoh dari Zaman Keemasan Belanda#Ilmu pengetahuan dan filsafat|ilmu pengetahuan]]. Negari Belanda berkembang menjadi sebuah [[imperium Belanda|imperium]] makmur yang menguasai koloni-koloni di berbagai pelosok dunia, dan [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie|Kongsi Hindia Timur]] atau Kompeni Belanda muncul sebagai salah satu perusahaan dagang nasional tertua dan terpenting yang berasaskan kewirausahaan dan usaha dagang.


Pada abad ke-18, kekuasaan dan kemakmuran Belanda mengalami kemerosotan. Negara ini melemah akibat berulang kali berperang melawan negara-negara tetangganya yang lebih kuat, yakni [[Peperangan Inggris-Belanda|Inggris]] dan [[Perang Perancis-Belanda|Perancis]]. Kerajaan Inggris merebut [[Nieuw Amsterdam]], koloni Belanda di Amerika Utara, dan mengganti namanya menjadi [[New York]]. Kerusuhan dan [[Periode Tanpa Mangkubumi Kedua#Krisis dan revolusi kaum pendukung Pangeran Oranje pada 1747|konflik]] timbul di antara [[Orangisme (Republik Belanda)|kaum pendukung Pangeran Oranje]] dan [[Patriottentijd|kaum Patriot]]. Revolusi Perancis meluber ke Belanda selepas 1789, dan [[Republik Batavia]] pun didirikan pada 1795. Napoleon menjadikannya sebuah negara satelit dengan nama [[Kerajaan Hollandia|Kerajaan Holland]] pada 1806, namun di kemudian hari hanya menjadi salah satu provinsi Imperium Perancis.
Pada abad ke-18, kedigdayaan dan kemakmuran Negeri Belanda merosot. Negara ini melemah akibat berulang kali berperang melawan negara-negara tetangga yang lebih kuat, yakni [[Peperangan Inggris-Belanda|Inggris]] dan [[Perang Prancis-Belanda|Prancis]]. Kerajaan Inggris merebut [[Nieuw Amsterdam]], koloni Belanda di Amerika Utara, dan mengganti namanya menjadi [[New York]]. Kerusuhan dan [[Periode Tanpa Mangkubumi Kedua#Krisis dan revolusi kaum pendukung Willem van Oranje pada 1747|perseteruan sengit]] timbul di antara [[Orangisme (Republik Belanda)|kaum pendukung Willem van Oranje]] dan [[Patriottentijd|kaum Patriot]]. Revolusi Prancis merembet sampai ke Negeri Belanda selepas tahun 1789, dan bermuara pada pembentukan negara [[Republik Batavia]] pada tahun 1795. Napoleon menjadikan Republik Batavia sebagai salah satu negara satelit Prancis dengan nama [[Kerajaan Hollandia|Kerajaan Holland]] pada tahun 1806, namun kemudian hari hanya menjadi salah satu provinsi Kekaisaran Prancis.


Setelah Napoleon tumbang pada 1813–1815, [[Kerajaan Bersatu Belanda|Kerajaan Kesatuan Belanda]] didirikan dengan wilayah yang diperluas, dan diperintah oleh [[Wangsa Oranye-Nassau|wangsa Oranje]] sebagai kepala monarki yang juga memerintah atas Belgia dan Luksemburg. Sang Raja memaksa memberlakukan pembaharuan-pembaharuan Protestan di Belgia, sehingga rakyat negeri itu [[Revolusi Belgia|bangkit memberontak pada 1830]] dan akhirnya merdeka pada 1839. Selepas kurun waktu pemerintahan konservatif, konstitusi tahun 1848 mengubah Belanda menjadi negara [[demokrasi perwakilan|demokrasi parlementer]] yang dikepalai oleh seorang [[kerajaan konstitusional|kepala monarki konstitusional]]. Negara Luksemburg modern secara resmi merdeka dari Belanda pada 1839, namun masih mengakui Raja Belanda sebagai kepala negaranya sampai dengan 1890. Semenjak 1890, jabatan kepala negara Luksemburg beralih ke cabang lain dari wangsa Nassau.
Setelah rezim Napoleon tumbang pada kurun waktu 1813–1815, berdiri [[Kerajaan Bersatu Belanda|Kerajaan Belanda Serikat]] dengan wilayah yang diperluas, dan diperintah [[Wangsa Oranye-Nassau|wangsa Oranje]] selaku kepala monarki yang juga berdaulat atas Belgia dan Luksemburg. Raja Belanda menerapkan pembaharuan-pembaharuan ala Kristen Protestan secara paksa di Belgia, sehingga rakyat Belgia [[Revolusi Belgia|bangkit memberontak pada tahun 1830]], dan akhirnya merdeka pada tahun 1839. Setelah beberapa waktu tunduk pada pemerintah yang berhaluan konservatif, Negeri Belanda menjadi negara [[demokrasi perwakilan|demokrasi parlementer]] yang dikepalai seorang [[kerajaan konstitusional|kepala monarki konstitusional]] berdasarkan konstitusi tahun 1848. Negara Luksemburg modern secara resmi merdeka dari Negeri Belanda pada tahun 1839, namun masih mengakui Raja Belanda sebagai kepala negara sampai dengan tahun 1890. Mulai dari 1890, jabatan kepala negara Luksemburg beralih ke cabang lain dari wangsa Nassau.


Belanda bersikap netral pada [[Perang Dunia I]], namun diserbu dan diduduki oleh Nazi Jerman pada [[Perang Dunia II]]. Nazi, termasuk sekian banyak antek-anteknya, mengumpulkan dan membunuh hampir semua orang Yahudi (yang paling terkenal adalah [[Anne Frank]]). Manakala perlawanan rakyat Belanda semakin bertambah, Nazi menghambat pasokan pangan ke banyak daerah di negeri Belanda, sehingga menimbulkan bencana kelaparan yang dahsyat sepanjang kurun waktu 1944–1945. Pada 1942, Hindia Belanda ditaklukkan oleh Jepang, namun orang-orang Belanda sudah lebih dahulu menghancurkan sumur-sumur minyak yang sangat dibutuhkan Jepang. [[Indonesia]] memproklamasikan kemerdekaannya pada 1945. [[Suriname]] mendapatkan kemerdekaannya pada 1975. Pada tahun-tahun pascaperang terjadi pemulihan ekonomi (dibantu oleh [[Rencana Marshall|Rancangan Marshall]] dari Amerika Serikat), disusul dengan penerapan konsep [[negara kesejahteraan|negara berkesejahteraan]] pada kurun waktu yang damai dan makmur. Belanda membentuk persekutuan ekonomi yang baru dengan Belgia dan Luksemburg yang dinamakan [[Benelux|Uni Beneluks]]. Ketiga negara ini menjadi anggota pendiri [[Uni Eropa]] dan [[NATO]]. Pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir ini, perekonomian Belanda telah terjalin erat dengan perekonomian Jerman, dan kini sangat makmur.
Negeri Belanda bersikap netral pada [[Perang Dunia I]], tetapi tetap saja diserbu dan diduduki Jerman Nazi pada [[Perang Dunia II]]. Jerman Nazi beserta antek-anteknya menciduk dan membunuh hampir semua warga Yahudi Belanda (yang paling terkenal adalah [[Anne Frank]]). Manakala perlawanan rakyat Belanda semakin sengit, Jerman Nazi menghambat pasokan pangan ke daerah-daerah, sehingga menimbulkan bencana kelaparan dahsyat pada kurun waktu 1944–1945. Pada tahun 1942, Hindia Belanda direbut Jepang, tetapi orang-orang Belanda sudah lebih dahulu menghancurkan sumur-sumur minyak yang sangat dibutuhkan Jepang. [[Indonesia]] memproklamasikan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1945. [[Suriname]] mendapatkan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1975. Pada tahun-tahun pascaperang, Negeri Belanda mengalami pemulihan ekonomi (berkat penerapan [[Rencana Marshall]] yang dicetuskan Amerika Serikat), dan selanjutnya menerapkan konsep [[negara kesejahteraan|negara berkesejahteraan]] pada kurun waktu yang aman dan makmur. Negeri Belanda membentuk persekutuan baru di bidang ekonomi dengan Belgia dan Luksemburg, yang dinamakan [[Benelux|Uni Beneluks]]. Ketiga negara ini kelak menjadi anggota pendiri [[Uni Eropa]] dan [[NATO]]. Pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir ini, ekonomi Negeri Belanda telah terjalin rapat dengan ekonomi negara Jerman, dan kini sangat makmur.


<!--{{Sejarah Negeri-Negeri Ranah}}-->
{{Sejarah Negeri-Negeri Dataran Rendah}}


== Prasejarah (sebelum 800 SM) ==
== Prasejarah (sebelum 800 SM) ==


=== Perubahan-perubahan bersejarah atas bentang alam ===
=== Perubahan-perubahan bersejarah atas bentang alam ===
Prasejarah kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah negara Belanda sebagian besar dibentuk oleh letak geografinya yang rendah dan terus-menerus berubah bentuk.
Prasejarah kawasan yang kini menjadi Negeri Belanda lebih banyak dipengaruhi letak geografinya yang rendah dan terus-menerus berubah.
{|cellspacing="0" border="0" style="background: white"
{|cellspacing="0" border="0" style="background: white"
|-
|-
|[[File:5500vc ex leg.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Belanda pada 5500 SM]]
|[[Berkas:5500vc ex leg.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|Negeri Belanda pada 5500 SM]]
|[[File:3850vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Belanda pada 3850 SM]]
|[[Berkas:3850vc ex leg copy.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|Negeri Belanda pada 3850 SM]]
|[[File:2750vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Belanda pada 2750 SM]]
|[[Berkas:2750vc ex leg copy.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|Negeri Belanda pada 2750 SM]]
|-
|-
|[[File:500vc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Belanda pada 500 SM]]
|[[Berkas:500vc ex leg copy.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|Negeri Belanda pada 500 SM]]
|[[File:50nc ex leg copy.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Belanda pada 50 M]]
|[[Berkas:50nc ex leg copy.jpg|jmpl|lurus|kiri|Negeri Belanda pada 50 M]]
|{{legend|#fff15d|gisik dan gumuk}}
|{{legend|#fff15d|Gisik dan gumuk}}
{{legend|#d2d500|Daerah endapan pasir yang terbentuk oleh pasang surut, [[daerah endapan lumpur]] yang terbentuk oleh pasang surut, [[rawa asin]]}}
{{legend|#d2d500|Dataran endapan pasir akibat pasang surut, [[dataran endapan lumpur]] akibat pasang surut, [[rawa asin]]}}
{{legend|#b56c03|Rawa gambut dan kawasan lanau [[dataran banjir]]<br>(termasuk alur-alur sungai tua dan celah-celah di tepian sungai yang sudah dipenuhi lanau atau gambut)}}
{{legend|#b56c03|Rawa gambut dan daerah lanau [[dataran banjir]]<br>(termasuk alur sungai tua dan celah di tepian sungai yang sudah terisi lanau atau gambut)}}
{{legend|#a1aa95|Lembah-lembah sungai utama (tidak tertutup gambut)}}
{{legend|#a1aa95|Lembah-lembah sungai utama (tidak tertutup gambut)}}
{{legend|#fec901|Gumuk sungai (gumuk [[Pleistosen]] dunes)}}
{{legend|#fec901|Gumuk sungai (gumuk [[Pleistosen]])}}
{{legend|#e3f4fc|Perairan terbuka (laut, laguna, sungai)}}
{{legend|#e3f4fc|Perairan terbuka (laut, laguna, sungai)}}
{{legend|#f1f6e2|Bentang alam Pleistosen (> −6 m dibandingkan dengan [[Normaal Amsterdams Peil|NAP]])}}
{{legend|#f1f6e2|Bentang alam Pleistosen (> -6 m dibandingkan dengan [[Normaal Amsterdams Peil|NAP]])}}
{{legend|#fffdee|Bentang alam Pleistosen ( -6 m – 0 m)}}
{{legend|#fffdee|Bentang alam Pleistosen ( -6 m – 0 m)}}
{{legend|#fff9c2|Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 0 m – 10 m)}}
{{legend|#fff9c2|Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 0 m – 10 m)}}
Baris 45: Baris 45:
|}
|}


=== Kelompok masyarakat pemburu-peramu tertua (sebelum 5000 SM) ===<!--
=== Kelompok masyarakat pemburu-peramu tertua (sebelum 5000 SM) ===
[[File:Mannetje van Willemstad.jpg|thumb|180px|An oak figurine found in Willemstad, the Netherlands, dating from around 4500 BC. On display in the [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]] in Leiden. Height: {{convert|12.5|cm|1|abbr=on}}.]]
[[Berkas:Mannetje van Willemstad.jpg|jmpl|180px|Arca kecil dari kayu ek setinggi 125 cm (49,2 inci), ditemukan di Willemstad, Negeri Belanda. Diperkirakan dibuat sekitar tahun 4500 SM. Terpajang di [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]], Leiden.]]


The area that is now the [[Netherlands]] was inhabited by early humans at least 37,000 years ago, as attested by [[flint]] tools discovered in [[Woerden]] in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-may-not-be-oldest-dutchman |title=Neanderthal may not be the oldest Dutchman &#124; Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |accessdate=25 March 2012}}</ref> In 2009 a fragment of a 40,000-year-old [[Neanderthal]] skull was found in sand dredged from the North Sea floor off the coast of Zeeland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |title=Neanderthal fossil discovered in Zeeland province &#124; Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |date=16 June 2009 |accessdate=25 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519074343/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |archive-date=19 May 2014 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Kawasan yang kini menjadi [[Belanda|Negeri Belanda]] sudah dihuni manusia purba sekurang-kurangnya pada 37.000 tahun yang lampau, terbukti dari penemuan alat-alat yang terbuat dari [[rijang|batu api]] di [[Woerden]] pada 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-may-not-be-oldest-dutchman |title=Neanderthal may not be the oldest Dutchman &#124; Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |accessdate=25 Maret 2012}}</ref> Pada 2009, sisa-sisa sebuah tengkorak [[Neanderthal|manusia Neanderthal]] berumur 40.000 tahun ditemukan dalam kegiatan pengerukan pasir dari dasar Laut Utara di perairan lepas pantai Zeeland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |title=Neanderthal fossil discovered in Zeeland province &#124; Radio Netherlands Worldwide |publisher=Rnw.nl |date=16 Juni 2009 |accessdate=25 Maret 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519074343/http://www.rnw.nl/english/article/neanderthal-fossil-discovered-zeeland-province |archive-date=19 Mei 2014 |dead-url=yes}}</ref>


During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a [[tundra]] climate with scarce vegetation and the inhabitants survived as [[hunter-gatherers]]. After the end of the ice age, various [[Paleolithic]] groups inhabited the area. It is known that around 8000 BC a [[Mesolithic]] tribe resided near [[Burgumer Mar]] ([[Friesland]]). Another group residing elsewhere is known to have made canoes. The oldest recovered canoe in the world is the [[Pesse canoe]].<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Van Zeist | first1 = W. | title = De steentijd van Nederland | journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak | volume = 75 | pages = 4–11 | year = 1957}}</ref><ref name="CMC">{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |title=The Mysterious Bog People – Background to the exhibition |publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |date=5 July 2001 |accessdate=1 June 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309042811/http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |archivedate=9 March 2007 }}</ref> According to [[Radiocarbon dating|C14 dating]] analysis it was constructed somewhere between 8200 BC and 7600 BC.<ref name="CMC"/> This canoe is exhibited in the [[Drents Museum]] in [[Assen]].
Pada Zaman Es terakhir, Negeri Belanda merupakan daerah beriklim [[tundra]] dengan vegetasi yang jarang, dan penduduknya bertahan hidup dengan bermata pencaharian sebagai [[Pemburu-pengumpul|pemburu-peramu]]. Selepas Zaman Es, Negeri Belanda didiami pelbagai kelompok masyarakat berkebudayaan [[paleolitikum|Batu Tua]]. Diketahui bahwa sekitar tahun 8000 SM, sekelompok masyarakat berkebudayaan [[Mesolitikum|Batu Madya]] bermukim di dekat [[Bergumermeer]] ([[Friesland]]). Sekelompok masyarakat yang bermukim di tempat lain diketahui sudah pandai membuat perahu. [[Perahu Pesse]] adalah perahu tertua di dunia yang ditemukan di Negeri Belanda.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Van Zeist | first1 = W. | title = De steentijd van Nederland | journal=Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak | volume = 75 | pages = 4–11 | year = 1957}}</ref><ref name="CMC">{{cite web|url=http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |title=The Mysterious Bog People – Background to the exhibition |publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |date=5 Juli 2001 |accessdate=1 Juni 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070309042811/http://www.civilization.ca/media/docs/pr148beng.html |archivedate=9 Maret 2007 }}</ref> Berdasarkan analisis [[Penanggalan radiokarbon|penentuan umur C14]], perahu ini dibuat pada kurun waktu 8200–7600 SM.<ref name="CMC"/> Perahu Pesse kini terpajang di [[Museum Drents]] di [[Assen]].


[[wikt:autochthonous|Autochthonous]] [[hunter-gatherers]] from the [[Swifterbant culture]] are attested from around 5600 BC onwards.<ref name=Kooijmans1998>Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, pp. 423–28</ref> They are strongly linked to rivers and open water and were related to the southern Scandinavian [[Ertebølle culture]] (5300–4000 BC). To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game, including seals.
Masyarakat pribumi [[pemburu-pengumpul|pemburu-peramu]] ber[[kebudayaan Swifterbant]] terbukti sudah berdiam di Negeri Belanda sejak sekitar 5600 SM.<ref name=Kooijmans1998>Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/1108/171_060.pdf?sequence=1 Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam]", 1998, ''Spiegel Historiael'' 33, hlmn. 423–428</ref> Kebudayaan ini berkaitan erat dengan sungai-sungai dan perairan terbuka serta masih berkerabat dengan [[kebudayaan Ertebølle]] (5300–4000 SM) di kawasan selatan Skandinavia. Di kawasan barat Negeri Belanda, suku-suku pengusung kebudayaan yang sama boleh jadi sudah mendirikan pondok-pondok perburuan untuk keperluan berburu selama musim dingin, termasuk berburu anjing laut.


===The arrival of farming (around 5000–4000 BC)===
=== Kedatangan budaya bercocok tanam (sekitar 5000–4000 SM) ===
Kepandaian bercocok tanam masuk ke Negeri Belanda sekitar 5000 SM bersama [[kebudayaan Tembikar Linear]], yang mungkin dibawa masyarakat-masyarakat tani dari kawasan tengah Eropa. Kegiatan bercocok tanam hanya dilakukan di [[dataran tinggi]] [[löss]] (tanah hasil endapan debu yang terbawa angin) di pelosok selatan Negeri Belanda (kawasan selatan [[Limburg (Belanda)|Limburg]]), namun bahkan di tempat itu pun praktik bercocok tanam tidak bertahan lama. Lahan-lahan usaha tani tidak berkembang di semua daerah lain di Negeri Belanda.
Agriculture arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC with the [[Linear Pottery culture]], who were probably central European farmers. Agriculture was practised only on the [[loess]] [[plateau]] in the very south (southern [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]), but even there it was not established permanently. Farms did not develop in the rest of the Netherlands.


There is also some evidence of small settlements in the rest of the country. These people made the switch to [[animal husbandry]] sometime between 4800 BC and 4500 BC. Dutch archaeologist Leendert Louwe Kooijmans wrote, "It is becoming increasingly clear that the agricultural transformation of prehistoric communities was a purely indigenous process that took place very gradually."<ref name="Kooijmans1998"/> This transformation took place as early as 4300 BC–4000 BC<ref>Volkskrant 24 August 2007
Ada pula sejumlah jejak keberadaan permukiman-permukiman kecil yang tersebar di seluruh Negeri Belanda. Para pemukim di negeri ini mulai [[peternakan|beternak]] antara 4800 SM dan 4500 SM. Arkeolog Belanda, Leendert Louwe Kooijmans, menulis bahwa "semakin lama semakin jelas bahwasanya transformasi bercocok tanam dari komunitas-komunitas prasejarah merupakan suatu proses yang sepenuhnya alamiah dan berlangsung sangat lamban."<ref name="Kooijmans1998"/> Transformasi ini terjadi seawal-awalnya pada 4300 SM–4000 SM,<ref>Volkskrant 24 Agustus 2007
"[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant Prehistoric agricultural field found in Swifterbant, 4300–4000 BC]"</ref> and featured the introduction of grains in small quantities into a traditional broad-spectrum economy.<ref name=Raemakers>Raemakers, Daan. "[http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf De spiegel van Swifterbant] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410084410/http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf |date=10 April 2008 }}", University of Groningen, 2006.</ref>
"[http://www.volkskrant.nl/wetenschap/article455140.ece/Prehistorische_akker_gevonden_bij_Swifterbant Lahan bercocok tanam prasejarah ditemukan di Swifterbant, 4300–4000 SM]"</ref> dan melibatkan pengenalan biji-bijian dalam jumlah kecil ke dalam spektrum perekonomian tradisional yang luas.<ref name=Raemakers>Raemakers, Daan. "[http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf De spiegel van Swifterbant] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410084410/http://redes.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/root/2006/d.raemaekers/Raemaekers.pdf |date=10 April 2008 }}", Universitas Groningen, 2006.</ref>


===Funnelbeaker and other cultures (around 4000–3000 BC)===
=== Kebudayaan Bejana Corong dan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lainnya (sekitar 4000–3000 SM) ===
[[File:Grootste hunebed van Nederl.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hunebed]] D27, the largest dolmen in the Netherlands, located near [[Borger, Netherlands|Borger]] in Drenthe.]]
[[Berkas:Grootste hunebed van Nederl.jpg|jmpl|ka|[[dolmen|Hunebed]] D27, dolmen terbesar di Negeri Belanda, berlokasi di dekat Desa [[Borger, Belanda|Borger]], Provinsi Drenthe.]]


[[Kebudayaan Bejana Corong]] adalah sebuah kebudayaan tani yang berkembang mulai dari Denmark melewati Jerman sampai ke kawasan utara Negeri Belanda. Pada kurun waktu dalam prasejarah Negeri Belanda ini, didirikan peninggalan-peninggalan menonjol yang pertama, yakni [[dolmen|dolmen-dolmen]], monumen-monumen makam dari batu berukuran besar. Dolmen-dolmen ini ditemukan di Provinsi [[Drenthe]], dan mungkin sekali didirikan antara 4100 SM dan 3200 SM.
The [[Funnelbeaker culture]] was a farming culture extending from Denmark through northern Germany into the northern Netherlands. In this period of Dutch prehistory the first notable remains were erected: the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments. They are found in [[Drenthe]], and were probably built between 4100 BC and 3200 BC.


Di kawasan barat, [[kebudayaan Vlaardingen]] (sekitar 2600 SM), yang tampaknya merupakan sebuah kebudayaan pemburu-peramu yang lebih primitif, terus bertahan hidup sampai memasuki [[neolitikum|Zaman Batu Muda]].
To the west, the [[Vlaardingen culture]] (around 2600 BC), an apparently more primitive culture of hunter-gatherers survived well into the [[Neolithic]] period.


===Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures (around 3000–2000 BC)===
=== Kebudayaan Gerabah Dawai dan kebudayaan Bejana Genta (sekitar 3000–2000 SM) ===
Around 2950 BCE there was a transition from the [[Funnelbeaker]] farming culture to the [[Corded Ware]] pastoralist culture, a large archeological horizon appearing in western and central Europe, that is associated with the advance of Indo-European languages. This transition was probably caused by developments{{clarify|date=April 2016}} in eastern Germany, and it occurred within two generations.<ref name=Bloemers>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, in J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (Eds), ''Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen''. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. {{ISBN|90-269-4448-9}}, NUGI 644</ref>
Sekitar 2950 SM, terjadi peralihan dari kebudayaan tani [[kebudayaan Bejana Corong|Bejana Corong]] ke kebudayaan gembala [[kebudayaan Bejana Dawai|Bejana Dawai]], sebuah ruang lingkup arkeologi yang luas muncul di kawasan barat dan tengah Eropa, yang dihubung-hubungkan dengan perkembangan rumpun bahasa India-Eropa. Peralihan ini mungkin sekali merupakan dampak dari perkembangan-perkembangan di kawasan timur Jerman, dan berlangsung dalam dua generasi.<ref name=Bloemers>Dalam J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (penyunting), ''Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen''. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. {{ISBN|90-269-4448-9}}, NUGI 644</ref>


The [[Bell Beaker culture]] was also present in the Netherlands.<ref name=Lanting>Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), "Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin", {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}, in Lanting et al. (Eds) ''Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974''. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.</ref><ref>{{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. 93, in J. P. Mallory and John Q. Adams (Eds), ''The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.</ref>
[[Kebudayaan Bejana Genta]] juga berkembang di Negeri Belanda.<ref name=Lanting>Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), "Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin", dalam Lanting dkk. (penyunting) ''Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974''. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.</ref><ref>Hlm. 93, dalam J. P. Mallory dan John Q. Adams (penyunting), ''The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'', Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.</ref>


Kebudayaan Bejana Dawai dan kebudayaan Bejana Genta bukanlah kebudayaan asli Negeri Belanda namun pada hakikatnya merupakan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lintas Eropa yang berkembang di hampir seluruh kawasan utara dan tengah Eropa.
The Corded Ware and Bell Beaker cultures were not indigenous to the Netherlands but were pan-European in nature, extending across much of northern and central Europe.


Bukti pertama penggunaan roda berasal dari kurun waktu ini, yakni sekitar 2400 SM. Kebudayaan ini juga mulai mencoba-coba mengolah tembaga. Bukti-bukti mengenai perkembangan ini meliputi paron-paron batu, pisau-pisau tembaga, dan sebilah mata tombak tembaga yang ditemukan di [[Veluwe]]. Temuan-temuan peralatan tembaga menunjukkan bahwa kala itu sudah ada hubungan dagang dengan kawasan-kawasan lain di Eropa karena tanah Negeri Belanda tidak mengandung tembaga.
The first evidence of the use of the wheel dates from this period, about 2400 BC. This culture also experimented with working with copper. Evidence of this, including stone anvils, copper knives, and a copper spearhead, was found on the [[Veluwe]]. Copper finds show that there was trade with other areas in Europe, as natural copper is not found in Dutch soil.


===Bronze Age (around 2000–800 BC)===
=== Zaman Perunggu (sekitar 2000–800 SM) ===
[[File:Zwaard van Jutphaas.jpg|thumb|right|80px|A bronze ceremonial object (not a sword, but called the "Sword of Jutphaas"), dating from 1800–1500 BC and found south of [[Utrecht]].]]
[[Berkas:Zwaard van Jutphaas.jpg|jmpl|ka|80px|Sarana upacara dari perunggu (bukan pedang, namun disebut "Pedang Jutphaas"), diperkirakan berasal dari 1800–1500 SM dan ditemukan di kawasan selatan [[Utrecht]].]]


The [[Bronze Age]] probably started somewhere around 2000 BC and lasted until around 800 BC. The earliest [[bronze]] tools have been found in the grave of a Bronze Age individual called "the smith of [[Wageningen]]". More Bronze Age objects from later periods have been found in [[Epe, Netherlands|Epe]], [[Drouwen]] and elsewhere. Broken bronze objects found in [[Voorschoten]] were apparently destined for recycling. This indicates how valuable bronze was considered in the Bronze Age. Typical bronze objects from this period included knives, swords, axes, [[fibulae]] and bracelets.
[[Zaman Perunggu]] mungkin sekali bermula sekitar 2000 SM dan berakhir sekitar 800 SM. Alat-alat [[perunggu]] tertua ditemukan di sebuah makam pribadi dari Zaman Perunggu yang disebut makam "Pandai Logam [[Wageningen]]". Lebih banyak lagi benda Zaman Perunggu dari masa-masa yang lebih kemudian telah ditemukan di [[Epe, Belanda|Epe]], [[Drouwen]], dan daerah-daerah lain. Kepingan benda-benda perunggu yang ditemukan di [[Voorschoten]] tampaknya disiapkan untuk didaur ulang. Kegiatan daur ulang menunjukkan betapa berharganya perunggu bagi masyarakat Zaman Perunggu. Benda-benda perunggu yang lumrah dari kurun waktu ini meliputi pisau, pedang, kapak, [[fibula (peniti)]], dan gelang tangan.


[[File:BronzAgeElp.png|thumb|left|Location of the [[Elp culture|Elp]] and [[Hilversum culture]]s in the Bronze Age.]]
[[Berkas:BronzAgeElp.png|jmpl|kiri|Lokasi [[kebudayaan Elp]] dan [[kebudayaan Hilversum]] pada Zaman Perunggu.]]
Sebagian besar benda peninggalan Zaman Perunggu di Negeri Belanda ditemukan di [[Drenthe]]. Salah satu jenis dari benda-benda peninggalan ini menunjukkan bahwa jaringan dagang pada kurun waktu ini sudah membentang sampai ke tempat-tempat yang jauh, yakni sejumlah ''situlae'' (ember) perunggu berukuran besar hasil temuan di Drenthe yang agaknya dibuat di kawasan timur Prancis atau di [[Swiss]]. Benda-benda ini digunakan sebagai wadah untuk mencampur minuman anggur dengan air (adat Romawi/Yunani). Banyaknya barang temuan di Drenthe yang berupa barang-barang langka dan bernilai tinggi, misalnya beberapa untai kalung manik-manik timah, menyiratkan bahwa Drenthe merupakan sebuah pusat dagang di Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Perunggu.
Most of the Bronze Age objects found in the Netherlands have been found in [[Drenthe]]. One item shows that trading networks during this period extended a far distance. Large bronze ''situlae'' (buckets) found in Drenthe were manufactured somewhere in eastern France or in [[Switzerland]]. They were used for mixing wine with water (a Roman/Greek custom). The many finds in Drenthe of rare and valuable objects, such as tin-bead necklaces, suggest that Drenthe was a trading centre in the Netherlands in the Bronze Age.


Masyarakat-masyarakat pribumi ber[[kebudayaan Bejana Genta]] (2700–2100 SM) berkembang menjadi masyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan Bejana Kawat Duri (2100–1800 SM). Pada milenium kedua SM, Negeri Belanda merupakan daerah perbatasan antara kawasan ber[[Zaman Perunggu Atlantik|kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Atlantik]] dan kawasan ber[[Zaman Perunggu Nordik|kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Nordik]], dan terbagi menjadi wilayah utara dan wilayah selatan yang dipisahkan aliran [[Sungai Rhein]].
The [[Beaker culture|Bell Beaker cultures]] (2700–2100) locally developed into the Bronze Age Barbed-Wire Beaker culture (2100–1800). In the second millennium BC, the region was the boundary between the [[Atlantic Bronze Age|Atlantic]] and [[Nordic Bronze Age|Nordic]] horizons and was split into a northern and a southern region, roughly divided by the course of the [[Rhine]].


In the north, the [[Elp culture]] (c. 1800 to 800 BC)<ref>According to "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), version 1.0 November 1992, [http://www.racm.nl/content/documenten%5Cabr%20website.pdf], ''Elp Kümmerkeramik'' is dated BRONSMA (early MBA) to BRONSL (LBA) and this has been standardized by "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM)" as being at the period starting at 1800 BC and ending at 800 BC.{{Failed verification|date=October 2011}} {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> was a Bronze Age archaeological culture having [[earthenware]] pottery of low quality known as "''Kümmerkeramik''" (or "''Grobkeramik''") as a marker. The initial phase was characterized by [[tumulus|tumuli]] (1800–1200 BC) that were strongly tied to contemporary tumuli in northern Germany and Scandinavia, and were apparently related to the [[Tumulus culture]] (1600–1200 BC) in central Europe. This phase was followed by a subsequent change featuring [[Urnfield]] ([[cremation]]) burial customs (1200–800 BC). The southern region became dominated by the [[Hilversum culture]] (1800–800), which apparently inherited the cultural ties with Britain of the previous Barbed-Wire Beaker culture.
Di wilayah utara, berkembang [[kebudayaan Elp]] (sekitar 1800–800 SM),<ref>Menurut o "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), versi 1.0 November 1992, [http://www.racm.nl/content/documenten%5Cabr%20website.pdf], ''Elp Kümmerkeramik'' diberi tarikh BRONSMA (awal MBA) sampai BRONSL (LBA) dan perkiraan tarikh ini telah distandardisasi "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM)" sebagai kurun waktu yang berawal pada 1800 SM dan berakhir pada 800 SM.</ref> yakni kebudayaan arkeologi Zaman Perunggu yang ditandai pembuatan tembikar [[gerabah]] bermutu rendah yang disebut "''Kümmerkeramik''" (atau "''Grobkeramik''"). Tahap permulaan dari kurun waktu perkembangan kebudayaan Elp bercirikan [[tumulus|tumuli]] atau gundukan-gundukan makam (1800–1200 SM) yang berkaitan erat dengan tumuli semasa di kawasan utara Jerman serta Skandinavia, dan tampaknya masih berkerabat dengan [[kebudayaan Tumulus]] (1600–1200 SM) di kawasan tengah Eropa. Tahap permulaan ini disusul tahap perkembangan berikutnya yang bercirikan adat penguburan [[kebudayaan Padang Tempayan]] atau adat [[kremasi]] (1200–800 SM). Wilayah selatan didominasi [[kebudayaan Hilversum]] (1800–800 M), yang tampaknya mewarisi keterkaitan budaya dengan Britania dari kebudayaan Bejana Kawat Duri sebelumnya.


== The pre-Roman period (800 BC – 58 BC) ==
== Zaman pra-Romawi (800 SM – 58 SM) ==


===Iron age===
=== Zaman Besi ===
[[File:Boerderij IJzertijd Reijntjesveld.jpg|thumb|A reconstruction of an [[iron age]] dwelling on the Reijntjesveld near [[Orvelte]] in [[Drenthe]].]]
[[Berkas:Boerderij IJzertijd Reijntjesveld.jpg|jmpl|Rekonstruksi tempat tinggal [[Zaman Besi]] di Reijntjesveld, dekat Desa [[Orvelte]], Provinsi [[Drenthe]].]]
[[File:Verbogen Keltische zwaard.jpg|thumb|The original curved iron sword from the [[Vorstengraf (Oss)]], [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]].]]
[[Berkas:Verbogen Keltische zwaard.jpg|jmpl|Pedang besi lengkung asli dari [[Vorstengraf, Oss]], tersimpan di [[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]].]]


[[Zaman Besi]] mendatangkan kemakmuran bagi masyarakat yang bermukim di Negeri Belanda. Bijih besi terdapat di seluruh pelosok Negeri Belanda, termasuk [[besi rawa gambut]] yang diekstrasi dari [[bijih]] di [[rawa gambut|daerah rawa gambut]] (''moeras ijzererts'') di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, bola-bola berkandungan besi alami yang ditemukan di [[Veluwe]], dan bijih besi merah dekat sungai-sungai di Brabant. [[tukang besi|Para pandai logam]] berkelana dari satu permukiman kecil ke permukiman kecil lainnya dengan membawa serta [[perunggu]] dan besi untuk ditempa menjadi alat-alat berdasarkan pesanan, yakni kapak, pisau, jarum peniti, mata panah, dan pedang. Beberapa temuan bahkan menyiratkan bahwa para pandai logam ini sudah pandai pula membuat pedang berbahan [[baja Damaskus]] dengan menggunakan metode [[Tempa (metalurgi)|penempaan]] yang sudah lebih maju sehingga mampu memadukan kelenturan besi dengan kekuatan baja.
The [[Iron Age]] brought a measure of prosperity to the people living in the area of the present-day Netherlands. Iron ore was available throughout the country, including [[bog iron]] extracted from the [[ore]] in [[peat bogs]] (''moeras ijzererts'') in the north, the natural iron-bearing balls found in the [[Veluwe]] and the red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant. [[Blacksmith|Smiths]] travelled from small settlement to settlement with [[bronze]] and iron, fabricating tools on demand, including axes, knives, pins, arrowheads and swords. Some evidence even suggests the making of [[Damascus steel]] swords using an advanced method of [[forging]] that combined the flexibility of iron with the strength of steel.


In [[Oss]], a grave dating from around 500 BC was found in a burial mound 52 metres wide (and thus the largest of its kind in western Europe). Dubbed the "king's grave" (''[[Vorstengraf (Oss)]]''), it contained extraordinary objects, including an iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral.
Di [[Oss]], sebuah makam yang diperkirakan berasal dari tahun 500 SM ditemukan di dalam sebuah gundukan makam selebar 52 meter (gundukan makam terbesar di kawasan barat Eropa). Makam yang dijuluki "kubur raja" (''[[Vorstengraf, Oss|Vorstengraf]]'') ini berisi benda-benda yang luar biasa, antara lain sebilah pedang besi bertatahkan emas dan batu koral.


In the centuries just before the arrival of the Romans, northern areas formerly occupied by the Elp culture emerged as the probably Germanic Harpstedt culture<ref name=Mallory>Mallory, J.P., ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth'', London: Thames & Hudson, 1989, p. 87.</ref> while the southern parts were influenced by the [[Hallstatt culture]] and assimilated into the Celtic [[La Tène culture]]. The contemporary southern and western migration of Germanic groups and the northern expansion of the Hallstatt culture drew these peoples into each other's sphere of influence.<ref>Butler, J.J., ''Nederland in de bronstijd'', Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1969, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}.</ref> This is consistent with [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s account of the Rhine forming the boundary between Celtic and Germanic tribes.
Pada abad-abad menjelang kedatangan bangsa Romawi, wilayah utara yang dahulu dihuni masyarakat berkebudayaan Elp berkembang menjadi masyarakat yang mungkin sekali berkebudayaan Jermanik Harpstedt,<ref name=Mallory>Mallory, J.P., ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth'', London: Thames & Hudson, 1989, hlm. 87.</ref> sementara wilayah selatan dipengaruhi [[kebudayaan Hallstatt]] dan berasimilasi ke dalam kebudayaan Keltik [[kebudayaan La Tène|La Tène]]. Suku-suku rumpun Jermanik yang berpindah ke arah selatan dan barat, serta kebudayaan Hallstatt yang meluas ke arah utara kala itu menarik masyarakat yang bermukim di Negeri Belanda ke dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh mereka.<ref>Butler, J.J., ''Nederland in de bronstijd'', Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1969}}.</ref> Keadaan ini selaras dengan keterangan dalam catatan [[Julius Caesar|Yulius Kaisar]] bahwasanya Sungai Rhein merupakan batas antara wilayah masyarakat Keltik dan wilayah masyarakat Jermanik.


=== Kedatangan suku-suku rumpun Jermanik ===
===Arrival of Germanic groups===
[[File:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|thumb|left|Distribution of the primary Germanic groups c. 1 AD.]]
[[Berkas:Germanic tribes (750BC-1AD).png|jmpl|kiri|Persebaran suku-suku utama dari rumpun Jermanik ''[[circa|ca.]]'' 1 M.]]


The [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] tribes originally inhabited southern [[Scandinavia]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]] and [[Hamburg]],<ref name="Werner Hilgemann p.109">Kinder, Hermann and Werner Hilgemann, ''The Penguin Atlas of World History''; translated by Ernest A. Menze ; with maps designed by Harald and Ruth Bukor. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-051054-0}} Volume 1. p. 109.</ref> but subsequent [[Iron Age]] cultures of the same region, like [[Wessenstedt]] (800–600 BC) and [[Jastorf culture|Jastorf]], may also have belonged to this grouping.<ref>''The New Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 15th edition, 20:67</ref>
Suku-suku rumpun [[suku bangsa Jermanik|Jermanik]] mula-mula mendiami kawasan selatan [[Skandinavia]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], dan [[Hamburg]],<ref name="Werner Hilgemann hlm.109">Kinder, Hermann dan Werner Hilgemann, ''The Penguin Atlas of World History''; diterjemahkan Ernest A. Menze ; dengan peta-peta yang dirancang Harald dan Ruth Bukor. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-14-051054-0}} Jilid 1. hlm. 109.</ref> tetapi masyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan [[Zaman Besi]] dari kawasan yang sama, seperti masyarakat berkebudayaan [[Wessenstedt]] (800–600 SM) dan masyarakat ber[[kebudayaan Jastorf]], mungkin pula termasuk dalam kelompok ini.<ref>''The New Encyclopaedia Britannica'', edisi ke-15, 20:67</ref>
The climate deteriorating in Scandinavia around 850 BC to 760 BC and later and faster around 650 BC might have triggered migrations. Archaeological evidence suggests around 750 BC a relatively uniform Germanic people from the [[Netherlands]] to the [[Vistula]] and southern Scandinavia.<ref name="Werner Hilgemann p.109"/> In the west, the newcomers settled the coastal floodplains for the first time, since in adjacent higher grounds the population had increased and the soil had become exhausted.<ref name="Verhart">Verhart, Leo ''Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn'', {{ISBN|90-5345-303-2}}, 2006, pp. 67, 81–82</ref>
Memburuknya iklim di Skandinavia sekitar 850–760 SM yang semakin pesat sekitar 650 SM mungkin memicu perpindahan suku-suku ini. Bukti-bukti arkeologi menyiratkan bahwa pada sekitar 750 SM, [[Belanda|Negeri Belanda]] sampai ke [[Vistula]] dan kawasan selatan Skandinavia didiami masyarakat Jermanik yang relatif seragam.<ref name="Werner Hilgemann hlm.109"/> Di kawasan barat Negeri Belanda, dataran-dataran banjir di daerah pesisir untuk pertama kalinya didiami kaum pendatang baru ini, karena daerah-daerah yang lebih tinggi di sekitarnya sudah mengalami pertambahan populasi dan menjadi lahan tandus.<ref name="Verhart">Verhart, Leo ''Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn'', {{ISBN|90-5345-303-2}}, 2006, hlmn. 67, 81–82</ref>


By the time this migration was complete, around 250 BC, a few general cultural and linguistic groupings had emerged.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th edition, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, pp. 12, 21–27</ref>
Ketika proses perpindahan ini rampung sekitar 250 SM, terbentuklah kelompok-kelompok budaya dan bahasa.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica'', edisi ke-15, 22:641–642</ref><ref name="Verhaal">de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, ''Het verhaal van een taal'', Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, hlmn. 12, 21–27</ref>


One grouping - labelled the "[[North Sea Germanic]]" inhabited the northern part of the Netherlands (north of the great rivers) and extending along the [[North Sea]] and into [[Jutland]]. This group is also sometimes referred to as the "[[Ingvaeones]]". Included in this group are the peoples who would later develop into, among others, the [[Frisii|early Frisians]] and the early [[Saxons]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
Kelompok pertama, yang diberi nama masyarakat "[[Jermanik Laut Utara]]", mendiami kawasan utara Negeri Belanda (daerah di sebelah utara sungai-sungai besar) dan menyebar ke seluruh pesisir [[Laut Utara]] sampai ke [[Jutland]]. Kelompok ini kadang-kadang disebut pula masyarakat "[[Ingveon]]", dan mencakup suku-suku yang kemudian hari berkembang menjadi antara lain [[Frisii|orang Frisia purwa]] dan [[bangsa sachsen|orang Saksen purwa]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>


Kelompok kedua, yang oleh para ahli diberi nama masyarakat "[[Jermanik Weser-Rhein]]" (atau "Jermanik Rhein-Weser"), tersebar di sepanjang kawasan tengah dari daerah aliran Sungai Rhein serta [[Sungai Weser]], dan mendiami kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (daerah di sebelah selatan sungai-sungai besar). Kelompok ini kadang-kadang disebut pula masyarakat "[[Istveon]]", dan terdiri atas suku-suku yang kemudian hari berkembang menjadi [[orang Franka Sali|suku Franka Sali]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
A second grouping, which scholars subsequently dubbed the "[[Weser-Rhine Germanic]]" (or "Rhine-Weser Germanic"), extended along the middle Rhine and [[Weser]] and inhabited the southern part of the Netherlands (south of the great rivers). This group, also sometimes referred to as the "[[Istvaeones]]", consisted of tribes that would eventually develop into the [[Salian Franks]].<ref name="Verhaal"/>
{{Clear}}
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=== Masyarakat Keltik di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda ===
===Celts in the south===
[[File:Celtic expansion in Europe.png|thumb|Diachronic distribution of Celtic peoples, showing expansion into the southern Netherlands: <br />
[[File:Celtic expansion in Europe.png|jmpl|Persebaran diakronik masyarakat Keltik, menunjukkan perluasan wilayah di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda: <br />
{{legend|#ffff43|core [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] territory, by the 6th century BC}}
{{legend|#ffff43|Pusat [[kebudayaan Hallstatt]], pada abad ke-6 SM}}
{{legend|#97ffb6|maximal Celtic expansion, by 275 BC}}
{{legend|#97ffb6|Perluasan wilayah maksimal masyarakat Keltik, pada 275 SM}}
{{legend|#b7ffc6|[[Lusitania]]n area of Iberia where Celtic presence is uncertain}}
{{legend|#b7ffc6|Daerah orang [[Lusitania]] di Iberia, tempat keberadaan masyarakat Keltik tidak dapat dipastikan}}
{{legend|#27c600|areas where Celtic languages remain widely spoken today}}]]
{{legend|#27c600|daerah-daerah tempat bahasa-bahasa Keltik masih dituturkan secara luas sampai sekarang}}]]


The [[Celts|Celtic]] culture had its origins in the central European [[Hallstatt culture]] (c. 800–450 BC), named for the rich grave finds in [[Hallstatt]], Austria.<ref>Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts''. Penguin Books, 1997, pp. 39–67.</ref> By the later [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] period (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had, whether by [[Trans-cultural diffusion|diffusion]] or [[human migration|migration]], expanded over a wide range, including into the southern area of the Netherlands. This would have been the northern reach of the [[Gauls]].
Kebudayaan [[Kelt]]ik berasal dari [[kebudayaan Hallstatt]] (''[[circa|ca.]]'' 800–450 SM) di kawasan tengah Eropa, yakni kebudayaan yang meninggalkan jejak berupa benda-benda bekal kubur yang ditemukan di [[Hallstatt]], Austria.<ref>Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts''. Penguin Books, 1997, hlmn. 39–67.</ref> Kemudian hari, pada kurun waktu perkembangan [[kebudayaan La Tène]] (''ca.'' 450 SM sampai Negeri Belanda ditaklukkan
bangsa Romawi), kebudayaan Keltik ini, baik melalui [[Difusi lintas budaya|difusi]] maupun [[perpindahan manusia|migrasi]], menyebar luas sampai ke kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda ini merupakan batas utara dari daerah persebaran [[Galia|orang Galia]].


In March 2005 17 Celtic coins were found in [[Echt (Limburg)]]. The silver coins, mixed with copper and gold, date from around 50 BC to 20 AD. In October 2008 a hoard of 39 gold coins and 70 silver Celtic coins was found in the [[Amby]] area of [[Maastricht]].<ref>[http://www.maastricht.nl/maastricht/servlet/nl.gx.maastricht.client.http.GetFile?id=352412&file=Bijlage_-__Unieke_Keltische_muntschat_ontdekt_in_Maastricht.pdf ''Achtergrondinformatie bij de muntschat van Maastricht-Amby''], Municipality of Maastricht, 2008.</ref> The gold coins were attributed to the [[Eburones]] people.<ref>[http://www.archeonet.be/?p=4289 Unieke Keltische muntschat ontdekt in Maastricht], Archeonet.be, 15 November 2008. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</ref> Celtic objects have also been found in the area of [[Zutphen]].<ref name="Zutphen">[http://www.zutphen.nl/eCache/16161/urnenveld.pdf ''Het urnenveld van het Meijerink''], Municipality of Zutphen, Retrieved 0 October 20116.</ref>
Pada bulan Maret 2005, 17 keping uang logam Keltik ditemukan di [[Echt, Limburg]]. Kepingan-kepingan uang perak yang bercampur tembaga dan emas ini diperkirakan berasal dari sekitar tahun 50 SM sampai 20 M. Pada bulan Oktober 2008, harta karun berupa 39 keping uang emas dan 70 keping uang perak Keltik ditemukan di daerah [[Amby]], [[Maastricht]].<ref>[http://www.maastricht.nl/maastricht/servlet/nl.gx.maastricht.client.http.GetFile?id=352412&file=Bijlage_-__Unieke_Keltische_muntschat_ontdekt_in_Maastricht.pdf ''Achtergrondinformatie bij de muntschat van Maastricht-Amby''], Kotapraja Maastricht, 2008.</ref> Kepingan-kepingan uang emas diyakini berasal dari masyarakat [[Eburones]].<ref>[http://www.archeonet.be/?p=4289 Unieke Keltische muntschat ontdekt in Maastricht] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402174540/http://www.archeonet.be/?p=4289 |date=2012-04-02 }}, Archeonet.be, 15 November 2008. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011.</ref> Benda-benda buatan masyarakat Keltik juga telah ditemukan di daerah [[Zutphen]].<ref name="Zutphen">[http://www.zutphen.nl/eCache/16161/urnenveld.pdf ''Het urnenveld van het Meijerink''], Kotapraja Zutphen, Diakses Oktober 20116.</ref>


Meskipun harta karun sangat jarang ditemukan, pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir, sejumlah kepingan uang logam dan benda-benda buatan Keltik lainnya telah ditemukan di seluruh kawasan tengah, timur, dan selatan Negeri Belanda. Menurut para arkeolog, barang-barang temuan ini membuktikan bahwa sekurang-kurangnya daerah Lembah Sungai [[Meuse (sungai)|Maas]] di Negeri Belanda termasuk dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh [[kebudayaan La Tène]]. Para arkeolog Belanda bahkan berspekulasi bahwa [[Zutphen]] (yang terletak di kawasan tengah wilayah Negeri Belanda) merupakan daerah permukiman masyarakat Keltik sebelum kedatangan bangsa Romawi, dan sama sekali bukan daerah permukiman masyarakat Jermanik.<ref name="Zutphen"/>
Although it is rare for hoards to be found, in past decades loose Celtic coins and other objects have been found throughout the central, eastern and southern part of the Netherlands. According to archaeologists these finds confirmed that at least the [[Meuse (river)|Maas]] river valley in the Netherlands was within the influence of the [[La Tène culture]]. Dutch archaeologists even speculate that [[Zutphen]] (which lies in the centre of the country) was a Celtic area before the Romans arrived, not a Germanic one at all.<ref name="Zutphen"/>


Scholars debate the actual extent of the Celtic influence.<ref name="Verhart"/><ref>Delrue, Joke, University of Ghent{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}</ref> The Celtic influence and contacts between Gaulish and early Germanic culture along the Rhine is assumed to be the source of a number of Celtic loanwords in [[Proto-Germanic]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} But according to Belgian linguist Luc van Durme, toponymic evidence of a former Celtic presence in the Low Countries is near to utterly absent.<ref>van Durme, Luc, "Oude taaltoestanden in en om de Nederlanden. Een reconstructie met de inzichten van M. Gysseling als leidraad" in ''Handelingen van de Koninklijke commissie voor Toponymie en Dialectologie'', LXXV/2003.</ref> Although there were Celts in the Netherlands, Iron Age innovations did not involve substantial Celtic intrusions and featured a local development from Bronze Age culture.<ref name="Verhart"/>
Para ahli berbeda pendapat mengenai luas yang sebenarnya dari ruang lingkup pengaruh budaya Keltik.<ref name="Verhart"/><ref>Delrue, Joke, Universitas Gent</ref> Pengaruh budaya Keltik dan kontak-kontak antara kebudayaan Galia dan kebudayaan Jermani perdana di sepanjang Sungai Rhein diduga sebagai sumber dari sejumlah kata serapan dari bahasa Keltik dalam kosakata [[bahasa proto-Jermanik|bahasa proto Jermanik]]. Namun menurut ahli bahasa berkebangsaan Belgia, Luc van Durme, bukti toponim dari keberadaan masyarakat Keltik di Negeri-Negeri Rendah nyaris tidak ada sama sekali.<ref>van Durme, Luc, "Oude taaltoestanden in en om de Nederlanden. Een reconstructie met de inzichten van M. Gysseling als leidraad" dalam ''Handelingen van de Koninklijke commissie voor Toponymie en Dialectologie'', LXXV/2003.</ref> Meskipun masyarakat Keltik pernah bermukim di Negeri Belanda, inovasi-inovasi Zaman Besi tidak menampakkan pengaruh budaya Keltik yang cukup berarti, dan justru menampakkan hasil pengembangan kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu yang dilakukan masyarakat setempat.<ref name="Verhart"/>


===The Nordwestblock theory===
=== Teori Blok Barat Laut ===
Some scholars (De Laet, Gysseling, [[Rolf Hachmann|Hachmann]], Kossack & Kuhn) have speculated that a separate ethnic identity, neither Germanic nor Celtic, survived in the Netherlands until the Roman period. They see the Netherlands as having been part of an Iron Age "[[Nordwestblock]]" stretching from the Somme to the Weser.<ref>Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, ''Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten'', 1986, pp. 183–212</ref><ref name="Lendering">Lendering, Jona, [http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm "Germania Inferior"], Livius.org. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</ref> Their view is that this culture, which had its own language, was being absorbed by the [[Celts]] to the south and the Germanic peoples from the east as late as the immediate pre-Roman period.
Beberapa orang ahli (De Laet, Gysseling, [[Rolf Hachmann|Hachmann]], Kossack, dan Kuhn) menduga ada masyarakat lain, bukan Jermanik maupun Keltik, yang mendiami Negeri Belanda sampai dengan Zaman Romawi. Ahli-ahli ini berpandangan bahwa Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Besi adalah bagian dari "[[Blok Barat Laut]]" ({{lang-nl|Noordwestblok}}) yang membentang mulai dari Sungai Somme sampai ke Sungai Weser.<ref>Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, ''Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten'', 1986, hlmn. 183–212</ref><ref name="Lendering">Lendering, Jona, [http://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm "Germania Inferior"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607071937/https://www.livius.org/ga-gh/germania/inferior.htm |date=2020-06-07 }}, Livius.org. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011.</ref> Menurut pandangan mereka, peradaban yang memiliki bahasa sendiri ini melebur ke dalam [[Kelt|peradaban Keltik]] yang datang dari arah selatan dan peradaban Jermanik yang datang dari arah timur selambat-lambatnya pada Zaman Pra-Romawi.


== Roman era (57 BC – 410 AD) ==
== Zaman Romawi (57 SM – 410 M) ==
{{utama|Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Romawi}}
{{Main article|Romans in the Netherlands}}


===Native tribes===
=== Suku-suku pribumi ===
During the [[Gallic Wars]], the [[Belgic]] area south of the [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)|Oude Rijn]] and west of the [[Rhine]] was conquered by Roman forces under [[Julius Caesar]] in a series of campaigns from 57 BC to 53 BC.<ref name="Lendering"/> The tribes located in the area of the Netherlands at this time did not leave behind written records, so all the information known about them during this pre-Roman period is based on what the Romans and Greeks wrote about them. One of the most important is Caesar's own ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]''. Two main tribes he described as living in what is now the Netherlands were the [[Menapii]], and the [[Eburones]], both in the south, which is where Caesar was active. He established the principle that the Rhine defined a natural boundary between [[Gaul]] and [[Germania magna]]. But the Rhine was not a strong border, and he made it clear that there was a part of Belgic Gaul where many of the local tribes (including the Eburones) were "[[Germani cisrhenani]]", or in other cases, of mixed origin.
Pada masa [[Perang Galia]], wilayah suku-suku [[Belgae|Belgi]] di sebelah selatan [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht dan Belanda Selatan)|Oude Rijn]] dan di sebelah barat [[Sungai Rhein]] ditaklukkan bala tentara Romawi di bawah pimpinan [[Julius Caesar|Yulius Kaisar]] dalam serangkaian aksi militer yang dilancarkan sejak 57 SM sampai 53 SM.<ref name="Lendering"/> Suku-suku yang mendiami Negeri Belanda kala itu tidak meninggalkan keterangan tertulis, sehingga segala informasi mengenai suku-suku ini pada kurun waktu pra-Romawi bersumber dari keterangan yang ditulis orang Yunani dan Romawi mengenai mereka. Salah satu keterangan tertulis semacam ini adalah ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' (Ulasan Perihal Perang Galia) yang ditulis sendiri oleh Yulius Kaisar. Menurut keterangan Yulius Kaisar, dua suku utama penghuni kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda adalah suku [[Menapii]] dan suku [[Eburones]], kedua-duanya bermukin di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda, yakni kawasan yang diperangi Yulius Kaisar. Yulius Kaisar mencetuskan gagasan bahwa Sungai Rhein adalah pembatas alam antara [[Galia]] dan [[Germania|Germania Magna]]. Akan tetapi Sungai Rhein bukanlah garis perbatasan yang kaku, karena Yulius Kaisar juga menerangkan bahwa sebagian wilayah Galia Belgika didiami banyak suku pribumi (termasuk suku Eburones) yang tergolong suku-suku "[[Germani cisrhenani|''Germani Cisrhenani'']]" (suku-suku Jermanik seberang sini, suku-suku Jermanik di tepi barat Sungai Rhein) atau campuran berbagai suku bangsa yang berbeda-beda asal-usulnya.


The Menapii stretched from the south of Zeeland, through [[North Brabant]] (and possibly [[South Holland]]), into the southeast of [[Gelderland]]. In later Roman times their territory seems to have been divided or reduced, so that it became mainly contained in what is now western Belgium.
Suku Menapii mendiami wilayah yang membentang dari kawasan selatan Zeeland, melewati [[Brabant Utara]] (dan mungkin sekali [[Holland Selatan]]), sampai ke kawasan tenggara [[Gelderland]]. Pada penghujung Zaman Romawi, wilayah kekuasaan mereka tampaknya terbagi-bagi atau menyusut, sehingga akhirnya hanya meliputi daerah yang kini menjadi kawasan barat negara Belgia.


The [[Eburones]], the largest of the ''Germani Cisrhenani'' group, covered a large area including at least part of modern [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Dutch Limburg]], stretching east to the [[Rhine]] in Germany, and also northwest to the delta, giving them a border with the Menapii. Their territory may have stretched into Gelderland.
Suku [[Eburones]], suku terbesar di antara suku-suku ''Germani Cisrhenani'', mendiami wilayah yang luas termasuk sekurang-kurangnya sebagian dari wilayah [[Limburg (Belanda)|Limburg Belanda]], membentang ke sebelah timur sampai ke [[Sungai Rhein]] di Jerman, dan juga ke sebelah barat laut sampai ke kawasan delta, sehingga berbatasan langsung dengan wilayah kekuasaan suku Menapii. Wilayah kekuasaaan kekuasaan suku Eburones mungkin pula membentang sampai ke Gelderland.


In the delta itself, Caesar makes a passing comment about the ''Insula Batavorum'' ("Island of the Batavi") in the [[Rhine river]], without discussing who lived there. Later, in imperial times, a tribe called the Batavi became very important in this region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0001:book=4:chapter=10&highlight=batavi|title=C. Julius Caesar,
Mengenai daerah delta itu sendiri, Yulius Kaisar secara sambil lalu mengulas tentang ''Insula Batavorum'' (pulau orang Batavi) di [[Sungai Rhein]], tanpa menjelaskan apa-apa mengenai penghuninya. Kemudian hari, pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi, suku yang bernama Batavi menjadi suku yang penting di daerah ini.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0001:book=4:chapter=10&highlight=batavi|title=C. Julius Caesar,
Gallic War, Buku 4, bab 10|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Kemudian hari, sejarawan [[Tacitus]] mencatat bahwa suku Batavi pada mulanya merupakan salah satu puak suku [[Chatti]], yakni salah satu suku di Jerman yang tidak pernah disebut-sebut Yulius Kaisar.<ref>Cornelius Tacitus, ''Germany and its Tribes'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29 1.29]</ref> Meskipun demikian, para arkeolog mendapati bukti-bukti adanya peradaban yang berkelanjutan di daerah delta. Oleh karena itu, para arkeolog menduga bahwa mungkin suku Chatti adalah suku kecil yang berpindah ke daerah delta, lalu berbaur dengan masyarakat (mungkin sekali bukan suku rumpun Jermanik) yang sudah lebih dahulu mendiami daerah itu, dan mungkin saja suku Chatti adalah bagian dari suku yang lebih terkenal, misalnya suku Eburones.<ref>Nico Roymans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfpKN-oMaWoC Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire]''. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Bab 4. Lihat pula hlm. 249.</ref>
Gallic War,
Book 4, chapter 10|website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Much later [[Tacitus]] wrote that they had originally been a tribe of the [[Chatti]], a tribe in Germany never mentioned by Caesar.<ref>Cornelius Tacitus, ''Germany and its Tribes'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0083%3Achapter%3D29 1.29]</ref> However, archaeologists find evidence of continuity, and suggest that the Chattic group may have been a small group, moving into a pre-existing (and possibly non-Germanic) people, who could even have been part of a known group such as the Eburones.<ref>Nico Roymans, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=qfpKN-oMaWoC Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire]''. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Chapter 4. Also see page 249.</ref>


{{Gallery
{{Gallery
|width=250 |height=300
|width=250 |height=300 |perrow=2
|File:Netherlands in time of Caesar.png|Tribes named by [[Julius Caesar]].
|File:Netherlands in time of Caesar.png|Suku-suku yang tercatat dalam laporan [[Julius Caesar|Yulius Kaisar]].
|File:Netherlands in the time of the Roman empire.png|Tribes during [[Roman Empire]].
|File:Netherlands in the time of the Roman empire.png|Suku-suku pada zaman [[Kekaisaran Romawi]].
}}
}}


Kurun waktu [[Romawi Kuno|penjajahan Romawi]] sekitar 450 tahun lamanya menimbulkan perubahan besar di kawasan yang kelak menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda. Seringkali perubahan itu melibatkan konflik berskala besar antara bangsa Romawi dan suku-suku Jermanik merdeka di sepanjang Sungai Rhein.
The approximately 450 years of [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] rule that followed would profoundly change the area that would become the Netherlands. Very often this involved large-scale conflict with the free Germanic tribes over the Rhine.


Other tribes who eventually inhabited the islands in the delta during Roman times are mentioned by [[Pliny the Elder]] are the [[Cananefates]] in South Holland; the [[Frisii]], covering most of the modern Netherlands north of the [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht and South Holland)|Oude Rijn]]; the [[Frisiabones]], who apparently stretched from the delta into the North of North Brabant; the [[Marsacii]], who stretched from the Flemish coast, into the delta; and the [[Sturii]].<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=4:chapter=29 Plin. Nat. 4.29]</ref>
Suku-suku lain yang pada akhirnya mendiami pulau-pulau di daerah delta pada zaman penjajahan Romawi sebagaimana yang diriwayatkan [[Plinius yang tua|Plinius Tua]] adalah [[orang Kananefati]] di Holland Selatan, [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] di sebagian besar kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda di sebelah utara [[Oude Rijn (Utrecht dan Holland Selatan)|Oude Rijn]]; [[Frisiabones|Orang Frisiaboni]] di kawasan yang membentang mulai dari daerah delta sampai ke sebelah utara Brabant Utara, [[Marsacii|orang Marsaci]] di kawasan yang membentang mulai dari pesisir Vlaanderen sampai ke daerah delta, dan [[Sturii|orang Sturi]].<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0137:book=4:chapter=29 Plin. Nat. 4.29]</ref>


Caesar reported that he eliminated the name of the Eburones but in their place the [[Texuandri]] inhabited most of North Brabant, and the modern province of Limburg, with the Maas running through it, appears to have been inhabited in imperial times by (from north to south) the [[Baetasii]], the [[Catualinum|Catualini]], the [[Sunuci]] and the [[Tungri]]. (Tacitus reported that the Tungri was a new name for the earlier ''Germani cisrhenani''.)
Yulius Kaisar melaporkan bahwa ia telah membinasakan orang Eburoni, namun sebagai gantinya [[Teksuandri|orang Teksuandri]] mendiami sebagian besar daerah Brabant Utara, dan daerah yang sekarang menjadi wilayah provinsi Limburgh, yakni kawasan yang dilewati aliran Sungai Maas dan tampaknya pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi dihuni (dari utara ke selatan) orang [[Baetasii|orang Betasi]], [[Catualinum|orang Katualini]], [[Sunuci|orang Sunuci]], dan [[Tungri|orang Tungri]] (sejarawan Tacitus melaporkan bahwa Tungri adalah nama baru bagi masyarakat yang sebelumnya disebut orang ''Germani Cisrhenani'').


North of the Old Rhine, apart from the Frisii, Pliny reports some [[Chauci]] reached into the delta, and two other tribes known from the eastern Netherlands were the [[Tuihanti]] (or Tubantes) from [[Twenthe]] in Overijssel, and the [[Chamavi]], from [[Hamaland]] in northern Gelderland, who became one of the first tribes to be named as [[Franks|Frankish]] (see below). The [[Salians]], also Franks, probably originated in [[Salland]] in Overijssel, before they moved into the empire, forced by Saxons in the 4th century, first into Batavia, and then into Toxandria.
Plinius Tua meriwayatkan bahwa di sebelah utara Alter Rhein, selain orang Frisi, ada pula sejumlah [[Chauci|orang Chauci]] yang bermukim sampai ke daerah delta, dan dua suku lain yang diketahui berasal dari kawasan timur Negeri Belanda, yakni [[Tuihanti|orang Tuihanti]] (atau orang Tubanti) dari daerah [[Twenthe]] di Overijssel, dan [[orang Kamavi]] dari [[Hamaland]] di kawasan utara Gelderland, salah satu dari suku-suku pertama yang kelak dinamakan [[orang Franka]]. [[orang Franka Sali|Orang Sali]], yang juga tergolong orang Franka, mungkin berasal dari daerah [[Salland]] di Overijssel, sebelum terpaksa pindah ke wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi akibat rongrongan masyarakat Saksen pada abad ke-4. Mula-mula orang Sali berpindah ke Batavia, kemudian ke Toksandria.


=== Permukiman-permukiman bangsa Romawi di Negeri Belanda ===
===Roman settlements in the Netherlands===
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
| title = Roman settlements
| title = Permukiman-Permukiman Bangsa Romawi
| image1 = Ruitermasker matilo.jpg|caption1=Mask of a Roman horseman, discovered near [[Leiden]].
| image1 = Ruitermasker matilo.jpg|caption1=Topeng prajurit berkuda Romawi, ditemukan di dekat kota [[Leiden]].
| image2 = Germania 70.svg|caption2=Rhine Frontier of the [[Roman Empire]] around 70 CE.
| image2 = Germania 70.svg|caption2=Perbatasan wilayah [[Kekaisaran Romawi]] di sekitar Sungai Rhein sekitar tahun 70 M.
}}
}}
Starting about 15 BC, the [[Rhine]], in the Netherlands came to be defended by the Lower [[Limes Germanicus]]. After a series of military actions, the Rhine became fixed around 12 AD as Rome's northern frontier on the European mainland. A number of towns and developments would arise along this line. The area to the south would be integrated into the [[Roman Empire]]. At first part of [[Gallia Belgica]], this area became part of the [[Roman province|province]] of [[Germania Inferior]]. The tribes already within, or relocated to, this area became part of the [[Roman Empire]]. The area to the north of the Rhine, inhabited by the [[Frisii]] and the [[Chauci]], remained outside Roman rule but not its presence and control.
Mulai sekitar tahun 15 SM, daerah sekitar [[Sungai Rhein]] di Negeri Belanda menjadi daerah pertahanan [[Limes Germanicus]] Hilir. Setelah berkali-kali dilanda peperangan, Sungai Rhein akhirnya menjadi garis batas utara wilayah kekuasaan bangsa Romawi di daratan Eropa. Sejumlah kota kecil berdiri dan sejumlah perkembangan berlangsung di sepanjang garis batas ini. Daerah di sebelah selatan garis perbatasan diintegrasikan ke dalam [[Kekaisaran Romawi]]. Daerah yang dulunya merupakan wilayah [[Gallia Belgica]] ini dijadikan bagian dari [[provinsi Romawi|provinsi]] [[Germania Inferior]]. The Suku-suku yang sudah lebih dahulu mendiami atau dipindahkan ke daerah ini warga Kekaisaran Romawi. Daerah di sebelah utara Sungai Rhein, yang didiami [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] dan [[Chauci|orang Chauci]], tetap berada di luar pemerintahan Romawi tetapi kerap didatangi dan dikendalikan bangsa Romawi.


Romans built military forts along the [[Limes Germanicus]] and a number of towns and smaller settlements in the Netherlands. The more notable Roman towns were at [[Nijmegen]] ([[:nl:Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum|Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum]]) and at [[Voorburg]] ([[Forum Hadriani]]).
Bangsa Romawi mendirikan benteng-benteng militer di sepanjang [[Limes Germanicus]], berikut sejumlah kota kecil dan permukiman yang lebih kecil lagi di Negeri Belanda. Kota-kota bangsa Romawi yang lebih menonjol berlokasi di [[Nijmegen]] ([[:nl:Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum|Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum]]) dan [[Voorburg]] ([[Forum Hadriani]]).


Perhaps the most evocative Roman ruin is the mysterious [[Brittenburg]], which emerged from the sand at the beach in Katwijk several centuries ago, only to be buried again. These ruins were part of [[:nl:Lugdunum Batavorum|Lugdunum Batavorum]].
Mungkin reruntuhan peninggalan bangsa Romawi yang paling menarik adalah puing-puing [[Brittenburg]] yang misterius itu, muncul dari balik pasir pantai di Katwijk beberapa abad yang lalu, hanya untuk dikubur kembali. Puing-puing ini merupakan bagian dari [[:nl:Lugdunum Batavorum|Lugdunum Batavorum]].


Other Roman settlements, fortifications, temples and other structures have been found at [[Alphen aan de Rijn]] ([[Albaniana (Roman fort)|Albaniana]]); [[Bodegraven]]; [[Cuijk]]; [[Elst, Overbetuwe]]; [[Ermelo]]; [[Esch, Netherlands|Esch]]; [[Heerlen]]; [[Houten]]; [[Kessel, North Brabant]]; [[Oss]], i.e. De Lithse Ham near Maren-Kessel; Kesteren in [[Neder-Betuwe]]; [[Leiden]] ([[Matilo]]); [[Maastricht]]; Meinerswijk (now part of [[Arnhem]]); [[Tiel]]; [[Utrecht]] ([[Traiectum (Utrecht)|Traiectum]]); [[Valkenburg (South Holland)]] ([[Praetorium Agrippinae]]); Vechten ([[Fectio]]) now part of [[Bunnik]]; [[Velsen]]; [[Vleuten]]; [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] ([[:nl:Levefanum|Levefanum]]); [[Woerden]] ([[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurium]] or [[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurum]]); and [[Zwammerdam]] ([[:nl:Nigrum Pullum|Nigrum Pullum]]).
Bekas-bekas permukiman, benteng kuil, dan bangunan-bangunan bangsa Romawi lainnya telah ditemukan di [[Alphen aan de Rijn]] ([[Albaniana (benteng Romawi)|Albaniana]]), [[Bodegraven]], [[Cuijk]], [[Elst, Overbetuwe|Elst Overbetuwe]], [[Ermelo]], [[Esch, Belanda|Esch]], [[Heerlen]], [[Houten]], [[Kessel, North Brabant|Kessel di Brabant Utara]], [[Oss]] (yakni De Lithse Ham dekat Maren-Kessel), Kesteren di [[Neder-Betuwe]], [[Leiden]] ([[Matilo]]), [[Maastricht]], Meinerswijk (sekarang bagian dari [[Arnhem]]), [[Tiel]], [[Utrecht]] ([[Traiectum (Utrecht)|Traiectum]]), [[Valkenburg (Holland Selatan)|Valkenburg di Holland Selatan]] ([[Praetorium Agrippinae]]), Vechten ([[Fectio]]) sekarang bagian dari [[Bunnik]], [[Velsen]], [[Vleuten]], [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] ([[:nl:Levefanum|Levefanum]]), [[Woerden]] ([[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurium]] atau [[:nl:Laurium (Woerden)|Laurum]]) dan [[Zwammerdam]] ([[:nl:Nigrum Pullum|Nigrum Pullum]]).


=== Pemberontakan orang Batavi ===
===Batavian revolt===
{{Main article|Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Revolt of the Batavi}}
{{utama|Suku Batavi|Pemberontakan orang Batavi}}
[[File:"Batavians defeating Romans on the Rhine" by Otto van Veen.jpg|thumb|Throughout Dutch history, but especially during the [[Eighty Years' War]], the Batavians have been romantically portrayed as the heroic ancestors of the Dutch people. "The Batavians Defeating the Romans on the Rhine", c. 1613, by [[Otto van Veen]].]]
[[Berkas:"Batavians defeating Romans on the Rhine" by Otto van Veen.jpg|jmpl|Sepanjang sejarah Negeri Belanda, teristimewa semasa [[Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun]], orang Batavi diagung-agungkan sebagai pejuang-pejuang gagah berani yang menjadi cikal bakal bangsa Belanda. "Orang Batavi Mengalahkan Bangsa Romawi di Sungai Rhein", ''ca.'' 1613, karya [[Otto van Veen]].]]
[[File:Bataafseeed.jpg|thumb|''The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis'', 1661, by [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], depicts a [[Batavii|Batavian]] oath to [[Gaius Julius Civilis]], the head of the [[Batavian rebellion]] against the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] in 69 CE.]]
[[Berkas:The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis by Rembrandt van Rijn.jpg|jmpl|''Konspirasi Klaudius Sivilis'', 1661, karya [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], menggambarkan peristiwa sumpah setia [[suku batavi|orang Batavi]] kepada [[Gaius Iulius Civilis]], pemimpin [[pemberontakan orang Batavi]] melawan [[Romawi Kuno|penjajah Romawi]] pada tahun 69 M.]]


The [[Batavi (Germanic tribe)|Batavians]], Cananefates, and the other border tribes were held in high regard as soldiers throughout the empire, and traditionally served in the [[Ala (Roman military)|Roman cavalry]].<ref>Roymans, Nico, ''Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire'', Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2005, pp. 226–27</ref> The frontier culture was influenced by the Romans, [[Germanic people]], and Gauls. In the first centuries after Rome's conquest of Gaul, trade flourished. And Roman, Gaulish and Germanic material culture are found combined in the region.
[[suku Batavi|Orang Batavi]], orang Kananefati, dan suku-suku perbatasan lainnya sangat disegani sebagai prajurit-prajurit tangguh di seluruh wilayah kekaisaran. Menurut tradisi, warga suku-suku ini menjalani masa bakti sebagai prajurit dalam barisan [[Ala (militer Romawi)|pasukan berkuda Romawi]].<ref>Roymans, Nico, ''Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire'', Amsterdam: Lembaga Pers Universitas Amsterdam, 2005, hlmn. 226–27</ref> Budaya daerah perbatasan dipengaruhi bangsa Romawi, [[suku bangsa Jermanik|suku-suku rumpun Jermanik]], dan masyarakat Galia. Pada abad-abad pertama sesudah Galia ditaklukkan bangsa Romawi, usaha dagang tumbuh subur. Peninggalan-peninggalan budaya bendawi bangsa Romawi, Galia, dan Jermanik ditemukan bercampur baur di kawasan ini.


However, the Batavians rose against the Romans in the [[Batavian rebellion]] of 69 AD. The leader of this [[Revolt of the Batavi|revolt]] was Batavian [[Gaius Julius Civilis]]. One of the causes of the rebellion was that the Romans had taken young Batavians as [[Slavery|slaves]]. A number of Roman ''castella'' were attacked and burnt. Other Roman soldiers in [[Xanten]] and elsewhere and auxiliary troops of Batavians and [[Canninefates|Canninefatae]] in the legions of [[Vitellius]]) joined the revolt, thus splitting the northern part of the Roman army. In April 70 AD, a few legions sent by [[Vespasianus]] and commanded by [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] eventually defeated the Batavians and negotiated surrender with [[Gaius Julius Civilis]] somewhere between the [[Waal (river)|Waal]] and the [[Meuse River|Maas]] near Noviomagus ([[Nijmegen]]), which was probably called "Batavodurum" by the Batavians.<ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.html ''Historiae''], Tacitus, 109 AD, Translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb.</ref> The Batavians later merged with other tribes and became part of the [[Salian Franks]].
Meskipun demikian, orang Batavi memberontak melawan bangsa Romawi dalam peristiwa [[Pemberontakan Batavia]] pada tahun 69 M. Pemimpin [[Pemberotakan orang Batavi|pemberontak]] adalah seorang pribumi Batavi yang bernama [[Gaius Iulius Civilis]]. Salah satu penyebab pemberontakan adalah karena pemuda-pemudi Batavia dijadikan [[perbudakan|budak belian]] oleh bangsa Romawi. Sejumlah ''[[puri|castella]]'' Romawi diserang dan dibakar. Prajurit-prajurit Romawi di [[Xanten]] dan tempat-tempat lain, serta pasukan-pasukan bantu yang beranggotakan orang Batavi dan [[orang Kananefati]] dalam legiun-legiun pimpinan [[Vitellius]] turut bergabung dengan kubu pemberontak, sehingga memecah kesatuan bala tentara Romawi yang bertugas di kawasan utara wilayah kekaisaran. Pada bulan April 70 M, beberapa legiun yang dikerahkan [[Vespasianus]] di bawah pimpinan [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] pada akhirnya berhasil mengalahkan orang Batavi dan merundingkan penyerahan diri pemberontak dengan [[Gaius Iulius Civilis]] di suatu tempat yang terletak di daerah antara [[Sungai Waal]] dan [[Sungai Meuse|Sungai Maas]] dekat Noviomagus ([[Nijmegen]]), yang mungkin sekali disebut "Batavodurum" oleh orang Batavi.<ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.html ''Historiae''], Tacitus, 109 M, diterjemahkan Alfred John Church dan William Jackson Brodribb.</ref> Kemudian hari, orang Batavi berbaur dengan suku-suku lain dan menjadi bagian dari [[orang Franka Sali]].


Dutch writers in the 17th and 18th centuries saw the rebellion of the independent and freedom-loving Batavians as mirroring the Dutch revolt against Spain and other forms of tyranny. According to this nationalist view, the [[Batavians]] were the "true" forefathers of the Dutch, which explains the recurring use of the name over the centuries. [[Jakarta]] was named "Batavia" by the Dutch in 1619. The Dutch republic created in 1795 on the basis of French revolutionary principles was called the [[Batavian Republic]]. Even today "Batavian" is a term sometimes used to describe the Dutch people. (This is similar to use of "Gallic" to describe the French and "Teutonic" to describe the Germans.)<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850">Beyen, Marnix, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850" in ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(4):493–532. {{ISSN|0265-6914}} Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]</ref>
Para pujangga Belanda pada abad ke-17 dan ke-18 memandang pemberontakan orang Batavi, yang didorong rasa cinta akan kemerdekaan dan dilakukan demi memerdekakan diri sendiri ini, sebagai aksi yang serupa dengan pemberontakan bangsa Belanda melawan bangsa Spanyol dan segala bentuk lain dari tirani. Menurut pandangan nasionalis ini, [[orang Batavia]] adalah leluhur "sejati" bangsa Belanda. Pandangan semacam inilah yang menyebabkan nama "Batavia" berulang kali dipergunakan bangsa Belanda. [[Jakarta]] dulunya adalah sebuah kota yang diberi nama "Batavia" oleh bangsa Belanda pada tahun 1619. Republik Belanda yang dibentuk pada tahun 1795 berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip revolusioner Prancis disebut [[Republik Batavia]]. Bahkan sekarang ini "orang Batavia" merupakan istilah yang kadang-kadang dipakai sebagai sebutan bagi orang Belanda, sama seperti istilah "orang Galia" dijadikan sebutan bagi orang Prancis dan istilah "orang Teuton" dijadikan sebutan bagi orang Jerman.<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850">Beyen, Marnix, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850" in ''European History Quarterly'' 2000 30(4):493–532. {{ISSN|0265-6914}} Fulltext: [[EBSCO]]</ref>


=== Munculnya orang Franka ===
===Emergence of the Franks===
[[File:Frankischetalen.png|left|thumb|Map showing roughly the distribution of [[Salian Franks]] (in green) and [[Ripuarian Franks]] (in red) at the end of the Roman period.]]
[[Berkas:Frankischetalen.png|kiri|jmpl|Peta sebaran orang [[orang Franka Sali|Franka Sali]] (hijau) dan [[orang Franka Ripuari|Franka Ripuari]] (merah) pada akhir era Romawi.]]


Modern scholars of the [[Migration Period]] are in agreement that the Frankish identity emerged at the first half of the 3rd century out of various earlier, smaller [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] groups, including the [[Salian Franks|Salii]], [[Sicambri]], [[Chamavi]], [[Bructeri]], [[Chatti]], [[Chattuarii]], [[Ampsivarii]], [[Tencteri]], [[Ubii]], [[Batavians|Batavi]] and the [[Tungri]], who inhabited the lower and middle Rhine valley between the [[Zuyder Zee]] and the river [[Lahn]] and extended eastwards as far as the [[Weser]], but were the most densely settled around the [[IJssel]] and between the [[Lippe River|Lippe]] and the [[Sieg (river)|Sieg]]. The Frankish confederation probably began to coalesce in the 210s.<ref name="Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, Charles, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', vol. I, pp. 51–52, 151</ref>
Para pengkaji [[periode migrasi]] pada Zaman Modern sepakat bahwa identitas orang Franka muncul pada paruh pertama abad ke-3 dari berbagai kelompok-kelompok kecil masyarakat [[suku bangsa Jermanik|Jermanik]] yang sudah ada sebelumnya, termasuk [[orang Franka Sali|orang Sali]], [[orang Sikambri]], [[orang Kamavi]], [[orang Brukteri]], [[orang Kati]], [[orang Katuari]], [[orang Ampsivari]], [[orang Tenkteri]], [[orang Ubi]], [[orang Batavia|orang Batavi]], dan [[orang Tungri]], yang mendiami bagian hilir dan bagian tengah lembah Sungai Rhein di antara [[Zuyder Zee]] dan [[Sungai Lahn]] serta membentang ke timur sejauh [[Weser]], tetapi lebih banyak bermukim di sekitar [[IJssel]] dan daerah di antara [[Sungai Lippe]] dan [[Sungai Sieg]]. Konfederasi orang Franka mungkin sekali mulai terbentuk pada era 210-an.<ref name="Previté-Orton">Previté-Orton, Charles, ''The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History'', jld. I, hlmn. 51–52, 151</ref>


Orang Franka pada akhirnya terbagi menjadi dua kelompok, yakni [[orang Franka Ripuari]] ({{lang-la|Ripuari}}) yang mendiami daerah tengah lembah Sungai Rhein pada zaman penjajahan Romawi, dan [[orang Franka Sali]] yang berasal dari Negeri Belanda.
The Franks eventually were divided into two groups: the [[Ripuarian Franks]] (Latin: Ripuari), who were the Franks that lived along the middle-Rhine River during the Roman Era, and the [[Salian Franks]], who were the Franks that originated in the area of the Netherlands.


Franks appear in Roman texts as both allies and enemies (''[[laeti]]'' and ''dediticii''). By about 320, the Franks had the region of the [[Scheldt]] river (present day west Flanders and southwest Netherlands) under control, and were raiding the [[English Channel|Channel]], disrupting transportation to [[Roman Britain|Britain]]. Roman forces pacified the region, but did not expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates along the shores at least until the time of [[Julian the Apostate]] (358), when [[Salian Franks]] were allowed to settle as ''[[foederati]]'' in [[Toxandria]], according to [[Ammianus Marcellinus]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/>
Orang Franka dicatat sebagai kawan maupun lawan (''[[laeti]]'' maupun ''dediticii'') dalam karya-karya tulis Romawi. Sekitar tahun 320, orang Franka berhasil menguasai daerah sekitar Sungai [[Scheldt]] (sekarang menjadi daerah Vlaanderen Barat dan kawasan barat daya Negeri Belanda), dan melakukan perompakan di [[Selat Inggris]], menghambat kelancaran angkutan laut menuju [[Britania Romawi|Britania]]. Pasukan-pasukan Romawi dapat mengamankan kawasan itu, tetapi tidak mengusir orang Franka, yang tetap saja ditakuti sebagai gerombolan perompak di sepanjang daerah pesisir setidaknya sampai masa pemerintahan [[Flavius Claudius Julianus|Yulianus Si Murtad]] (358), yakni masa ketika [[orang Franka Sali]] diizinkan menetap di [[Toksandria]] sebagai salah satu ''[[foederatus|foederati]]'' Kekaisaran Romawi, menurut keterangan [[Ammianus Marcellinus]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/>


=== Lenyapnya orang Frisi ===
===Disappearance of the Frisii===
[[File:North.Sea.Periphery.250.500.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[North Sea]] Periphery c. 250-500 CE.]]
[[Berkas:North.Sea.Periphery.250.500.jpg|jmpl|200px|ka|Kawasan sekitar [[Laut Utara]] ''ca.'' 250-500 M.]]
Three factors contributed to the disappearance of the [[Frisii]] from the northern Netherlands. First, according to the ''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'' (Manuscript VIII), the ancient [[Frisii]] were forced to resettle within Roman territory as ''[[laeti]]'' (i.e., Roman-era [[serf]]s) in c. 296.<ref>{{Citation
Ada tiga faktor yang menyebabkan [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] menghilang dari kawasan utara Negeri Belanda. Yang pertama, menurut ''[[Panegyrici Latini]]'' (Naskah VIII), [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] kuno dipaksa pindah ke permukiman baru di dalam wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi sebagai ''[[laeti]]'' (kaum [[serf|hamba tani]] Romawi) sekitar tahun 296.<ref>{{Citation
|last=Grane
|last=Grane
|first=Thomas
|first=Thomas
Baris 201: Baris 201:
|contribution=From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery
|contribution=From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery
|title=The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)
|title=The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis)
|publisher=University of Copenhagen
|publisher=Universitas Copenhagen
|publication-date=2007
|publication-date=2007
|publication-place=Copenhagen
|publication-place=Copenhagen
|page=109
|page=109
}}</ref> This is the last reference to the ancient [[Frisii]] in the historical record. What happened to them, however, is suggested in the archaeological record. The discovery of a type of earthenware unique to 4th-century [[Frisia]], called ''terp Tritzum'', shows that an unknown number of them were resettled in [[Flanders]] and [[Kent]],<ref>{{Citation
}}</ref> Keterangan ini adalah kabar paling akhir mengenai [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] dalam catatan sejarah. Nasib mereka selanjutnya hanya dapat diduga melalui catatan arkeologi. Penemuan sejenis gerabah khas [[Frisia]] dari abad ke-4, yang disebut ''terp Tritzum'', menyiratkan bahwa orang-orang Frisi, dalam jumlah yang tidak diketahui, berpindah ke [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan [[Kent]],<ref>{{Citation
|last=Looijenga
|last=Looijenga
|first=Jantina Helena
|first=Jantina Helena
Baris 211: Baris 211:
|editor-last=SSG Uitgeverij
|editor-last=SSG Uitgeverij
|contribution=History, Archaeology and Runes
|contribution=History, Archaeology and Runes
|title=Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Texts and Contexts (PhD dissertation)
|title=Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Texts and Contexts (disertasi PhD)
|publisher=Groningen University
|publisher=Universitas Groningen
|publication-date=1997
|publication-date=1997
|publication-place=Groningen
|publication-place=Groningen
|page=30
|page=30
|isbn=90-6781-014-2
|isbn=90-6781-014-2
|url=http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/thesis.pdf}}. For this contention, Looijenga cites D.A. Gerrets (1995), "The Anglo-Frisian Relationship Seen from an Archaeological Point of View" in ''Friesische studien'' 2, pp. 119–28.</ref> likely as ''laeti'' under Roman coercion.
|url=http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/thesis.pdf
|accessdate=2018-08-09
Second, the environment in the low-lying coastal regions of northwestern Europe began to lower c. 250 and gradually receded over the next 200 years. Tectonic [[subsidence]], a rising [[water table]] and [[storm surge]]s combined to flood some areas with [[marine transgression]]s. This was accelerated by a shift to a cooler, wetter climate in the region. If there had been any [[Frisii]] left in Frisia, they would have drowned.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10">{{Citation
|archive-date=2005-05-02
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050502101056/http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl/FILES/faculties/arts/1997/j.h.looijenga/thesis.pdf
|dead-url=yes
}}. Untuk kesimpulan ini, Looijenga mengutip D.A. Gerrets (1995), "The Anglo-Frisian Relationship Seen from an Archaeological Point of View" dalam ''Friesische studien'' 2, hlmn. 119–128.</ref> agaknya sebagai ''laeti'' di bawah paksaan bangsa Romawi.
Yang kedua, lingkungan daerah pesisir yang rendah di kawasan barat laut Eropa mulai semakin amblas sekitar tahun 250, dan perlahan-lahan terhenti sepanjang 200 tahun berikutnya. [[Subsiden tanah|Subsidensi]] tektonik, naiknya [[permukaan air tanah]], dan [[pusuan ribut]] mengakibatkan sejumlah daerah terendam [[transgresi laut]]. Keadaan ini semakin diperparah perubahan iklim di daerah pesisir sehingga menjadi lebih dingin dan lebih lembap. Andaikata masih ada [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] yang tersisa di daerah pesisir, tentunya mereka punah akibat tenggelam.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10">{{Citation
|last=Berglund
|last=Berglund
|first=Björn E.
|first=Björn E.
Baris 250: Baris 255:
|contribution=
|contribution=
|title=Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems
|title=Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems
|publisher=Cambridge University
|publisher=Universitas Cambridge
|publication-date=2003
|publication-date=2003
|publication-place=Cambridge
|publication-place=Cambridge
Baris 259: Baris 264:
|year=1974
|year=1974
|contribution=
|contribution=
|title=The Rhine/Meuse Delta. Four studies on its prehistoric occupation and Holocene geology (PhD Dissertation)
|title=The Rhine/Meuse Delta. Four studies on its prehistoric occupation and Holocene geology (disertasi PhD)
|publisher=Leiden University Press
|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Leiden
|publication-date=1974
|publication-date=1974
|publication-place=Leiden
|publication-place=Leiden
|url=http://hdl.handle.net/1887/2787
|url=http://hdl.handle.net/1887/2787
}}</ref>
}}</ref>
Third, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, there was a decline in population as Roman activity stopped and Roman institutions withdrew. As a result of these three factors, the [[Frisii]] and [[Frisii|Frisiaevones]] disappeared from the area. The coastal lands remained largely unpopulated for the next two centuries.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10"/><ref name="Ejstrud"/><ref name="Issar 2003"/><ref name="Louwe"/>
Yang ketiga, selepas runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi, terjadi penurunan jumlah penduduk seiring terhentinya akitivitas bangsa Romawi dan penarikan mundur lembaga-lembaga bangsa Romawi. Sebagai akibat dari ketiga faktor ini, [[Frisii|orang Frisi]] dan [[Frisii|orang Frisievoni]] menghilang dari daerah bekas permukiman asli mereka. Sebagian besar daerah pesisir tetap tidak berpenghuni selama dua abad selanjutnya.<ref name="Berglund 2002 10"/><ref name="Ejstrud"/><ref name="Issar 2003"/><ref name="Louwe"/>


==Early Middle Ages (411–1000)==
== Abad Pertengahan Awal (411–1000) ==


===Frisians===
=== Orang Frisia ===
{{Main article|Frisian Kingdom|Dorestad}}
{{Utama|Kerajaan orang Frisia|Dorestad}}
[[File:Frisia 716-la.svg|thumb|left|Map showing roughly the distribution of Franks and Frisians c. 716 CE.]]
[[Berkas:Frisia 716-la.svg|jmpl|kiri|Perkiraan kasar persebaran orang Franka dan orang Frisia sekitar tahun 716 M]]
Seiring membaiknya keadaan iklim, suku-suku rumpun Jermanik sekali lagi beramai-ramai hijrah meninggalkan kampung halaman mereka di sebelah timur menuju tempat-tempat lain. Kurun waktu berlangsungnya migrasi besar-besaran ini dikenal dengan sebutan "[[Zaman Migrasi]]" (''Volksverhuizingen''). Kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dibanjiri kaum pendatang, yakni [[orang Anglia]], [[orang Yuti]], dan terutama [[orang Saksen]]. Banyak di antara kaum pendatang ini tidak menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetapi terus bergerak menuju Inggris, dan kini dikenal dengan sebutan [[orang Anglia-Sachsen]]. Kaum pendatang yang tidak melanjutkan perjalanan menuju Inggris kelak dikenal dengan sebutan "orang Frisia", sekalipun bukan keturunan [[Frisii|orang Frisi]]. Para warga Frisia yang baru ini menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, dan menjadi cikal bakal [[bangsa Frisia]] modern.<ref>{{Citation
As climatic conditions improved, there was another mass migration of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] peoples into the area from the east. This is known as the "[[Migration Period]]" (''Volksverhuizingen''). The northern Netherlands received an influx of new migrants and settlers, mostly [[Saxons]], but also [[Angles]] and [[Jutes]]. Many of these migrants did not stay in the northern Netherlands but moved on to England and are known today as the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. The newcomers who stayed in the northern Netherlands would eventually be referred to as "Frisians", although they were not descended from the ancient [[Frisii]]. These new Frisians settled in the northern Netherlands and would become the ancestors of the modern [[Frisians]].<ref>{{Citation
|last=Bazelmans
|last=Bazelmans
|first=Jos
|first=Jos
Baris 283: Baris 288:
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321
|contribution-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fM_cmuhmSbIC&pg=PA321
|title=Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition
|title=Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition
|publisher=Amsterdam University
|publisher=Universitas Amsterdam
|publication-date=2009
|publication-date=2009
|publication-place=Amsterdam
|publication-place=Amsterdam
|pages=321–37
|pages=321–337
|isbn=978-90-8964-078-9
|isbn=978-90-8964-078-9
|url=http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183
|url=http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183
|accessdate=2018-08-09
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (Dutch)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 October 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Retrieved 6 October 2011</ref> (Because the early [[Frisians]] and [[Anglo-Saxons]] were formed from largely identical tribal confederacies, their respective languages were very similar. [[Old Frisian]] is the most closely related language to [[Old English]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1937/1/344_121.pdf |title=The origin of the Old English dialects revisited|first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |year=1999|publisher=[[University of Leiden]]}}</ref> and the modern Frisian dialects are in turn the closest related languages to contemporary English.) By the end of the 6th century, the Frisian territory in the northern Netherlands had expanded west to the [[North Sea]] coast and, by the 7th century, south to [[Dorestad]]. During this period most of the northern Netherlands was known as [[Frisia]]. This extended Frisian territory is sometimes referred to as ''[[Frisian Kingdom|Frisia Magna]]'' (or [[Greater Frisia]]).
|archive-date=2017-08-30
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830194912/http://s393993344.online.de/ssoar/handle/document/27183
|dead-url=yes
}}</ref><ref>[http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (bahasa Belanda)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003101550/http://www.bertsgeschiedenissite.nl/ijzertijd/eeuw1ac/frisii.html |date=3 Oktober 2011 }}, Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011</ref> [[Orang Frisia]] maupun [[orang Anglia-Sachsen]] terdahulu lahir dari konfederasi-konfederasi kesukuan yang identik, sehingga bahasanya pun sangat mirip. [[bahasa Frisia Lama]] berkerabat dekat dengan [[bahasa Inggris Lama]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/1887/1937/1/344_121.pdf |title=The origin of the Old English dialects revisited|first=Frederik |last=Kortlandt |year=1999|publisher=[[Universitas Leiden]]}}</ref> sehingga dialek-dialek bahasa Frisia modern pun pada gilirannya berkerabat dekat dengan bahasa Inggris modern. Pada akhir abad ke-6, daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda telah meluas sampai ke daerah pesisir [[Laut Utara]], dan meluas sampai ke [[Dorestad]] di sebelah selatan pada abad ke-7. Selama kurun waktu ini, sebagian besar kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dikenal dengan sebutan [[Frisia]]. Daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia yang sangat luas ini adakalanya juga disebut ''[[Kerajaan orang Frisia|Frisia Magna]]'' atau [[Frisia Raya]].


[[File:Dorestad and trade routes.jpg|thumb|[[Dorestad]] and main traderoutes.]]
[[Berkas:Dorestad and trade routes.jpg|jmpl|[[Dorestad]] dan jalur-jalur dagang utama
]]
In the 7th and 8th centuries, the [[Franks|Frankish]] chronologies mention this area as the [[Frisian Kingdom|kingdom of the Frisians]]. This kingdom comprised the coastal provinces of the [[Netherlands]] and the German [[North Sea]] coast. During this time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern North Sea coast. The 7th-century [[Frisian Kingdom]] (650–734) under King [[Aldegisel]] and King [[Redbad, King of the Frisians|Redbad]], had its centre of power in [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
Pada abad ke-7 dan ke-8, daerah ini disebut-sebut dalam catatan sejarah [[orang Franka]] sebagai [[kerajaan orang Frisia]]. Wilayah kerajaan ini meliputi provinsi-provinsi yang terletak di daerah pesisir Negeri Belanda dan daerah pesisir [[Laut Utara]] Jerman. Pada kurun waktu ini, bahasa Frisia dipertuturkan di seluruh kawasan selatan daerah pesisir Laut Utara. Pada abad ke-7, [[kerajaan orang Frisia]] (650–734) di bawah pemerintahan Raja [[Aldegisel]] dan Raja [[Redbad, raja orang Frisia|Redbad]] berpusat di [[Utrecht (kota)|kota Utrecht]].


[[Dorestad]] was the largest settlement ([[Emporia (early medieval)|emporia]]) in northwestern Europe. It had grown around a former Roman fortress. It was a large, flourishing trading place, three kilometers long and situated where the rivers [[Rhine]] and [[Lek river|Lek]] diverge southeast of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] near the modern town of [[Wijk bij Duurstede]].<ref>Willemsen, A. (2009), ''Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen,'' Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, {{ISBN|978-90-5730-627-3}}</ref><ref name="Atlas">{{cite book | title=Atlas of Medieval Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=dorestad#PPA57,M1| last=MacKay| first=Angus|author2=David Ditchburn| year=1997| page=57| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=0-415-01923-0}}</ref> Although inland, it was a North Sea trading centre that primarily handled goods from the Middle [[Rhineland]].<ref name="Atlas"/><ref name="MC&OE">{{cite book | title=Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=6utbT529jLcC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=dorestad#PPA99,M1| last=Hodges| first=Richard|author2=David Whitehouse| year=1983| page=99| publisher=Cornell University Press| isbn=978-0-8014-9262-4}}</ref> Wine was among the major products traded at Dorestad, likely from vineyards south of [[Mainz]].<ref name="MC&OE"/> It was also widely known because of its [[Mint (coin)|mint]]. Between 600 and around 719 Dorestad was often fought over between the [[Frisians]] and the [[Franks]].
[[Dorestad]] adalah pekan ([[Emporium (Abad Pertengahan Awal)|emporium]]) terbesar di kawasan barat laut Eropa, yang berkembang di sekitar sebuah bekas benteng Romawi. Pekan ini adalah tempat berdagang yang ramai, tiga kilometer panjangnya, dan terletak di daerah tempat aliran [[Sungai Rhein]] dan [[Sungai Lek]] berbelok ke sebelah tenggara kota [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]], tak jauh dari kota [[Wijk bij Duurstede]] modern.<ref>Willemsen, A. (2009), ''Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen,'' Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, {{ISBN|978-90-5730-627-3}}</ref><ref name="Atlas">{{cite book | title=Atlas of Medieval Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=q50IyzCMQxgC&pg=PA57&lpg=PA57&dq=dorestad#PPA57,M1| last=MacKay| first=Angus|author2=David Ditchburn| year=1997| page=57| publisher=[[Routledge]]| isbn=0-415-01923-0}}</ref> Sekalipun terletak jauh dari pesisir, Dorestad merupakan pusat dagang di kawasan Laut Utara yang banyak memperjualbelikan barang-barang dari [[Rheinland]] Tengah.<ref name="Atlas"/><ref name="MC&OE">{{cite book | title=Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe| url=https://books.google.com/?id=6utbT529jLcC&pg=PA99&lpg=PA99&dq=dorestad#PPA99,M1| last=Hodges| first=Richard|author2=David Whitehouse| year=1983| page=99| publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Cornell| isbn=978-0-8014-9262-4}}</ref> Salah satu barang dagangan utama yang diperjualbelikan di Dorestad adalah minuman anggur, yang agaknya didatangkan dari kebun-kebun anggur di sebelah selatan [[Mainz]].<ref name="MC&OE"/> Dorestad juga terkenal karena [[percetakan uang logam]]nya. Antara tahun 600 sampai kira-kira tahun 719, Dorestad berulang kali diperebutkan [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] dan [[orang Franka]].


===Franks===
=== Orang Franka ===
{{utama|Orang Franka|Orang Franka Sali}}
{{Main article|Franks|Salian Franks}}
[[File:Franks expansion.gif|thumb|left|Expansion of the [[Franks]] from 481 to 870 CE.]]
[[Berkas:Franks expansion.gif|jmpl|kiri|Gerak ekspansi [[orang Franka]] dari tahun 481 sampai tahun 870 M]]


After [[Roman Empire|Roman]] government in the area collapsed, the [[Franks]] expanded their territories until there were numerous small Frankish kingdoms, especially at [[Cologne]], [[Tournai]], [[Le Mans]] and [[Cambrai]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18">Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" in J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', pp. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}.</ref> The kings of Tournai eventually came to subdue the other Frankish kings. By the 490s, [[Clovis I]] had conquered and united all the Frankish territories to the west of the [[Meuse]], including those in the southern Netherlands. He continued his conquests into [[Gaul]].
Setelah pemerintahan [[Kekaisaran Romawi|Romawi]] di kawasan ini runtuh, [[orang Franka]] bergerak memperluas daerah kekuasaan mereka sampai sehingga tumbuh banyak kerajaan kecil bentukan orang Franka, terutama di [[Köln]], [[Tournai|Doornik]], [[Le Mans]], dan [[Cambrai|Kamerijk]].<ref name="Previté-Orton"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18">Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" dalam J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts ''History of the Low Countries'', hlmn. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}.</ref> Raja-raja Doornik akhirnya menundukkan raja-raja orang Franka lainnya. Pada kurun waktu 490-an, [[Clovis I|Klovis I]] berhasil menundukkan dan mempersatukan seluruh daerah kekuasaan orang Franka di sebelah barat [[Meuse (sungai)|Sungai Maas]], termasuk kerajaan-kerajaan orang Franka di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. Klovis kemudian meneruskan aksi penaklukannya ke wilayah [[Galia]].


Setelah [[Clovis I|Klovis I]] wafat pada tahun 511, keempat putranya membagi-bagi wilayah kerajaannya. [[Thierry I|Theuderik I]] mendapatkan daerah-daerah yang kelak menjadi wilayah Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda). Anak dan cucu Theuderik I berturut-turut memerintah menggantikannya sampai Kerajaan [[Austrasia]] dipersatukan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan orang Franka lainnya pada tahun 555 oleh [[Clotaire I|Klothar I]], yang menjadi penguasa tunggal atas seluruh wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka pada tahun 558. Klothar I membagi-bagikan wilayah kerajaannya kepada keempat putranya, tetapi keempat wilayah hasil pembagian ini berubah menjadi tiga kerajaan saja sepeninggal [[Caribert I|Karibert I]] pada tahun 567. Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda) diberikan kepada [[Sigebert I]]. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda seterusnya menjadi bagian dari wilayah Kerajaan [[Austrasia]] until sampai pada masa pemerintahan [[wangsa Karoling]].
After the death of [[Clovis I]] in 511, his four sons partitioned his kingdom amongst themselves, with [[Theuderic I of Austrasia|Theuderic I]] receiving the lands that were to become Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands). A line of kings descended from Theuderic ruled [[Austrasia]] until 555, when it was united with the other Frankish kingdoms of [[Chlothar I]], who inherited all the Frankish realms by 558. He redivided the Frankish territory amongst his four sons, but the four kingdoms coalesced into three on the death of [[Charibert I]] in 567. Austrasia (including the southern Netherlands) was given to [[Sigebert I]]. The southern Netherlands remained the northern part of [[Austrasia]] until the rise of the [[Carolingians]].


The Franks who expanded south into [[Gaul]] settled there and eventually adopted the [[Vulgar Latin]] of the local population.<ref name="Verhaal"/> However, a Germanic language was spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western [[Austrasia]] and [[Neustria]] as late as the 850s. It completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions during the 10th century.<ref>[[Urban T. Holmes Jr.|Holmes, U.T]] and A. H. Schutz (1938), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=history+of+french+language&hl=en&ei=jRjOTtqdDNPR4QTr1pQ8&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20french%20language&f=false A History of the French Language]'', p. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8196-0191-8}}</ref> During this expansion to the south, many Frankish people remained in the north (i.e. southern Netherlands, Flanders and a small part of northern France). A widening cultural divide grew between the Franks remaining in the north and the rulers far to the south in what is now France.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/> Salian Franks continued to reside in their original homeland and the area directly to the south and to speak their original language, [[Old Frankish]], which by the 9th century had evolved into [[Old Dutch]].<ref name="Verhaal"/> A Dutch-French language boundary came into existence (but this was originally south of where it is today).<ref name="Verhaal"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/> In the Maas and Rhine areas of the Netherlands, the Franks had political and trading centres, especially at [[Nijmegen]] and [[Maastricht]].<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/> These Franks remained in contact with the Frisians to the north, especially in places like [[Dorestad]] and [[Utrecht]].
Orang-orang Franka yang berekspansi sampai ke [[Galia]] akhirnya menetap dan mengadopsi [[bahasa Latin Umum]] yang dituturkan masyarakat setempat.<ref name="Verhaal"/> Meskipun demikian, bahasa Jermanik masih tetap digunakan sebagai bahasa kedua oleh para pejabat publik di kawasan barat [[Austrasia]] dan [[Neustria]] sampai kurun waktu 850-an. Bahasa Jermanik punah di daerah-daerah ini pada abad ke-10.<ref>[[Urban T. Holmes Jr.|Holmes, U.T]] dan A. H. Schutz (1938), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=jbjX4ebc2lsC&printsec=frontcover&dq=history+of+french+language&hl=en&ei=jRjOTtqdDNPR4QTr1pQ8&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20french%20language&f=false A History of the French Language]'', hlm. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, {{ISBN|0-8196-0191-8}}</ref> Pada masa ekspansi ke Galia, banyak puak orang Franka yang tetap tinggal di utara (yakni di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda, Vlaanderen, dan sebagian kecil kawasan utara Prancis). Muncul kesenjangan budaya yang kian melebar antara masyarakat Franka yang tetap tinggal di utara dan para pemimpin Franka di Galia, yakni di kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah negara Prancis.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18"/> Orang Franka Sali tetap tinggal di kampung halaman aslinya dan di daerah-daerah tetangga di sebelah selatan serta tetap menuturkan bahasa aslinya, [[bahasa Franka Lama]], yang berkembang menjadi [[bahasa Belanda Lama]] pada abad ke-9.<ref name="Verhaal"/> Garis batas antara wilayah penutur bahasa Belanda dan wilayah penutur bahasa Prancis akhirnya terbentuk, tetapi mula-mula jauh lebih ke selatan dari letaknya saat ini.<ref name="Verhaal"/><ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18"/> Di daerah-daerah yang dilewati Sungai Maas dan Sungai Rhein di Negeri Belanda, orang Franka menguasai pusat-pusat politik dan perdagangan, khususnya di [[Nijmegen]] dan [[Maastricht]].<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18"/> Orang-orang Franka di daerah ini masih tetap berhubungan dengan orang Frisia di utara, terutama di tempat-tempat seperti [[Dorestad]] dan [[Utrecht]].


=== Keraguan pada Zaman Modern mengenai perbedaan antara orang Frisia, orang Franka, dan orang Saksen ===
===Modern doubts about the traditional Frisian, Frank and Saxon distinction===
[[File:Willibrord e.jpg|thumb|[[Saint Willibrord]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] missionary from [[Northumberland]], Apostle to the Frisians, first bishop of Utrecht.]]
[[Berkas:Willibrord e.jpg|jmpl|[[Wilibrordus|Santo Wilibrordus]], misionaris [[Anglia-Sachsen]] dari [[Northumberland]], Rasul Frisia, Uskup Utrecht yang pertama.]]


Pada akhir abad ke-19, para sejarawan Belanda meyakini bahwa orang Franka, orang Frisia, dan orang Saksen adalah cikal bakal bangsa Belanda. Beberapa sejarawan bahkan melangkah lebih jauh lagi dengan menjabarkan atribut-atribut, nilai-nilai, dan kelebihan-kelebihan tertentu yang konon dimiliki suku-suku bangsa ini, dan mengedepankannya sebagai cerminan pandangan-pandangan kebangsaan dan keagamaan pada abad ke-19. Pada khususnya, diyakini bahwa teori ini menjelaskan mengapa warga Belgia dan kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (yakni orang Franka) memeluk agama Kristen Katolik, sementara warga kawasan utara Negeri Belanda (orang Frisia dan orang Saksen) memeluk agama Kristen Protestan. Salah satu penyebab kesuksesan teori ini adalah teori-teori antropologi yang didasarkan atas suatu paradigma kesukuan. Karena bersifat inklusif secara politis dan geografis, tetapi menjunjung tinggi keberagaman, teori ini selaras dengan kebutuhan bina bangsa dan integrasi pada kurun waktu 1890–1914. Teori ini diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah Negeri Belanda kala itu.
In the late 19th century, Dutch historians believed that the Franks, Frisians, and Saxons were the original ancestors of the Dutch people. Some went further by ascribing certain attributes, values and strengths to these various groups and proposing that they reflected 19th-century nationalist and religious views. In particular, it was believed that this theory explained why Belgium and the southern Netherlands (i.e. the Franks) had become Catholic and the northern Netherlands (Frisians and Saxons) had become Protestant. The success of this theory was partly due to anthropological theories based on a tribal paradigm. Being politically and geographically inclusive, and yet accounting for diversity, this theory was in accordance with the need for nation-building and integration during the 1890–1914 period. The theory was taught in Dutch schools.


Meskipun demikian, kerugian-kerugian dari tafsir sejarah ini mulai muncul ke permukaan. Teori berasas kesukuan ini menyiratkan bahwa garis-garis perbatasan eksternal sesungguhnya lemah atau tidak wujud, dan bahwasanya ada garis-garis perbatasan internal yang jelas. Mitos asal usul ini menyajikan sebuah premis historis, teristimewa pada Perang Dunia II, bagi separatisme regional dan aneksasi ke Jerman. Selepas tahun 1945, paradigma kesukuan kehilangan daya pikatnya di kalangan antropolog dan sejarawan. Manakala keakuratan landasan tema tiga-suku dipertanyakan, teori ini pun tidak lagi diminati orang.<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850"/>
However, the disadvantages of this historical interpretation became apparent. This tribal-based theory suggested that external borders were weak or non-existent and that there were clear-cut internal borders. This origins myth provided an historical premise, especially during the Second World War, for regional separatism and annexation to Germany. After 1945 the tribal paradigm lost its appeal for anthropological scholars and historians. When the accuracy of the three-tribe theme was fundamentally questioned, the theory fell out of favour.<ref name="Marnix Beyen 1850"/>


Due to the scarcity of written sources, knowledge of this period depends to a large degree on the interpretation of archaeological data. The traditional view of a clear-cut division between [[Frisians]] in the north and coast, [[Franks]] in the south and [[Saxons]] in the east has proven historically problematic.<ref>Blok, D.P. (1974), ''De Franken in Nederland'', Bussum: Unieboek, 1974, pp. 36–38 on the uncertain identity of the Frisians in early Frankish sources; pp. 54–55 on the problems concerning “Saxon” as a tribal name.</ref><ref>van Eijnatten, J. and F. van Lieburg, ''Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis'' (Hilversum, 2006), pp. 42–43, on the uncertain identity of the “Frisians” in early Frankish sources.</ref><ref>de Nijs, T, E. Beukers and J. Bazelmans, ''Geschiedenis van Holland'' (Hilversum, 2003), pp. 31–33 on the fluctuating character of tribal and ethnic distinctions for the early Medieval period.</ref> Archeological evidence suggests dramatically different models for different regions, with demographic continuity for some parts of the country and depopulation and possible replacement in other parts, notably the coastal areas of Frisia and Holland.<ref>Blok (1974), pp. 117 ff.; de Nijs et al. (2003), pp. 30–33</ref>
Karena langkanya sumber-sumber tertulis, pengetahuan mengenai kurun waktu ini sangat bergantung pada penafsiran data arkeologi. Pandangan tradisional yang menyatakan bahwa ada keterpisahan yang jelas antara [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] di sebelah utara serta daerah pesisir, [[orang Franka]] di sebelah selatan, dan [[orang Saksen]] di sebelah timur terbukti secara historis bermasalah.<ref>Blok, D.P. (1974), ''De Franken in Nederland'', Bussum: Unieboek, 1974, hlmn. 36–38 mengenai ketidakpastian jati diri orang Frisia dalam sumber-sumber Franka terdahulu; hlmn. 54–55 mengenai masalah-masalah terkait “Saksen” sebagai sebuah nama suku.</ref><ref>van Eijnatten, J. dan F. van Lieburg, ''Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis'' (Hilversum, 2006), hlmn. 42–43, mengenai ketidakpastian jati diri "orang Frisia" dalam sumber-sumber Franka terdahulu.</ref><ref>de Nijs, T, E. Beukers dan J. Bazelmans, ''Geschiedenis van Holland'' (Hilversum, 2003), hlmn. 31–33 mengenai sifat fluktuatif dari ciri khas kesukuan dan kesukubangsaan pada kurun waktu Abad Pertengahan Awal.</ref> Bukti-bukti arkeologi secara dramatis menunjukkan model-model yang berlainan dari satu daerah ke darah lain, dengan kesinambungan demografi untuk sejumlah kawasan di Negeri Belanda dan depopulasi serta kemungkinan bergantinya populasi di kawasan-kawasan lain, terutama di daerah pesisir Frisia dan Holland.<ref>Blok (1974), hlmn. 117 ff.; de Nijs dll. (2003), hlmn. 30–33</ref>


=== Kemunculan bahasa Belanda ===
===The emergence of the Dutch language===
{{utama|Bahasa Belanda Lama|Bahasa Frisia Lama|Bahasa Belanda Saksen Hilir}}
{{Main article|Old Dutch|Old Frisian|Dutch Low Saxon}}
Bahasa yang menjadi cikal bakal [[bahasa belanda Lama]] (atau [[bahasa Franken Hilir Barat]]) dan [[bahasa Franken Hilir Lama]] (atau [[bahasa Franka Lama]]) tidak diketahui secara pasti, tetapi diduga bahwa bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa yang dituturkan [[orang Franka Sali]]. Kendati orang Franka sudah lama digolongkan ke dalam rumpun [[suku Jermanik Weser-Rhein]], bahasa Belanda memiliki sejumlah ciri khas [[rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik]], dan digolongkan ke dalam rumpun bahasa tersebut oleh ahli-ahli bahasa modern. Bahasa Belanda juga memiliki sejumlah ciri kas [[bahasa Saksen Lama]]. [[Bahasa Belanda Lama]], [[bahasa Saksen Lama]], [[bahasa Inggris Lama]], dan [[bahasa Frisia Lama]] masih berkerabat dekat. Nyaris tidak ada peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa yang dituturkan orang Franka, dan peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa Belanda Lama sangat langka serta tidak lagi utuh, sehingga tidak banyak yang dapat diketahui mengenai perkembangan [[bahasa Belanda Lama]]. Bahasa Belanda Lama bertransisi menjadi [[bahasa Belanda Pertengahan]] sekitar tahun 1150.<ref name="Verhaal"/>
The language from which [[Old Dutch]] (also sometimes called [[Old West Low Franconian]], [[Old Low Franconian]] or [[Old Frankish]]) arose is not known with certainty, but it is thought to be the language spoken by the [[Salian Franks]]. Even though the Franks are traditionally categorized as [[Weser-Rhine Germanic]], Dutch has a number of [[Ingvaeonic]] characteristics and is classified by modern linguists as an [[Ingvaeonic]] language. Dutch also has a number of [[Old Saxon]] characteristics. There was a close relationship between [[Old Dutch]], [[Old Saxon]], [[Old English]] and [[Old Frisian]]. Because texts written in the language spoken by the Franks are almost non-existent, and [[Old Dutch]] texts scarce and fragmentary, not much is known about the development of [[Old Dutch]]. [[Old Dutch]] made the transition to [[Middle Dutch]] around 1150.<ref name="Verhaal"/>


=== Masuknya agama Kristen ===
===Christianization===
The Christianity that arrived in the Netherlands with the Romans appears not to have died out completely (in [[Maastricht]], at least) after the withdrawal of the Romans in about 411.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/>
Agama Kristen yang dibawa masuk ke Negeri Belanda oleh bangsa Romawi tampaknya hilang sama sekali (setidaknya di [[Maastricht]]) setelah bangsa Romawi hengkang dari Negeri Belanda sekitar tahun 411.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18"/>


[[Orang Franka]] menerima agama Kristen setelah raja mereka, [[Clovis I|Klovis I]], memeluk agama Kristen Katolik pada tahun 496. Agama Kristen masuk ke kawasan utara sesudah orang Franka menaklukkan [[Friesland]]. [[bangsa Sachsen|Orang Saksen]] di kawasan timur sudah memeluk agama Kristen sebelum [[Sachsen]] ditaklukkan, dan menjadi sekutu orang Franka.
The [[Franks]] became Christians after their king [[Clovis I]] converted to Catholicism, an event which is traditionally set in 496. Christianity was introduced in the north after the conquest of [[Friesland]] by the [[Franks]]. The [[Saxons]] in the east were converted before the conquest of [[Saxony]], and became Frankish allies.


Para misionaris [[Misi Hiberno-Skotlandia|Hibernia-Skotlandia]] dan [[Misi Anglia-Sachsen|Anglia-Sachsen]], teristimewa [[Wilibrordus]], [[Wolframus dari Sens|Wolframus]], dan [[Bonifasius]], berjasa memperkenalkan agama Kristen kepada masyarakat Franka dan Frisia pada abad ke-8. Bonifasius gugur sebagai martir karena dibunuh [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] di [[Dokkum]] pada tahun 754.
[[Hiberno-Scottish mission|Hiberno-Scottish]] and [[Anglo-Saxon mission|Anglo-Saxon]] missionaries, particularly [[Willibrord]], [[Wulfram of Sens|Wulfram]] and [[Boniface]], played an important role in converting the Frankish and Frisian peoples to Christianity by the 8th century. Boniface was martyred by the [[Frisians]] in [[Dokkum]] (754).


=== Penjajahan Franka dan penggabungan dengan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci ===
===Frankish dominance and incorporation into the Holy Roman Empire===
{{utama|Perang-perang Frisia-Franka}}
{{Main article|Frisian-Frankish Wars}}
[[File:Radboud doopvont.jpg|thumb|left|An early 16th-century tapestry depicting the near baptism of [[Redbad, King of the Frisians]], who died in 719 CE.]]
[[Berkas:Radboud doopvont.jpg|jmpl|Dewangga dari awal abad ke-16, bergambar peristiwa pembaptisan [[Radboud, Raja Orang Frisia]] yang mangkat pada tahun 719.]]


Pada permulaan abad ke-8, mulai sering timbul konflik antara orang Frisia dan [[orang Franka]] di sebelah selatan. Konflik-konflik ini menimbulkan [[Perang-perang Frisia–Franka|serangkaian perang]] yang mengakibatkan Frisia menjadi jajahan [[Negeri Franka|Kekaisaran Orang Franka]]. Dalam [[Pertempuran Boorne]] pada tahun 734, orang Frisia di wilayah Belanda dikalahkan orang Franka, dan dengan demikian kawasan di sebelah barat [[Sungai Lauwers]] pun menjadi jajahan mereka. Kawasan di sebelah timur Sungai Lauwers menjadi jajahan orang Franka tahun 785 setelah [[Karel Agung]] mengalahkan [[Widukind]].
In the early 8th century the Frisians came increasingly into conflict with the [[Franks]] to the south, resulting in a [[Frisian–Frankish wars|series of wars]] in which the [[Frankish Empire]] eventually subjugated Frisia. In 734, at the [[Battle of the Boarn]], the Frisians in the Netherlands were defeated by the [[Franks]], who thereby conquered the area west of the [[Lauwers]]. The Franks then conquered the area east of the Lauwers in 785 when [[Charlemagne]] defeated [[Widukind]].


The linguistic descendants of the Franks, the modern [[Dutch people|Dutch]][[Dutch language|-speakers]] of the [[Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]], seem to have broken with the [[Exonym and endonym|endonym]] "Frank" around the 9th century. By this time Frankish identity had changed from an ethnic identity to a national identity, becoming localized and confined to the modern ''[[Franconia]]'' and principally to the French province of ''[[Île-de-France]]''.<ref>van der Wal, M., ''Geschiedenis van het Nederlands'', 1992 {{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref>
Keturunan orang Franka berdasarkan bahasa, yakni [[bangsa Belanda|masyarakat penutur]] [[bahasa Belanda]] di [[Belanda|Negeri Belanda]] dan [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] sekarang ini, tampaknya sudah lepas dari [[Eksonim dan endonim|endonim]] "Franka" sekitar abad ke-9. Pada masa itu, identitas Franka sudah berubah dari identitas suku bangsa menjadi identitas bangsa, menjadi terlokalisasi dan terbatas pada daerah yang sekarang bernama ''[[Franken]]'' dan teristimewa daerah yang sekarang menjadi Provinsi ''[[Île-de-France]]'' di Prancis.<ref>van der Wal, M., ''Geschiedenis van het Nederlands'', 1992</ref>


Although the people no longer referred to themselves as "Franks", the Netherlands was still part of the [[Frankish empire]] of [[Charlemagne]]. Indeed, because of the Austrasian origins of the Carolingians in the area between the Rhine and the Maas, the cities of Aachen, Maastricht, Liège and Nijmegen were at the heart of Carolingian culture.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. pp. 6-18"/> Charlemagne maintained his ''palatium''<ref>{{cite web|title=Charlemagne: Court and administration|work= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106546/Charlemagne/256621/Court-and-administration}} ("Charlemagne relied on his palatium, a shifting assemblage of family members, trusted lay and ecclesiastical companions, and assorted hangers-on, which constituted an itinerant court following the king as he carried out his military campaigns and sought to take advantage of the income from widely scattered royal estates.")</ref> in [[Nijmegen]] at least four times.
Meskipun tidak lagi menyebut dirinya "orang Franka", masyarakat Negeri Belanda masih menjadi bagian dari [[Negeri Franka|Kekaisaran Orang Franka]] di bawah kepemimpinan [[Karel Agung]]. Karena wangsa Karoling berasal dari Austrasia, yang terletak di antara Sungai Rhein dan Sungai Maas, kota Aachen, kota Maastricht, kota Liège dan kota Nijmegen menjadi jantung kebudayaan zaman wangsa Karoling.<ref name="Milis, L.J.R. hlmn. 6-18"/> Karel Agung memenuhi kebutuhan ''palatium'' (majelis istana)<ref>{{cite web|title=Charlemagne: Court and administration|work= [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/106546/Charlemagne/256621/Court-and-administration}} ''("Karel Agung mengandalkan ''palatium'', yakni sebuah majelis dengan anggota yang senantiasa berganti-ganti, terdiri atas kerabat, pengiring kepercayaan dari kalangan rohaniwan maupun nonrohaniwan, dan bermacam-macam pengikut. Orang-orang ini membentuk suatu majelis istana yang berpindah-pindah tempat mengikuti perjalanan sang raja bilamana sedang melancarkan kampanye-kampanye militer, dan berusaha mencari keuntungan dari penghasilan lahan-lahan yasan milik raja yang tersebar di mana-mana.")</ref> di [[Nijmegen]] paling sedikit empat kali.


Wilayah kekuasaan [[Kekaisaran Karoling|Kekaisaran Wangsa Karoling]] pada akhirnya meliputi Prancis, Jerman, kawasan utara [[Italia]], dan banyak lagi tempat lain di Eropa Barat. Pada tahun 843, kekaisaran orang Franka dipecah menjadi tiga bagian, sehingga terciptalah [[Francia Barat|Negeri Franka Barat]] di kawasan barat, [[Francia Timur|Negeri Franka Timur]] di kawasan timur, dan [[Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]] di kawasan tengah wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka. Sebagian besar wilayah Negeri Belanda sekarang ini adalah bekas bagian wilayah [[Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]], sementara daerah Vlaanderen adalah bekas bagian wilayah [[Francia Barat|Negeri Franka Barat]]. Inilah salah satu faktor penting yang turun-temurun membedakan daerah Vlaanderen dari daerah-daerah penutur bahasa Belanda lainnya.
The [[Carolingian empire]] would eventually include France, Germany, northern [[Italy]] and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to [[West Francia]] in the west, [[East Francia]] in the east, and [[Middle Francia]] in the centre. Most of what is today the Netherlands became part of [[Middle Francia]]; Flanders became part of [[West Francia]]. This division was an important factor in the historical distinction between Flanders and the other Dutch-speaking areas.


[[Middle Francia]] ({{lang-la|Francia media}}) was an ephemeral [[Francia|Frankish]] kingdom that had no historical or ethnic identity to bind its varied peoples. It was created by the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, which divided the [[Carolingian Empire]] among the sons of [[Louis the Pious]]. Situated between the realms of [[East Francia|East]] and [[West Francia]], Middle Francia comprised the Frankish territory between the rivers [[Rhine]] and [[Scheldt]], the [[Frisia]]n coast of the [[North Sea]], the former [[Kingdom of Burgundy]] (except for a western portion, later known as [[Duchy of Burgundy|''Bourgogne'']]), [[Provence]] and the [[Kingdom of Italy (medieval)|Kingdom of Italy]].
[[Francia Tengah|Negeri Franka Tengah]] ({{lang-la|Francia Media}}) adalah kerajaan [[Francia|orang Franka]] berumur pendek tanpa identitas sejarah maupun suku bangsa sebagai pemersatu warganya yang terdiri atas bermacam-macam suku bangsa. Kerajaan ini dibentuk berdasarkan [[Perjanjian Verdun]] tahun 843 yang membagi wilayah [[Kekaisaran Karoling|Kekaisaran wangsa Karoling]] kepada putra-putra [[Ludwig yang Saleh|Ludwig Si Warak]]. Wilayah kerajaan yang diapit Negeri Franka Timur dan Negeri Franka Barat ini terdiri atas daerah-daerah kekuasaan orang Franka di antara [[Sungai Rhein]] dan [[Schelde|Sungai Schelde]], daerah pesisir [[Frisia|Vlaanderen]] di tepi [[Laut Utara]], bekas wilayah [[Kerajaan Bourgogne|Kerajaan Burgundia]] (kecuali bagian baratnya yang kemudian hari dikenal dengan nama [[Kadipaten Bourgogne|''Bourgogne'']]), [[Provence]], dan [[Kerajaan Italia (Abad Pertengahan)|Kerajaan Italia]].


Middle Francia fell to [[Lothair I]], the eldest son and successor of [[Louis the Pious]], after an intermittent civil war with his younger brothers [[Louis the German]] and [[Charles the Bald]]. In acknowledgement of Lothair's [[Holy Roman Emperor|Imperial]] title, Middle Francia contained the imperial cities of [[Aachen]], the residence of [[Charlemagne]], as well as Rome. In 855, on his deathbed at [[Prüm Abbey]], Emperor Lothair I again partitioned his realm amongst his sons. Most of the lands north of the [[Alps]], including the Netherlands, passed to [[Lothair II of Lotharingia|Lothair II]] and consecutively were named [[Lotharingia]]. After Lothair II died in 869, Lotharingia was partitioned by his uncles Louis the German and Charles the Bald in the [[Treaty of Meerssen]] in 870. Although some of the Netherlands had come under Viking control, in 870 it technically became part of [[East Francia]], which became the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 962.
Negeri Franka Tengah jatuh ke tangan [[Lothair I]], putra sulung dan pengganti Ludwig Si Warak, sesudah berperang melawan adik-adiknya, [[Ludwig si Jerman|Ludwig Si Jerman]] dan [[Karl yang Botak|Karel Si Gundul]]. Sebagai wujud pengakuan terhadap gelar [[Kaisar Romawi Suci|kaisar]] yang disandang Lothair I, wilayah Negeri Franka Tengah mencakup kota-kota kekaisaran, yakni [[Aachen]], kota tempat [[Karel Agung]] bermastautin, dan Roma. Pada tahun 855, sebelum menghembuskan napas terakhirnya di [[Biara Prüm]], Kaisar Lothair I membagi wilayah kekuasaannya kepada putra-putranya. Sebagian besar daerah di sebelah utara [[Pegunungan Alpen]], termasuk Negeri Belanda, diwariskan kepada [[Lothaire II dari Lorraine|Lothair II]] sehingga disebut [[Lotharingia]] ({{lang-fr|Lorraine}}). Sesudah Lothair II wafat pada tahun 869, Lotharingia dibagi-bagi kedua pamannya, Ludwig Si Jerman dan Karel Si Gundul, sesuai dengan kesepakatan yang tertuang dalam [[Perjanjian Meerssen]] tahun 870. Meskipun beberapa daerah di Negeri Belanda dikuasai orang Viking, Negeri Belanda secara teknis menjadi bagian dari [[Negeri Franka Timur]] pada tahun 870. Negeri Franka Timur akhirnya berubah nama menjadi [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] pada tahun 962.


===Viking raids===
=== Serbuan orang Viking ===
[[File:Rorik by H. W. Koekkoek.jpg|thumb|[[Rorik of Dorestad]], [[Viking]] conqueror and ruler of [[Friesland]], a romantic 1912 depiction by [[Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek|Johannes H. Koekkoek]].]]
[[Berkas:Rorik by H. W. Koekkoek.jpg|jmpl|[[Rorik dari Dorestad|Rorik]], pahlawan [[Viking]] yang menaklukkan dan memerintah [[Friesland]], gambar romantisasi dari tahun 1912, karya [[Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek]]]]
In the 9th and 10th centuries, the Vikings raided the largely defenceless [[Frisians|Frisian]] and [[Franks|Frankish]] towns lying on the coast and along the rivers of the [[Low Countries]]. Although Vikings never settled in large numbers in those areas, they did set up long-term bases and were even acknowledged as lords in a few cases. In Dutch and Frisian historical tradition, the trading centre of [[Dorestad]] declined after Viking raids from 834 to 863; however, since no convincing Viking archaeological evidence has been found at the site (as of 2007), doubts about this have grown in recent years.<ref>More info about Viking raids can be found online at L. van der Tuuk, [http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/index.html Gjallar. Noormannen in de Lage Landen]</ref>
Pada abad ke-9 dan ke-10, orang Viking menyerbu kota-kota pantai dan tepi sungai yang tak terlindung, milik [[bangsa Frisia|orang Frisia]] dan [[orang Franka]], di kawasan [[Negara-negara Dataran Rendah|Negeri-Negeri Rendah]] ({{lang-nl|Nederlanden}}). Meskipun tidak pernah menetap dalam jumlah besar, orang Viking membangun pangkalan-pangkalan di daerah-daerah tersebut yang digunakan dalam jangka panjang, bahkan dalam kasus-kasus tertentu diakui sebagai penguasa. Dalam tradisi sejarah bangsa Belanda dan Frisia, pusat dagang [[Dorestad]] mengalami kemerosotan akibat serbuan-serbuan orang Viking yang dilancarkan dari tahun 834 sampai tahun 863. Meskipun demikian, karena tidak ada bukti arkeologi meyakinkan terkait keberadaan orang Viking yang ditemukan di Dorestad (per 2007), tradisi sejarah tersebut akhir-akhir ini mulai diragukan kebenarannya.<ref>Informasi lebih lanjut menganai serbuan-serbuan orang Viking tersaji daring di L. van der Tuuk, [http://home.tiscali.nl/gjallar/index.html Gjallar. Noormannen in de Lage Landen]</ref>


One of the most important Viking families in the Low Countries was that of [[Rorik of Dorestad]] (based in [[Wieringen]]) and his brother the "younger Harald" (based in [[Walcheren]]), both thought to be nephews of [[Harald Klak]].<ref>Baldwin, Stephen, [http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685 "Danish Haralds in 9th Century Frisia"]. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> Around 850, [[Lothair I]] acknowledged Rorik as ruler of most of Friesland. And again in 870, Rorik was received by [[Charles the Bald]] in [[Nijmegen]], to whom he became a vassal. Viking raids continued during that period. Harald’s son Rodulf and his men were killed by the people of [[Oostergo]] in 873. Rorik died sometime before 882.
Salah satu keluarga Viking terkemuka di Negeri-Negeri Rendah adalah keluarga [[Rorik dari Dorestad]] (berbasis di [[Wieringen]]) dan adiknya, "Harald Muda" (berbasis di [[Walcheren]]). Kedua adik-beradik ini diduga sebagai kemenakan [[Harald Klak]].<ref>Baldwin, Stephen, [http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/GEN-MEDIEVAL/2002-09/1031544685 "Wangsa Harald asal Denmark di Friesland pada abad ke-9"]. Temu balik tanggal 9 Oktober 2011.</ref> Sekitar tahun 850, [[Lothair I]] mengakui Rorik sebagai penguasa sebagian besar wilayah Friesland, dan pada tahun 870, selaku raja bawahan wangsa Karoling, Rorik diterima menghadap Kaisar [[Karl yang Botak|Karel Si Gundung]] di [[Nijmegen]]. Serbuan-serbuan orang Viking berlanjut pada kurun waktu tersebut. Rodulf, putra Harald, dan pengawal-pengawalnya tewas dibunuh orang-orang [[Oostergo]] pada tahun 873. Rorik sendiri wafat sebelum tahun 882.


Buried Viking treasures consisting mainly of silver have been found in the Low Countries. Two such treasures have been found in Wieringen. A large treasure found in Wieringen in 1996 dates from around 850 and is thought perhaps to have been connected to Rorik. The burial of such a valuable treasure is seen as an indication that there was a permanent settlement in Wieringen.<ref>"[http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html Vikingschat van Wieringen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064223/http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html |date=18 July 2011 }}, Museumkennis.nl. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref>
kumpulan-kumpulan harta terpendam peninggalan orang Viking yang sebagian besar berupa barang-barang perak telah ditemukan di kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Dua kumpulan ditemukan di Wieringen. Sekumpulan besar harta karun yang ditemukan di Wieringen pada tahun 1996 diperkirakan berasal dari sekitar tahun 850 dan diduga berkaitan dengan Rorik. Penguburan harta kekayaan semacam ini dipandang sebagai salah satu indikasi keberadaan sebuah permukiman permanen di Wieringen.<ref>"[http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html Vikingschat van Wieringen"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718064223/http://www.museumkennis.nl/lp.rmo/museumkennis/i000412.html |date=18 July 2011 }}, Museumkennis.nl. Temu balik tanggal 9 Oktober 2011.</ref>


Around 879, Godfrid arrived in Frisian lands as the head of a large force that terrorised the Low Countries. Using [[Ghent]] as his base, they ravaged Ghent, [[Maastricht]], [[Liège]], [[Stavelot]], [[Prüm]], [[Cologne]], and [[Koblenz]]. Controlling most of Frisia between 882 and his death in 885, Godfrid became known to history as [[Godfrid, Duke of Frisia]]. His lordship over Frisia was acknowledged by [[Charles the Fat]], to whom he became a vassal. Godfried was assassinated in 885, after which [[Gerolf of Holland]] assumed lordship and Viking rule of Frisia came to an end.
Sekitar tahun 879, Godfrid tiba di Friesland membawa sepasukan besar prajurit yang meneror kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Dengan menjadikan [[Ghent]] sebagai pangkalannya, pasukan Godfried menggempur Ghent, [[Maastricht]], [[Liège]], [[Stavelot]], [[Prüm]], [[Koln]], dan [[Koblenz]]. Karena berhasil menguasai sebagian besar wilayah Friesland dari tahun 882 sampai akhir hayatnya pada tahun 885, Godfrid dikenal dalam sejarah sebagai [[Godfrid, Adipati Frisia|Godfrid, Adipati Friesland]]. Kekuasaannya atas Friesland selaku raja bawahan wangsa Karoling diakui Kaisar [[Karl yang Gendut|Karel Si Tambun]]. Ketika Godfried tewas terbunuh pada tahun 885, [[Gerolf dari Holland]] mengambil alih tampuk pemerintahan Friesland, dan zaman kekuasaan orang Viking di Friesland pun berakhir.


Viking raids of the Low Countries continued for over a century. Remains of Viking attacks dating from 880 to 890 have been found in [[Zutphen]] and [[Deventer]]. In 920, King [[Henry I of Germany|Henry]] of Germany liberated [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]. According to a number of chronicles, the last attacks took place in the first decade of the 11th century and were directed at [[Tiel]] and/or [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].<ref>Jesch, Judith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RkNY2KrdvscC&pg=PA82 Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse]'', Boydell & Brewer, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-85115-826-6}}. p. 82.</ref>
Serbuan orang Viking di kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah berlanjut lebih dari seabad. Jejak-jejak serbuan orang Viking yang diperkirakan berasal dari kurun waktu tahun 880 sampai tahun 890 telah ditemukan di [[Zutphen]] dan [[Deventer]]. Pada tahun 920, [[Heinrich I dari Sachsen|Raja Hendrik Si Pemburu Unggas Liar]] asal Saksen membebaskan kota [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]] dari penjajahan Viking. Menurut sejumlah tawarikh, serbuan terakhir orang Viking terjadi pada dasawarsa pertama abad ke-11 di [[Tiel]] dan/atau Utrecht.<ref>Jesch, Judith, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=RkNY2KrdvscC&pg=PA82 Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse]'', Boydell & Brewer, 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-85115-826-6}}. hlm. 82.</ref>


Serbuan-serbuan orang Viking terjadi bertepatan dengan perang perebutan supremasi di Negeri Franka Tengah (mencakup Negeri Belanda) di antara para penguasa Prancis dan Jerman, sehingga melemahkan kekuasaan mereka atas kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Perlawanan terhadap orang Viking, kalaupun ada, dilakukan para menak lokal, yang membuat mereka semakin kuat dan berkuasa.
These Viking raids occurred about the same time that French and German lords were fighting for supremacy over the middle empire that included the Netherlands, so their sway over this area was weak. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result.


==High & Late Middle Ages (1000–1432)==
== Abad Pertengahan Madya dan Abad Pertengahan Akhir (1000–1432) ==
[[Berkas:Valkhofkapel.JPG|jmpl|Kapel Santo Nikolaus ({{lang-nl|Sint-Nicolaaskapel}}) atau Kapel Valkhof ({{lang-nl|Valkhofkapel}}) di [[Nijmegen]], salah satu bangunan tertua di Negeri Belanda]]


===Part of the Holy Roman Empire===
=== Bagian dari Kekaisaran Romawi Suci ===
Raja-raja dan kaisar-kaisar Jerman berdaulat atas Negeri Belanda pada abad ke-10 dan ke-11. Jerman disebut Kekaisaran Romawi Suci setelah [[Otto I, Kaisar Romawi Suci|Raja Otto Agung]] dinobatkan menjadi kaisar. Kota [[Nijmegen]] di Negeri Belanda pernah menjadi salah satu daerah penting bagi kaisar-kaisar Jerman. Sejumlah kaisar Jerman lahir dan wafat di Nijmegen, demikian pula [[Theophano|Teofanu]], Permaisuri Romawi Suci asal Romawi Timur. Utrecht juga merupakan salah satu kota sekaligus bandar niaga yang penting kala itu.
The German kings and emperors ruled the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th century. Germany was called the Holy Roman Empire after the coronation of [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|King Otto the Great]] as emperor. The Dutch city of [[Nijmegen]] used to be the spot of an important domain of the German emperors. Several German emperors were born and died there, including for example [[Byzantine]] empress [[Theophanu]], who died in Nijmegen. Utrecht was also an important city and trading port at the time.


=== Keterpecahan politik ===
===Political disunity===
Kekaisaran Romawi Suci tidak mampu mempertahankan kesatuan politiknya. Selain kian merdekanya kota-kota, para penguasa lokal mengubah kabupaten-kabupaten dan kadipaten-kadipaten mereka menjadi kerajaan-kerajaan partikelir dan hanya memiliki sedikit rasa wajib berbakti kepada kaisar yang memerintah sebagian besar wilayah kekaisaran secara atas-nama saja. Sebagian besar kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda diperintah Bupati Holland, Adipati [[Gelre]], Adipati Brabant, dan Uskup Utrecht. [[Friesland]] dan [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]] di sebelah utara mempertahankan kemerdekaan mereka dan diperintah para menak yang lebih rendah tingkatannya.
[[File:Valkhofkapel.JPG|thumb|Chapel of St Nicholas ({{Interlanguage link multi|Sint-Nicolaaskapel|nl}} or Valkhofkapel) in [[Nijmegen]], one of the oldest buildings in the Netherlands.]]


Negara-negara feodal tersebut nyaris terus-menerus saling memerangi. [[Gelre]] dan Holland bertempur memperebutkan kekuasaan atas [[Utrecht (provinsi)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, yang uskupnya memerintah setengah dari keseluruhan wilayah Negeri Belanda saat ini pada tahun 1000, kian terpinggirkan seiring kian sukarnya memilih uskup baru, sementara wangsa-wangsa penguasa negara-negara tetangga justru semakin kuat mengakar. [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]], dan sebagian besar Gelre, yang dulunya merupakan bagian dari Swapraja Utrecht, akhirnya merdeka. Brabant mencoba menaklukkan swapraja-swapraja tetangganya, tetapi tidak berhasil. Holland juga mengalami kegagalan ketika berusaha mendaulat Zeeland dan Friesland.
The Holy Roman Empire was not able to maintain political unity. In addition to the growing independence of the towns, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms and felt little sense of obligation to the emperor who reigned over large parts of the nation in name only. Large parts of what now comprise the Netherlands were governed by the Count of Holland, the Duke of [[Gelre]], the Duke of Brabant and the Bishop of Utrecht. [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] in the north maintained their independence and were governed by the lower nobility.


=== Orang Frisia ===
The various feudal states were in a state of almost continual war. [[Gelre]] and Holland fought for control of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, whose bishop had in 1000 ruled over half of what is today the Netherlands, was marginalised as it experienced continuing difficulty in electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighbouring states were more stable. [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]] and most of Gelre, which used to be part of Utrecht, became independent. Brabant tried to conquer its neighbours, but was not successful. Holland also tried to assert itself in Zeeland and Friesland, but its attempts failed.
Masyarakat yang mula-mula mendiami daerah Holland adalah [[Frisia|orang Frisia]]. Kala itu, daerah yang jarang penduduknya tersebut dikenal dengan sebutan "Friesland Barat" ({{lang-nl|Westfriesland}}). Seiring pertambahan jumlah permukiman orang Franka, orang Frisia pun bermigrasi atau berbaur dengan masyarakat pendatang, dan daerah tersebut dengan cepat berubah menjadi daerah penutur [[bahasa Belanda Lama]]. Bagian dari daerah Holland Utara yang terletak di sebelah utara [[Alkmaar]] masih disebut Friesland Barat dalam percakapan sehari-hari.


Daerah [[Friesland]] di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetap merdeka pada kurun waktu ini. Friesland memiliki lembaga pemerintahan sendiri (yang secara kolektif disebut "[[Kemerdekaan Frisia]]") dan menolak pemberlakuan sistem feodal maupun tatanan kebangsawanan seperti yang ada di praja-praja Eropa lainnya. Orang Frisia memandang dirinya sebagai sekutu Swiss. Pekik perang orang Frisia adalah "lebih baik mati daripada membudak". Kemudian hari, orang Frisia kehilangan kemerdekaannya setelah dikalahkan pada tahun 1498 oleh tentara-tentara bayaran [[Landsknecht]] dari Jerman yang dikerahkan [[Albrecht III dari Sachsen|Adipati Saksen-Meißen, Albrecht III]].
===The Frisians===
The language and culture of most of the people who lived in the area that is now Holland were originally [[Frisia]]n. The sparsely populated area was known as "West Friesland" (''Westfriesland''). As Frankish settlement progressed, the Frisians migrated away or were absorbed and the area quickly became [[Old Dutch|Dutch]]. (The part of North Holland situated north of [[Alkmaar]] is still colloquially known as West Friesland).


=== Kebangkitan Holland ===
The rest of [[Friesland]] in the north continued to maintain its independence during this time. It had its own institutions (collectively called the "[[Frisian freedom]]") and resented the imposition of the feudal system and the patriciate found in other European towns. They regarded themselves as allies of Switzerland. The Frisian battle cry was "better dead than a slave". They later lost their independence when they were defeated in 1498 by the German [[Landsknecht]] mercenaries of [[Albert, Duke of Saxony|Duke Albrecht of Saxony-Meissen]].
[[Berkas:Rochussen Egmond.jpg|jmpl|[[Dirk VI dari Holland|Dirk VI, Bupati Holland]] (1114–1157) meninjau pekerjaan pembangunan [[Biara Egmond]] bersama ibunya, Petronella, lukisan karya Charles Rochussen, 1881. Karya seni ukir di dalam lukisan ini adalah [[commons:File:Egmond tympanum.jpg|Timpanum Egmond]], yang menampilkan sosok Dirk dan ibunya mengapit Santo Petrus.]]
[[Berkas:The Saint Elizabeth’s Day Flood by Master of the St Elizabeth Panels c1490-1495.jpg|jmpl|Lukisan peristiwa bencana [[Banjir Santa Elisabet (1421)|Banjir Santa Elisabet]] yang menggenangi daerah Grote Waard dari tanggal 18 sampai tanggal 19 November 1421]]


Pusat kekuasaan di kawasan yang kian merdeka ini adalah [[Graafschap Holland|Kabupaten Holland]]. Cikal bakal wilayah Kabupaten Holland adalah daerah [[Kennemerland]] (daerah sekitar [[Haarlem]] sekarang) yang dianugerahkan kaisar kepada pemimpin orang Dani, [[Rorik dari Dorestad|Rorik]], sebagai tanah pertuanan pada tahun 862. Di bawah kepemimpinan anak cucu Rorik, daerah ini mengalami pemekaran dan menjadi salah satu daerah penting di Negeri belanda. Pada tahun-tahun permulaan abad ke-11, [[Dirk III, Graaf Holland|Bupati Dirk III]] mengutip tol di [[estuari|muara]] Sungai Maas dan mampu membendung intervensi militer atasannya, Adipati Lotharingia Hilir.
===The rise of Holland===
[[File:Rochussen Egmond.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dirk VI, Count of Holland]], 1114–1157, and his mother Petronella visiting the work on the [[Egmond Abbey]], Charles Rochussen, 1881. The sculpture is the [[commons:File:Egmond tympanum.jpg|Egmond Tympanum]], depicting the two visitors on either side of Saint Peter.]]
[[File:Master of the St Elizabeth Panels 001.jpg|thumb|Two wings of an altar piece, c. 1500, depicting the [[St. Elizabeth's flood (1421)|St Elizabeth Flood]] of 18–19 November 1421, with Dordrecht at the front left.]]


Pada tahun 1083, nama "Holland" muncul untuk pertama kalinya dalam sebuah akta sebagai sebutan bagi daerah yang kurang lebih sama dengan wilayah provinsi Holland Selatan ditambah bagian selatan dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara saat ini. Pamor Holland terus meningkat selama dua abad selanjutnya. [[Graaf Holland|Bupati Holland]] menaklukkan hampir seluruh daerah [[Zeeland]], tetapi orang Frisia di Friesland Barat (bagian utara dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara sekarang ini) baru dapat ditundukkan pada tahun 1289 oleh Bupati [[Floris V]].
The center of power in these emerging independent territories was in the [[County of Holland]]. Originally granted as a fief to the Danish chieftain [[Rorik of Dorestad|Rorik]] in return for loyalty to the emperor in 862, the region of [[Kennemerland|Kennemara]] (the region around modern [[Haarlem]]) rapidly grew under Rorik's descendants in size and importance. By the early 11th century, [[Dirk III, Count of Holland]] was levying tolls on the Meuse estuary and was able to resist military intervention from his overlord, the Duke of Lower Lorraine.


=== Ekspansi dan pertumbuhan ===
In 1083, the name "Holland" first appears in a deed referring to a region corresponding more or less to the current province of South Holland and the southern half of what is now North Holland. Holland's influence continued to grow over the next two centuries. The [[counts of Holland]] conquered most of [[Zeeland]] but it was not until 1289 that Count [[Floris V]] was able to subjugate the Frisians in West Friesland (that is, the northern half of North Holland).
{{utama|Sejarah pusat-pusat kawasan perkotaan di Negeri Belanda}}
Sekitar tahun 1000 Masehi, terjadi perkembangan-perkembangan di bidang pertanian (kadang-kadang disebut revolusi pertanian) yang menghasilkan peningkatan produksi, terutama produksi pangan. Ekonomi mulai tumbuh dengan pesat, dan produktivitas yang tinggi memungkinkan petani untuk menggarap lebih banyak lahan atau menjadi pedagang.


Dari akhir kurun waktu penjajahan Romawi, sebagian besar kawasan barat Negeri Belanda tidak berpenghuni, sampai para petani dari [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan [[Utrecht]] mulai membeli tanah rawa-rawa di kawasan itu, mengeringkannya, dan menggarapnya sekitar tahun 1100. Proses tersebut berlangsung dengan cepat sehingga dalam beberapa generasi saja kawasan tersebut sudah ramai penghuninya. Mereka membuka lahan-lahan usaha tani mandiri yang bukan bagian dari desa-desa. Usaha tani semacam ini merupakan hal yang unik di Eropa kala itu.
===Expansion and growth===
{{Main article|History of urban centers in the Dutch Low Countries}}


[[Gilda|Serikat-serikat usaha]] terbentuk dan pasar-pasar tumbuh ramai karena hasil produksi sudah melebihi kebutuhan masyarakat setempat. Selain itu, pengenalan mata uang membuat urusan-urusan dagang menjadi lebih mudah ditangani daripada sebelumnya. Kota-kota yang sudah ada kian bertumbuh, dan kota-kota baru terbentuk di sekitar [[biara (tempat tinggal)|biara-biara]] dan [[kastel|puri-puri]]. Suatu golongan masyarakat kelas menengah yang menggeluti usaha dagang mulai terbentuk di kawasan-kawasan perkotaan ini. Usaha dagang dan pemekaran kota mengalami peningkatan seiring pertumbuhan populasi.
Around 1000 AD there were several agricultural developments (described sometimes as an agricultural revolution) that resulted in an increase in production, especially food production. The economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}


[[Perang Salib]] cukup populer di Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Banyak warganya yang ikut serta berjuang di [[Tanah Suci]], sementara Negeri-Negeri Rendah sendiri relatif damai. Aksi-aksi penjarahan orang Viking sudah terhenti. Baik Perang Salib maupun keadaan relatif damai di Negeri-Negeri Rendah merupakan faktor-faktor yang ikut memajukan perdagangan.
Much of the western Netherlands was barely inhabited between the end of the Roman period until around 1100 AD, when farmers from [[Flanders]] and [[Utrecht]] began purchasing the swampy land, draining it and cultivating it. This process happened quickly and the uninhabited territory was settled in a few generations. They built independent farms that were not part of villages, something unique in Europe at the time.{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}


Kota-kota muncul dan berkembang, khususnya di [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan [[Kadipaten Brabant|Brabant]]. Seiring peningkatan kemakmuran dan keberdayaannya, kota-kota mulai membeli hak-hak istimewa tertentu dari [[monarki|penguasa]], antara lain [[Hak-hak kota di Negeri-Negeri Rendah|hak-hak kota]], yakni hak swatantra dan hak mengesahkan hukum sendiri. Pada praktiknya, ini berarti kota-kota termakmur menjadi republik-republik kuasi-independen atas usaha sendiri. Dua di antara kota-kota terpenting adalah [[Brugge]] dan [[Antwerpen]] (di [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]]), yang kemudian hari terbilang di antara kota-kota dan bandar-bandar terpenting di Eropa.
[[Guilds]] were established and markets developed as production exceeded local needs. Also, the introduction of currency made trading a much easier affair than it had been before. Existing towns grew and new towns sprang into existence around [[monasteries]] and [[castles]], and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas. Commerce and town development increased as the population grew.


=== Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw ===
The [[Crusade]]s were popular in the Low Countries and drew many to fight in the [[Holy Land]]. At home, there was relative peace. Viking pillaging had stopped. Both the Crusades and the relative peace at home contributed to trade and the growth in commerce.
{{utama|Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw}}
[[File:Jacoba van Beieren (1401-1436), gravin van Holland en Zeeland.jpg|thumb|[[Jacqueline dari Hainaut|Jacqueline, Gravin Henegouwen]], 1401–1436, tokoh yang dikenal orang Belanda dengan nama "Jacoba van Bayern".]]
[[Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw]] ({{lang-nl|Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten}}) adalah serangkaian perang dan pertempuran di [[Graafschap Holland|Kabupaten Holland]] yang berlangsung antara tahun 1350 sampai tahun 1490. Sebagian besar dari perang dan pertempuran tersebut berkaitan dengan perebutan gelar [[Graaf Holland|Bupati Holland]], tetapi sementara pihak berpendapat bahwa alasan hakikinya adalah perebutan kekuasaan antara kaum [[borjuis]] di kota-kota dan kaum menak yang memegang tampuk pemerintahan.


Anggota faksi Kabelyauw pada umumnya adalah kota-kota di [[Holland]] yang berhaluan progresif, sementara sebagian besar anggota Faksi Gancu adalah kaum menak yang berhaluan konservatif. Tokoh-tokoh utama dalam konflik multigenerasi ini antara lain [[Guillaume II dari Hainaut|Willem IV]] (Bupati Henegouwen merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Marguerite II dari Hainaut|Margaretha]] (Permaisuri Romawi Suci merangkap Gravin Holland), [[Guillaume V dari Hainaut|Willem V]] (Adipati Bayern merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Wilhelm II dari Bayern|Willem VI]] (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), [[Johann III dari Bayern|Jan]] (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), dan [[Philippe yang Baik|Filips Sang Budiman]] ([[Daftar Adipati Bourgogne|Adipati Burgundia]] merangkap Bupati Holland), tetapi mungkin yang paling terkenal adalah [[Jacqueline dari Hainaut|Jacoba]] (Gravin Henegouwen merangkap Gravin Holland).
Cities arose and flourished, especially in [[Flanders]] and [[Duchy of Brabant|Brabant]]. As the cities grew in wealth and power, they started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]], including [[City rights in the Low Countries|city rights]], the right to self-government and the right to pass laws. In practice, this meant that the wealthiest cities became quasi-independent republics in their own right. Two of the most important cities were [[Brugge]] and [[Antwerp]] (in [[Flanders]]) which would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe.


Pendaulatan Kabupaten Holland oleh Adipati Burgundia, [[Philippe yang Baik|Filips Sang Budiman]], merupakan urusan yang pelik. Para menak terkemuka di Holland mengundang sang adipati untuk mendaulat Holland, meskipun sang adipati tidak memiliki klaim bersejarah atas Holland. Menurut beberapa sejawaran, golongan yang berkuasa di Holland menghendaki agar daerah itu diintegrasikan ke dalam tatanan ekonomi [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]] dan mengadopsi lembaga-lembaga hukum Vlaanderen. Ketika Eropa diguncang berbagai perang saudara pada abad ke-14 dan ke-15, Vlaanderen justru semakin sejahtera dan aman tenteram.
===Hook and Cod Wars===
{{Main article|Hook and Cod wars}}
[[File:Jacoba van Beieren (1401-1436), gravin van Holland en Zeeland.jpg|thumb|[[Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut]], 1401–1436, known to the Dutch as "Jacoba of Bavaria".]]
The [[Hook and Cod Wars]] ({{lang-nl|Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten}}) were a series of wars and battles in the [[County of Holland]] between 1350 and 1490. Most of these wars were fought over the title of [[count of Holland]], but some have argued that the underlying reason was because of the power struggle of the [[bourgeois]] in the cities against the ruling nobility.


== Zaman penjajahan Burgundia dan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol (1433–1567) ==
The Cod faction generally consisted of the more progressive cities of [[Holland]]. The Hook faction consisted for a large part of the conservative noblemen. Some of the main figures in this multi-generational conflict were [[William IV, Count of Holland|William IV]], [[Margaret II, Countess of Hainaut|Margaret]], [[William V, Count of Hainaut|William V]], [[William VI, Count of Holland|William VI, Count of Holland and Hainaut]], [[John, Duke of Bavaria-Straubing|John]] and [[Philip III, Duke of Burgundy|Philip the Good]], [[Duke of Burgundy]]. But perhaps the most well known is [[Jacqueline, Countess of Hainaut]].
[[File:Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|thumb|Negeri-Negeri Rendah pada akhir abad ke-14]]


=== Zaman penjajahan Burgundia ===
The conquest of the county of Holland by the Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy was an odd affair. Leading noblemen in Holland invited the duke to conquer Holland, even though he had no historical claim to it. Some historians{{Who|date=February 2010}} say that the ruling class in Holland wanted Holland to integrate with the [[Flanders|Flemish]] economic system and adopt Flemish legal institutions. Europe had been wracked by many civil wars in the 14th and 15th centuries, while Flanders had grown rich and enjoyed peace.
{{utama|Negeri Belanda Burgundia}}
Sebagian besar dari kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negeri Belanda dan Belgia digabungkan ke dalam wilayah [[Kadipaten Burgundia]] pada tahun 1433. Sebelum penggabungan, orang Belanda mengidentifikasi diri sebagai warga kota, kadipaten, atau kabupaten tempat mereka berdiam, maupun sebagai kawula [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]]. Zaman penjajahan Burgundia adalah titik awal perjalanan orang Belanda menemukan jati diri sebagai sebuah bangsa.


Usaha dagang Holland mengalami perkembangan pesat, teristimewa di daerah-daerah pengapalan dan pengangkutan. Para penguasa baru memperjuangkan kepentingan-kepentingan dagang orang Belanda. Armada-armada Holland bahkan mampu beberapa kali mengalahkan armada-armada [[Liga Hansa]]. Pada abad ke-15, Amsterdam tumbuh menjadi bandar niaga utama untuk komoditas gandum dari kawasan Baltik. Amsterdam menyalurkan gandum ke kota-kota besar di Belgia, kawasan utara Prancis, dan Inggris. Usaha dagang komoditas gandum sangat penting bagi warga Holland, karena gandum yang dihasilkan Holland sudah tidak memadai untuk mencukupi kebutuhannya sendiri. Pengatusan tanah menyebabkan merosotnya permukaan bekas lahan-[[lahan basah]] sampai ke taraf yang tidak lagi memungkinkan diteruskannya pengatusan.
== Burgundian and Habsburg period (1433–1567) ==
[[File:Political map of the Low Countries (1350)-NL.svg|thumb|left|The Low Countries in the late 14th century CE.]]


=== Zaman penjajahan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol ===
===Burgundian period===
{{utama|Karl V, Kaisar Romawi Suci}}
{{Main article|Burgundian Netherlands}}
{{Multiple image
Most of what is now the Netherlands and Belgium was eventually united by the Duke of [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] in 1433. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town they lived in, their local duchy or county or as subjects of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The Burgundian period is when the Dutch began the road to nationhood.
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Holland's trade developed rapidly, especially in the areas of shipping and transport. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of Holland defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital to the people of Holland, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained.
|image2=Hans Holbein d. J. - Erasmus - Louvre.jpg
|footer=Kiri: Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, teolog berpengaruh asal [[Utrecht (kota)|Utrecht]] yang menjadi salah seorang penasihat Kaisar Karel V, dan kemudian hari terpilih menjadi [[Paus Adrianus VI|Paus Hadrianus VI]] (1522–1523).{{pb}}Kanan: [[Desiderius Erasmus]] (1466–1536), padri, teolog, sekaligus humanis Renaisans asal [[Rotterdam]], potret karya [[Hans Holbein Muda]], 1523.
}}


[[Karl V, Kaisar Romawi Suci|Kaisar Karel V]] (1500–1558) lahir dan besar di kota [[Gent]], [[Graafschap Vlaanderen|Kabupaten Vlaanderen]]. Ia fasih bertutur dalam bahasa Prancis. Karel menambah luas wilayah Kadipaten Burgundia dengan mendaulat [[Tournai]], Artois, [[Utrecht (provinsi)|Utrecht]], [[Groningen (provinsi)|Groningen]], dan [[Kadipaten Gelre|Gelre]]. [[Tujuh Belas Provinsi]] dahulu kala dipersatukan orang-orang besar Burgundia, leluhur Karel, tetapi secara nominal menjadi daerah-[[fief|daerah pertuanan]] Prancis atau [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]]. Selama Karel karel belum akil balig, tugas jabatannya diwakilkan kepada bibinya, [[Margarete dari Austria, Istri Adipati Savoia|Margaretha van Oostenrijk]] selaku pemangku sampai tahun 1515. Prancis melepaskan klaim lamanya atas Vlaanderen pada tahun 1528.<ref>{{cite book|author=James D. Tracy|title=Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA258|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=258|isbn=9780521814317}}</ref>
===Habsburg rule from Spain===
{{Main article|Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor}}
[[File:Hadrian VI.jpg|thumb|Influential [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] theologian Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, 1459–1523, was an advisor to Charles; in the last year of his life he became pope as [[Pope Adrian VI]] (1522–23).]]
[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (1500–58) was born and raised in the [[County of Flanders|Flemish]] city of [[Ghent]]; he spoke French. Charles extended the Burgundian territory with the annexation of [[Tournai]], Artois, [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] and [[Guelders]]. The [[Seventeen Provinces]] had been unified by Charles's Burgundian ancestors, but nominally were [[fief]]s of either France or the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. When he was a minor, his aunt [[Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)|Margaret]] acted as regent until 1515. France relinquished its ancient claim on [[Flanders]] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|author=James D. Tracy|title=Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXKMvr09dB4C&pg=PA258|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=258|isbn=9780521814317}}</ref>


Dari tahun 1515 sampai 1523, pemerintahan Karel di Negeri Belanda dirongrong pemberontakan [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|kaum tani Friesland]] (dipimpin [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] dan [[Wijard Jelckama]]). [[Gelre]] berusaha mendirikan negara sendiri di daerah yang mencakup kawasan timur laut Negeri Belanda dan kawasan barat daya Jerman. Akibat kekurangan dana pada abad ke-16, para prajurit Gelre harus mengisi sendiri pundi-pundinya dengan cara menyerbu dan menjarah daerah lawan. Prajurit-prajurit Gelre menjadi ancaman besar bagi Negeri Belanda Burgundia ketika mereka menyerbu [[Den Haag]].
[[File:Hans Holbein d. J. - Erasmus - Louvre.jpg|left|thumb|[[Desiderius Erasmus]], 1466–1536, [[Rotterdam]] Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest and theologian, by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]], 1523.]]
From 1515 to 1523, Charles's government in the Netherlands had to contend with the rebellion of [[Arumer Zwarte Hoop|Frisian peasants]] (led by [[Pier Gerlofs Donia]] and [[Wijard Jelckama]]). [[Gelre]] attempted to build up its own state in northeast Netherlands and northwest Germany. Lacking funds in the 16th century, Gelre had its soldiers provide for themselves by pillaging enemy terrain. These soldiers were a great menace to the Burgundian Netherlands, as when they pillaged [[The Hague]].


The dukes of Burgundy over the years through astute marriages, purchases and wars, had taken control of the [[Seventeen Provinces]] that made up the Low Countries. They are now the Netherlands in the north, the [[Southern Netherlands]] (now Belgium) in the south, and Luxemburg in the southeast. Known as the "Burgundian Circle," these lands came under the control of the Habsburg family. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]] (1500–58) became the owner in 1506, but in 1515 he left to become king of Spain and later became the Holy Roman Emperor. Charles turned over control to regents (his close relatives), and in practice rule was exercised by Spaniards he controlled. The provinces each had their own governments and courts, controlled by the local nobility, and their own traditions and rights ("liberties") dating back centuries. Likewise the numerous cities had their own legal rights and local governments, usually controlled by the merchants, On top of this the Spanish had imposed an overall government, the Estates General of the Netherlands, with its own officials and courts.<ref>H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Beginnings of the States General of the Netherlands," ''Parliaments, Estates and Representation'' (1988) 8#2 pp 101–14.</ref> The Spanish officials sent by Charles ignored traditions and the Dutch nobility as well as local officials, inciting an anti-Spanish sense of nationalism, and leading to the [[Dutch Revolt]]. With the emergence of the Protestant Reformation, Charles—now the Emperor—was determined to crush Protestantism and never compromise with it. Unrest began in the south, centered in the large rich metropolis of Antwerp. The Netherlands was an especially rich unit of the Spanish realm, especially after the [[Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis]] of 1559; it ended four decades of warfare between France and Spain and allowed Spain to reposition its army.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 pp. 134">Albert Guerard, ''France, A Modern History'', (1959), pp. 134–36.</ref>
Dari tahun ke tahun para Adipati Burgundia mengambil alih kekuasaan atas [[Tujuh Belas Provinsi]] pembentuk kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah baik melalui perkawinan berpamrih, pembelian tanah, maupun lewat perang. Provinsi-provinsi tersebut kini menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda, [[Belanda Selatan|Negeri Belanda Selatan]] (sekarang [[Belgia]]), dan Luksemburg. Negeri-negeri yang dikenal dengan sebutan "Lingkungan Burgundia" ini akhirnya dikuasai keluarga Habsburg. [[Karl V, Kaisar Romawi Suci|Karel]] (1500–1558) menjadi penguasa Negeri-Negeri Rendah pada tahun 1506. Pada tahun 1515, Karel dinobatkan menjadi Raja Spanyol kemudian dinobatkan pula menjadi Kaisar Romawi Suci. Kekuasaannya atas Negeri-Negeri Rendah ia wakilkan kepada para raja muda (masih terhitung kerabat dekatnya), sehingga pemerintahan Negeri-Negeri Rendah praktis diselenggarakan orang-orang Spanyol yang dapat ia kendalikan sepenuhnya. Setiap provinsi memiliki lembaga pemerintahan dan mahkamah istana masing-masing, yang didominasi kaum menak setempat. Selain itu, tiap-tiap provinsi mengamalkan tradisi sendiri dan memiliki hak-hak istimewa ("kebebasan") sendiri yang sudah berabad-abad usianya. Banyak kota memiliki hak-hak sah dan pemerintahan lokal sendiri, yang biasanya dikendalikan para saudagar. Di atas semuanya itu, bangsa Spanyol memaksakan suatu badan pemerintahan menyeluruh, yakni [[Dewan Negara Belanda]], lengkap dengan pejabat-pejabat dan mahkamah istana sendiri.<ref>H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Beginnings of the States General of the Netherlands," ''Parliaments, Estates and Representation'' (1988) 8#2 hlmn. 101–114.</ref> Para pejabat Spanyol yang diutus Kaisar Karel mengabaikan tradisi dan kaum menak Belanda maupun pejabat-pejabat lokal sehingga menumbuhkan rasa nasionalisme anti-Spanyol yang kemudian hari mengobarkan [[Pemberontakan Belanda|pemberontakan rakyat Belanda]]. Ketika gerakan Reformasi Protestan meletus di Negeri Belanda, Karel (saat itu sudah menjadi Kaisar Romawi Suci) bertekad memberantas ajaran Protestan tanpa kompromi. Kerusuhan bermula di kawasan selatan, berpusat di metropolis Antwerpen yang makmur. Negeri Belanda ketika itu merupakan daerah yang kaya di dalam wilayah kedaulatan negara Spanyol, khususnya sesudah penandatanganan [[Perang Italia 1551–59|Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis]] tahun 1559, yang menuntaskan perang Prancis-Spanyol yang sudah berlangsung selama empat dasawarsa, dan memungkinkan Spanyol untuk mereposisi angkatan bersenjatanya.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 hlm. 134">Albert Guerard, ''France, A Modern History'', (1959), hlmn. 134–136.</ref>


In 1548, Charles granted the Netherlands status as an entity in which many of the laws of the Holy Roman Empire became obsolete. The "Transaction of Augsburg."<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin van Gelderen|title=The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt 1555-1590|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXK2fxzn2lAC&pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=18|isbn=9780521891639}}</ref> created the Burgundian Circle of the Holy Roman Empire, which comprised the Netherlands and Franche-Comté. A year later the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1549]] stated that the Seventeen Provinces could only be passed on to his heirs as a composite entity.<ref name="Kamen">{{cite book
Dengan menandatangani Perjanjian Burgundia tahun 1548, yang dijuluki "Transaksi Augsburg", Karel mengesahkan status Negeri Belanda sebagai sebuah entitas tempat banyak undang-undang Kekaisaran Romawi Suci tidak berlaku.<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin van Gelderen|title=The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt 1555-1590|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXK2fxzn2lAC&pg=PA18|year=2002|publisher=Cambridge U.P.|page=18|isbn=9780521891639}}</ref> Berdasarkan Perjanjian ini, terbentuklah Lingkungan Burgundia di dalam Kekaisaran Romawi Suci, yang terdiri atas Negeri Belanda dan Franche-Comté. Setahun kemudian, Karel menerbitkan [[Sanksi Pragmatik tahun 1549]] yang menetapkan bahwa Tujuh Belas Provinsi hanya dapat diwarisi para ahli warisnya sebagai satu entitas yang utuh.<ref name="Kamen">{{cite book
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Baris 434: Baris 447:
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===The Reformation===
=== Reformasi Protestan ===
[[File:Statenvertaling title page.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of the 1637 [[Statenvertaling]], the first Bible translated from the original Hebrew and Greek into Dutch, commissioned by the Calvinist [[Synod of Dort]], used well into the 20th century.]]
[[File:Statenvertaling title page.jpg|thumb|right|Halaman judul [[Statenvertaling]] tahun 1637, Alkitab bahasa Belanda pertama yang diterjemahkan secara langsung dari bahasa Ibrani dan Yunani sesuai amanat [[Sinode Dordrecht]], dan terus digunakan sampai abad ke-20.]]
During the 16th century, the [[Protestant Reformation]] rapidly gained ground in northern Europe, especially in its [[Lutheran]] and [[Calvinist]] forms.<ref>R. Po-chia Hsia, ed. ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) pp. 118–34</ref> Dutch [[Protestants]], after initial repression, were tolerated by local authorities. By the 1560s, the Protestant community had become a significant influence in the Netherlands, although it clearly formed a minority then.<ref>Jonathan I. Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) p. 104</ref> In a society dependent on trade, freedom and tolerance were considered essential. Nevertheless, the Catholic rulers Charles V, and later [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], made it their mission to defeat Protestantism, which was considered a heresy by the Catholic Church and a threat to the stability of the whole hierarchical political system. On the other hand, the intensely moralistic Dutch Protestants insisted their Biblical theology, sincere piety and humble lifestyle was morally superior to the luxurious habits and superficial religiosity of the ecclesiastical nobility.<ref>Hsia, ed. ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) pp. 3–36</ref> The rulers' harsh punitive measures led to increasing grievances in the Netherlands, where the local governments had embarked on a course of peaceful coexistence. In the second half of the century, the situation escalated. Philip sent troops to crush the rebellion and make the Netherlands once more a Catholic region.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) p. 155</ref>
[[Reformasi Protestan]] dengan cepat berakar di kawasan utara Eropa pada abad ke-16, teristimewa bentuk [[Lutheran]] dan [[Calvinisme|Kalvinis]]nya.<ref>R. Po-chia Hsia (penyunting). ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) hlmn. 118–134</ref> Meskipun mula-mula ditindas, [[Protestanisme|umat Kristen Protestan]] Belanda akhirnya ditoleransi para penguasa lokal. Pada tahun-tahun era 1560-an, komunitas Protestan sudah sangat berpengaruh di Negeri Belanda, sekalipun masih merupakan kelompok minoritas.<ref>Jonathan I. Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) hlm. 104</ref> Di dalam masyarakat yang menggantungkan hidup pada usaha dagang, kebebasan dan toleransi dianggap sangat penting. Meskipun demikian, para penguasa Negeri Belanda yang beragama Kristen Katolik, yakni Kaisar Karel V, dan kemudian hari [[Felipe II dari Spanyol|Raja Filips II]], merasa wajib memberantas ajaran Protestan, yang merupakan salah satu [[ajaran sesat|bidah]] dalam pandangan Gereja Katolik, sekaligus suatu ancaman terhadap stabilitas keseluruhan sistem politik hierarkis. Di lain pihak, umat Kristen Protestan Belanda yang sangat mengutamakan moralitas tetap berpegang teguh pada teologi Alkitabiah mereka. Kesalehan yang tulus ikhlas dan hidup bersahaja dianggap lebih mulia secara moral daripada kebiasaan bermewah-mewahan dan beragama secara lahiriah yang jamak di kalangan menak gerejawi.<ref>Hsia, (penyunting). ''A Companion to the Reformation World'' (2006) hlmn. 3–36</ref> Hukuman-hukuman berat yang digunakan para penguasa untuk memberantas ajaran Protestan menjadi penyebab dari meningkatnya kekesalan rakyat di Negeri Belanda, padahal pemerintah-pemerintah lokal di Negeri Belanda sudah memutuskan untuk menerapkan kebijakan hidup berdampingan secara damai. Pada kurun waktu seperdua akhir dari abad ke-16, situasi berubah genting. Raja Filips II mengerahkan pasukan demi pasukan untuk memadamkan pemberontakan dan mengkatolikkan kembali Negeri Belanda.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806'' (1995) hlm. 155</ref>


In the first wave of the Reformation, [[Lutheranism]] won over the elites in Antwerp and the South. The Spanish successfully suppressed it there, and Lutheranism only flourished in east Friesland.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pp. 374–75</ref>
Saat berlangsungnya Reformasi Protestan gelombang pertama, [[Lutheranisme|ajaran Lutheran]] sempat memikat kalangan elit di Antwerpen dan kawasan selatan, tetapi ajaran ini akhirnya diberantas Spanyol sehingga hanya berkembang di [[Friesland Timur|Oost-Friesland]].<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) hlmn. 374–375</ref>


The second wave of the Reformation, came in the form of [[Anabaptism]], that was popular among ordinary farmers in [[Holland]] and [[Friesland]]. Anabaptists were socially very radical and equalitarian; they believed that the apocalypse was very near. They refused to live the old way, and began new communities, creating considerable chaos. A prominent Dutch Anabaptist was [[Menno Simons]], who initiated the [[Mennonite|Mennonite church]]. The movement was allowed in the north, but never grew to a large scale.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pp. 86–91</ref>
Gerakan Reformasi Protestan gelombang kedua muncul dalam bentuk [[Anabaptisme|ajaran Anabaptis]], yang populer di kalangan petani jelata di [[Holland]] dan [[Friesland]]. Kaum Anabaptis secara sosial sangat radikal dan menjunjung tinggi kesetaraan derajat, serta percaya bahwa hari kiamat sudah sangat dekat. Mereka menolak tatanan kehidupan yang lama, dan membentuk komunitas-komunitas baru, sehingga lumayan menimbulkan kekacauan. Salah seorang tokoh Anabaptis Belanda yang terkemuka adalah [[Menno Simons]], perintis [[gereja Menonit]]. Gerakan ini diberi keleluasaan di kawasan utara, tetapi tidak kunjung berkembang dalam skala besar.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) hlmn. 86–91</ref>


The third wave of the Reformation, that ultimately proved to be permanent, was [[Calvinism]]. It arrived in the Netherlands in the 1540s, attracting both the elite and the common population, especially in [[Flanders]]. The Catholic Spanish responded with harsh persecution and introduced the [[Inquisition of the Netherlands]]. Calvinists rebelled. First there was the [[Beeldenstorm|iconoclasm]] in 1566, which was the systematic destruction of statues of saints and other Catholic devotional depictions in churches. In 1566, [[William the Silent]], a Calvinist, started the [[Eighty Years' War]] to liberate all Dutch of whatever religion from Catholic Spain. Blum says, "His patience, tolerance, determination, concern for his people, and belief in government by consent held the Dutch together and kept alive their spirit of revolt."<ref>Jerome Blum et al, ''The European World: A History'' (1970) pp 160-61</ref> The provinces of [[Holland]] and [[Zeeland]], being mainly Calvinist by 1572, submitted to the rule of William. The other states remained almost entirely Catholic.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) pp. 361–95</ref><ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch, ''The Reformation'' (2005) pp. 367–72</ref>
Reformasi Protestan gelombang ketiga, yang pada akhirnya terbukti berdampak permanen, adalah [[Calvinisme|Kalvinisme]]. Ajaran Kalvinis tiba di Negeri Belanda pada tahun-tahun era 1540-an, dan berhasil memikat kalangan elit maupun masyarakat umum, khususnya di [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]]. Spanyol menanggapi perkembangan ini dengan melancarkan persekusi dan membentuk lembaga [[inkuisisi di Negeri Belanda]]. Kaum Kalvinis memberontak, mula-mula dalam bentuk aski [[Beeldenstorm|ikonoklasme]] pada tahun 1566, yakni perusakan sistematis terhadap arca-arca orang kudus dan citra-citra agamawi Katolik lainnya di gereja-gereja. Pada tahun 1566, [[William Sang Pendiam|Willem van Oranje]], seorang Kalvinis, mengobarkan [[Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun]] demi memerdekakan seluruh rakyat Belanda tanpa pandang agama dari penjajahan Spanyol. Menurut Jerome Blum, "kesabaran, toleransi, kebulatan tekad, dan keprihatinannya terhadap nasib bangsanya, serta keyakinannya akan pemerintahan yang berasaskan mufakat rakyat mampu mempersatukan rakyat Belanda dan menjaga semangat juang mereka terus berkobar."<ref>Jerome Blum dkk., ''The European World: A History'' (1970) hlmn. 160-161</ref> Provinsi [[Holland]] dan Provinsi [[Zeeland]], yang mayoritas menjadi Kalvinis pada tahun 1572, tunduk di bawah kepemimpinan Willem. Swapraja-swapraja selebihnya tetap mayoritas Katolik.<ref>Israel, ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) hlmn. 361–395</ref><ref>Diarmaid MacCulloch, ''The Reformation'' (2005) hlmn. 367–372</ref>


=== Menjelang perang kemerdekaan ===
===Prelude to war===
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2/1|total_width=300|caption_align=center
{{multiple image|perrow=1/2/1|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| title =
| title =
| image1 = Isaac Claesz. van Swanenburg - The Removal of the Wool from the Skins and the Combing - WGA21986.jpg|caption1=1595 painting by [[Isaac van Swanenburg]] illustrating [[Leiden]] textile workers.
| image1 = Isaac Claesz. van Swanenburg - The Removal of the Wool from the Skins and the Combing - WGA21986.jpg|caption1=Para karyawan tekstil di [[Leiden]], lukisan karya [[Isaac van Swanenburg]], 1595.
| image2 = Adriaen Thomasz. Key - William I, Prince of Orange, called William the Silent, - WGA12160.jpg|caption2=William I, Prince of Orange, called [[William the Silent]].
| image2 = WilliamOfOrange1580.jpg|caption2=Willem van Oranje, yang dijuluki [[William Sang Pendiam|Willem Si Pendiam]].
| image3 = The Low Countries.png|caption3=Low countries 1559-1609.
| image3 = The Low Countries.png|caption3=Negeri-Negeri Rendah 1559-1609.
}}
}}
The Netherlands was a valuable part of the Spanish Empire, especially after the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis of 1559. This treaty ended a forty-year period of warfare between France and Spain conducted in Italy from 1521 to 1559.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 pp. 134"/> The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis was somewhat of a watershed—not only for the battleground that Italy had been, but also for northern Europe. Spain had been keeping troops in the Netherlands to be ready to attack France from the north as well as from the south.
Negeri Belanda adalah daerah yang bernilai tinggi di dalam wilayah Kekaisaran Spanyol, khususnya sesudah penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis tahun 1559. Perjanjian ini mengakhiri kurun waktu empat puluh tahun peperangan antara Prancis dan Spanyol yang berlangsung di Italia dari tahun 1521 sampai 1559.<ref name="Albert Guerard 1959 hlm. 134"/> Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis merupakan semacam titik balik sejarah, bukan saja di Italia selaku medan perang, melainkan juga di kawasan utara Eropa. Spanyol sudah menyiagakan pasukan-pasukannya di Negeri Belanda sebagai ancang-ancang untuk menyerang Prancis dari utara sekaligus dari selatan.


Dengan tuntasnya berbagai masalah besar di antara Prancis dan Spanyol dengan penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis, tidak ada lagi alasan bagi Spanyol untuk mempertahankan keberadaan pasukan-pasukannya di Negeri Belanda. Dengan demikian, masyarakat di Negeri Belanda dapat kembali melanjutkan kegiatan-kegiatan yang lazimnya mereka lakukan pada masa damai. Ketika itulah mereka mengetahui bahwa ada banyak sekali permintaan pasar atas barang-barang jualan mereka. Usaha penangkapan ikan sudah lama menjadi bagian penting dari ekonomi Negeri Belanda. Meskipun demikian, kini usaha penangkapan [[haring|ikan haring]] saja sudah melibatkan 2.000 perahu yang berpangkalan di berbagai pelabuhan Negeri Belanda. Spanyol, yang masih menjadi pelanggan utama para usahawan Belanda, membeli berbagai perabot dan perkakas rumah tangga yang diangkut dengan 50 kapal besar dari saudagar-saudagar Vlaanderen. Selain itu, barang-barang wol buatan Belanda sangat disukai di mana-mana. Negeri Belanda memborong cukup banyak wol dari Spanyol, yang kemudian diolah menjadi barang-barang wol senilai 4 juta florin yang dijual saudagar-saudagar Brugge. Besarnya kebutuhan wol mentah ketika itu membuat para usahawan Belanda memborong pula wol dari Inggris hampir sebanyak jumlah wol yang diborong dari Spanyol. Tolai nilai perdagangan dengan Inggris saja sudah mencapai 24 juta florin. Sebagian besar dari kegiatan ekspor ke Inggris mendatangkan laba bersih bagi para usahawan Belanda karena barang-barang yang diekspor adalah buatan mereka sendiri. Negeri Belanda sudah sampai ke depan pintu gerbang ''Zaman Keemasan''-nya. Brabant dan Vlaanderen adalah daerah-daerah terkaya dan termaju di Republik Belanda ketika itu.<ref name="Claflin">Claflin, W. Harold, (penyunting). ''History of Nations: Holland and Belgium'', (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), hlmn. 72–74, 103–105</ref> Negeri Belanda merupakan salah satu negeri terkaya di muka bumi, dengan jumlah populasi yang mencapai 3 juta jiwa pada tahun 1560. Negeri belanda menjadi negeri dengan kawasan perkotaan terbesar di daratan Eropa, karena memiliki 25 kota besar yang dihuni 10.000 warga atau lebih, teristimewa Antwerpen, pusat usaha dagang dan keuangan, dengan populasi mencapai 100.000 jiwa. Spanyol tidak ingin negeri yang kaya ini lepas dari cengkeramannya, dan enggan membiarkannya lepas dari kendali Gereja Katolik. Inilah pangkal dari perang yang berkecamuk selama delapan puluh tahun.
With the settlement of so many major issues between France and Spain by the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis, there was no longer any reason to keep Spanish troops in the Netherlands. Thus, the people of the Netherlands could get on with their peacetime pursuits. As they did so they found that there was a great deal of demand for their products. Fishing had long been an important part of the economy of the Netherlands. However, now the fishing of herring alone came to occupy 2,000 boats operating out of Dutch ports. Spain, still the Dutch trader's best customer, was buying fifty large ships full of furniture and household utensils from Flanders merchants. Additionally, Dutch woolen goods were desired everywhere. The Netherlands bought and processed enough Spanish wool to sell four million florins of wool products through merchants in Bruges. So strong was the Dutch appetite for raw wool at this time that they bought nearly as much English wool as they did Spanish wool. Total commerce with England alone amounted to 24 million florins. Much of the export going to England resulted in pure profit to the Dutch because the exported items were of their own manufacture. The Netherlands was just starting to enter its "Golden Age." Brabant and Flanders were the richest and most flourishing parts of the Dutch Republic at the time.<ref name="Claflin">Claflin, W. Harold, ed. ''History of Nations: Holland and Belgium'', (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), pp. 72–74, 103–05</ref> The Netherlands was one of the richest places in the world. The population reached 3 million in 1560, with 25 cities of 10,000 people or more, by far the largest urban presence in Europe; with the trading and financial center of Antwerp being especially important (population 100,000). Spain could not afford to lose this rich land, nor allow it to fall from Catholic control. Thus came 80 years of warfare.


A devout Catholic, Philip was appalled by the success of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] in the [[Low Countries]], which had led to an increasing number of [[Calvinism|Calvinists]]. His attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants, and his centralization of government, law enforcement, and taxes, made him unpopular and led to a [[revolt]]. [[Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alba]], was sent with a Spanish Army to punish the unruly Dutch in 1567.<ref name="Motley">John Lathrop Motley, ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic'' (Harper & Bros.: New York, 1855) pp. 106–15, 121, 122, 207, 213</ref>
Selaku seorang pemeluk agama Kristen Katolik yang taat, Raja Filips benar-benar gusar melihat keberhasilan gerakan [[Reformasi Protestan]] di [[Negara-negara dataran rendah|Negeri-Negeri Rendah]], yang memicu pertambahan jumlah [[Calvinisme|umat Kalvinis]]. Upaya paksanya untuk menindas umat Protestan, menyentralisasi pemerintahan, menegakkan hukum, dan mengutip pajak, membuat rakyat membencinya dan mengobarkan [[pemberontakan]]. [[Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Adipati Alba ke-3]], diutus bersama sepasukan tentara Spanyol untuk menghukum orang-orang Belanda pembangkang pada tahun 1567.<ref name="Motley">John Lathrop Motley, ''The Rise of the Dutch Republic'' (Harper & Bros.: New York, 1855) hlmn. 106–115, 121, 122, 207, 213</ref>


The only opposition the Duke of Alba faced in his march across the Netherlands were the nobles, [[Lamoral, Count of Egmont]]; [[Philippe de Montmorency, Count of Horn]] and others. With the approach of Alba and the Spanish army, [[William the Silent]] of Orange fled to Germany with his three brothers and his whole family on 11 April 1567. The Duke of Alba sought to meet and negotiate with the nobles that now faced him with armies. However, when the nobles arrived in Brussels they were all arrested and Egmont and Horn were executed.<ref name="Motley"/> Alba then revoked all the prior treaties that Margaret, the [[Duchess of Parma]] had signed with the Protestants of the Netherlands and instituted the Inquisition to enforce the decrees of the [[Council of Trent]].
Satu-satunya pihak yang membendung sepak terjang Adipati Alba di Negeri Belanda adalah para menak seperti [[Lamoraal dari Egmont|Lamoraal van Egmont]], [[Philippe de Montmorency, Graaf Horn|Filips van Horne]], dan lain-lain. Saat pergerakan pasukan Adipati Alba semakin dekat, [[William Sang Pendiam|Willem Si Pendiam]] mengungsi bersama seluruh keluarga dan ketiga saudaranya ke Jerman pada tanggal 11 April 1567. Adipati Alba mengundang kaum menak yang mengadang pergerakan pasukannya untuk bertatap muka dan berunding. Begitu tiba di Brussels, mereka semua ditahan, sementara Lamoraal van Egmont dan Filips van Horne dihukum mati.<ref name="Motley"/> Adipati Alba selanjutnya membatalkan semua penjanjian yang pernah disepakati [[Margaret dari Parma|Margarita, Istri Adipati Parma]], dengan umat Protestan Negeri Belanda, serta membentuk lembaga inkuisisi untuk memberlakukan keputusan-keputusan [[Konsili Trente]].


==The Eighty Years' War (1568–1648)==
== Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun (1568–1648) ==
{{utama|Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun|Pemberontakan Belanda}}
{{Main article|Eighty Years' War|Dutch Revolt}}
[[File:Slag bij Nieuwpoort.jpg|thumb|[[Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange|Prince Maurits]] at the [[Battle of Nieuwpoort]], 1600 CE, by Paulus van Hillegaert.]]
[[File:Slag bij Nieuwpoort.jpg|thumb|[[Maurice dari Nassau|Pangeran Maurits]] dalam [[Pertempuran Nieuwpoort]] tahun 1600, lukisan karya Paulus van Hillegaert]]
[[File:Leo belgicus.png|thumb|[[Leo Belgicus]], a map of the [[low countries]] drawn in the shape of a lion, by [[Claes Jansz. Visscher]] (II), 1609 CE.]]
[[File:Leo belgicus.png|thumb|[[Leo Belgicus]], peta [[Negara-negara Dataran Rendah|Negeri-Negeri Rendah]] yang digambar sedemikian rupa sehingga menyerupai seekor singa, karya [[Claes Jansz. Visscher]] (II), tahun 1609]]
The Dutch War for Independence from Spain is frequently called the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568–1648). The first fifty years (1568 through 1618) were uniquely a war between Spain and the Netherlands. During the last thirty years (1618–1648) the conflict between Spain and the Netherlands was submerged in the general European War that became known as the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref>Geoffrey Parker, ed. ''The Thirty Years' War'', New York: Routledge Press, 1987, p. 2.</ref> The seven rebellious provinces of the Netherlands were eventually united by the [[Union of Utrecht]] in 1579 and formed the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] (also known as the "United Provinces"). The [[Act of Abjuration]] or ''Plakkaat van Verlatinghe'' was signed on 26 July 1581, and was the formal [[declaration of independence]] of the northern [[Low Countries]] from the Spanish king.
Perang kemerdekaan Belanda dari penjajahan Spanyol kerap disebut [[Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun]] (1568–1648). Lima puluh tahun pertama (1568–1618) adalah kurun waktu konflik yang murni melibatkan Spanyol dan Negeri Belanda. Selama tiga puluh tahun berikutnya (1618–1648), konflik antara Spanyol dan Negeri Belanda menyatu dengan perang besar di Eropa yang kemudian hari disebut [[Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun]].<ref>Geoffrey Parker (penyunting), ''The Thirty Years' War'', New York: Routledge Press, 1987, hlm. 2.</ref> Ketujuh provinsi di Negeri Belanda yang memberontak pada akhirnya menyepakati perjanjian persatuan [[Uni Utrecht]] tahun 1579 dan mendirikan negara [[Republik Belanda|Republik Serikat Tujuh Negeri Belanda]] (atau Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi). [[Plakkaat van Verlatinghe|Undang-Undang Pemisahan Diri]] ({{lang-nl|Plakkaat van Verlatinghe}}) disahkan pada tanggal 26 Juli 1581, dan merupakan [[deklarasi kemerdekaan]] resmi Negeri-Negeri Rendah dari kekuasaan Raja Spanyol.


[[William the Silent|William of Orange]] (Slot Dillenburg, 24 April 1533 – Delft, 10 July 1584), the founder of the Dutch royal family, led the Dutch during the first part of the war, following the death of Egmont and Horn in 1568. The very first years were a success for the Spanish troops. However, the Dutch countered subsequent sieges in [[Holland]]. In November and December 1572, all the citizens of [[Zutphen]] and [[Naarden]] were slaughtered by the Spanish. From 11 December that year the city of [[Haarlem]] was besieged, holding out for seven months until 13 July 1573. [[Oudewater]] was conquered by the Spanish on 7 August 1575, and most of its inhabitants were killed. [[Maastricht]] was besieged, sacked and destroyed twice in succession (in 1576 and 1579) by the Spanish.
Willem van Oranje (Slot Dillenburg, 24 April 1533 – Delft, 10 Juli 1584), cikal bakal keluarga Kerajaan Belanda, memimpin orang Belanda dalam bagian pertama Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun sesudah Egmont dan Horn wafat pada tahun 1568. Pada tahun-tahun permulaan perang, angkatan perang Spanyol berada di atas angin, tetapi orang Belanda akhirnya mampu mematahkan aksi-aksi pengepungan Spanyol di [[Holland]]. Pada bulan November dan Desember 1572, seluruh warga [[Zutphen]] dan [[Naarden]] tewas dibantai Spanyol. Kota [[Haarlem]] dikepung mulai tanggal 11 Desember 1572 sampai tanggal 13 Juli 1573. [[Oudewater]] ditundukkan Spanyol pada tanggal 7 Agustus 1575, dan sebagian besar warganya tewas terbunuh. [[Maastricht]] dikepung, dijarah, dan dihancukan Spanyol dua kali berturut-turut (pada tahun 1576 dan pada tahun 1579).


In a war composed mostly of sieges rather than battles, [[Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma|Governor-General Alexander Farnese]] proved his mettle. His strategy was to offer generous terms for the surrender of a city: there would be no more massacres or looting; historic urban privileges were retained; there was a full pardon and amnesty; return to the Catholic Church would be gradual. The conservative Catholics in the south and east supported the Spanish. Farnese recaptured [[Antwerp]] and nearly all of what became Belgium.<ref>Violet Soen, "Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt: The Campaign of Governor-General Alexander Farnese (1578-1592)," ''[[Journal of Early Modern History]]'' (2012) 16#1 pp. 1–22.</ref> Most of the Dutch-speaking territory in the Netherlands was taken from Spain, but not in [[Flanders]], which to this day remains part of Belgium. Flanders was the most radical anti-Spanish territory. Many Flemish fled to Holland, among them half of the population of Antwerp, 3/4 of Bruges and Ghent and the entire population of Nieuwpoort, Dunkerque and countryside.<ref>Bart de Groof, "Alexander Farnese and the Origins of Modern Belgium," ''Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome'' (1993) Vol. 63, pp. 195–219.</ref> His successful campaign gave the Catholics control of the lower half of the Low Countries, and was part of the [[Counter-Reformation|Catholic Counter-Reformation]].
Di dalam perang yang lebih banyak melibatkan aksi pengepungan daripada pertempuran ini, [[Alessandro Farnese, Adipati Parma|Gubernur Jenderal Alessandro Farnese]] membuktikan ketangguhannya. Strateginya adalah menjanjikan keringanan-keringanan kepada kota yang bersedia menyerah, yakni tidak akan ada lagi pembantaian dan penjarahan, hak-hak istimewa kota tidak akan dihapuskan, pengampunan dan amnesti penuh akan diberikan, dan warga akan diizinkan untuk kembali ke Gereja Katolik secara perlahan-lahan. Umat Katolik konservatif di kawasan selatan dan timur Negeri Belanda mendukung Spanyol. Farnese berhasil merebut kembali [[Antwerpen]] dan hampir semua daerah yang sekarang menjadi bagian dari wilayah negara Belgia.<ref>Violet Soen, "Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt: The Campaign of Governor-General Alexander Farnese (1578-1592)," ''[[Journal of Early Modern History]]'' (2012) 16#1 hlmn. 1–22.</ref> Sebagian besar daerah penutur bahasa Belanda di Negeri Belanda disebut dari Spanyol, kecuali daerah [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]], yang sampai sekarang menjadi bagian dari wilayah negara Belgia. Vlaanderen adalah daerah yang sangat anti Spanyol. Banyak orang Vlaam mengungsi ke Holland, termasuk setengah populasi Antwerpen, 3/4 populasi Brugge dan Gent, serta seluruh populasi Nieuwpoort, Duinkerke, dan desa-desa di Vlaanderen.<ref>Bart de Groof, "Alexander Farnese and the Origins of Modern Belgium," ''Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome'' (1993) Jld. 63, hlmn. 195–219.</ref> Keberhasilan Alessandro Farnese membuat umat Katolik menguasai paruhan selatan dari kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah, dan merupakan bagian dari gerakan [[Kontra Reformasi]].


Perang berlarut-larut sampai setengah abad lagi, tetapi pertarungan utama sudah usai. [[Perdamaian Westfalen|Perjanjian Damai Westfalen]], yang ditandatangani pada tahun 1648, mengukuhkan kemerdekaan Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi dari penjajahan Spanyol. Orang Belanda mulai mengembangkan jati diri bangsa sejak abad ke-15, tetapi secara resmi masih menjadi bagian dari [[Kekaisaran Romawi Suci]] sampai tahun 1648. Jati diri bangsa lebih banyak dibentuk oleh provinsi, dan Holland merupakan provinsi yang terpenting ketika itu. Inilah sebabnya Republik Tujuh Provinsi akhirnya dikenal di seluruh Eropa dengan nama ''Holland''.
The war dragged on for another half century, but the main fighting was over. The [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed in 1648, confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from Spain. The Dutch people started to develop a national identity since the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far. The republic of the Seven Provinces came to be known as '''Holland''' across Europe.


The Catholics in the Netherlands were an outlawed minority that had been suppressed by the Calvinists. After 1572, however, they made a striking comeback (also as part of the Catholic Counter-Reformation), setting up seminaries, reforming their Church, and sending missionaries into Protestant districts. Laity often took the lead; the Calvinist government often arrested or harassed priests who seemed too effective. Catholic numbers stabilized at about a third of the population in the Netherlands; they were strongest in the southeast.<ref>see [http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html religion map]</ref><ref>Charles H. Parker, ''Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age'' (Harvard University Press, 2008)</ref>
Umat Katolik di Negeri Belanda adalah warga minoritas yang dipinggirkan dan ditindas umat Kalvinis. Meskipun demikian, selepas tahun 1572, umat Katolik secara mencolok kembali tampil mengemuka (juga sebagai bagian dari gerakan Kontra Reformasi), mendirikan seminari-seminari, memperbaharui Gereja mereka, dan menyebar misionaris ke daerah-daerah Protestan. Kiprah umat Katolik Belanda kerap dipimpin tokoh awam, karena pemerintah Kalvinis getol menangkap atau menghalang-halangi para padri yang tampak terlalu berhasil menarik pengikut baru dari kalangan Kalvinis. Jumlah umat Katolik bertambah sampai akhirnya mencapai kira-kira sepertiga dari populasi Negeri Belanda. Umat Katolik menjadi umat mayoritas di kawasan selatan.<ref>Baca [http://www.quirksmode.org/politics/kuyper.html peta agama]</ref><ref>Charles H. Parker, ''Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age'' (Lembaga Pers Universitas Harvard, 2008)</ref>


== Golden Age ==
== Zaman Keemasan ==
{{Main article|Dutch Golden Age|Dutch Empire|Economic history of the Netherlands (1500–1815)}}
{{Utama|Zaman Keemasan Belanda|Imperium Belanda|Sejarah ekonomi Negeri Belanda (1500–1815)}}
[[File:Seven United Netherlands Janssonius 1658.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of Dutch Republic by Joannes Janssonius.]]
[[File:Seven United Netherlands Janssonius 1658.jpg|thumb|200px|Peta Republik Belanda karya Jan Janszoon]]
During the [[Eighty Years' War]] the Dutch provinces became the most important trading centre of Northern Europe, replacing [[Flanders]] in this respect. During the Golden Age, there was a great flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences in the Netherlands. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the Dutch were arguably the most economically wealthy and scientifically advanced of all European nations. This new, officially Calvinist nation flourished culturally and economically, creating what historian [[Simon Schama]] has called an "embarrassment of riches".<ref name="Schama">Schama, Simon, ''The Embarrassment of Riches'', Bath: William Collins & Sons, 1987. At p. 8: "The prodigious quality of their success went to their heads, but it also made them a bit queasy. Even their most uninhibited documents of self-congratulations are haunted by the threat of ''overvloed'', the surfeit that rose like a cresting flooda word heavy with warning as well as euphoria...But at the very least, the continuous pricking of conscience on complacency produced the self-consciousness that we think of as embarrassed."</ref> [[Tulip mania|Speculation in the tulip trade]] led to a first stock market crash in 1637, but the economic crisis was soon overcome. Due to these developments the 17th century has been dubbed the Golden Age of the Netherlands.
Selama [[Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun]] berlangsung, provinsi-provinsi Belanda menjadi pusat-pusat dagang yang paling penting di kawasan utara Eropa menggantikan [[Flandria|Vlaanderen]]. Pada Zaman Keemasan ini, usaha dagang, industri, seni rupa, maupun ilmu pengetahuan di Negeri Belanda berkembang pesar. Pada abad ke-17 dan ke-18, boleh dikata bangsa Belanda adalah bangsa termakmur dalam bidang ekonomi dan termaju dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dibanding semua bangsa lain di Eropa. Bangsa baru yang secara resmi berpaham Kalvinis ini mengalami perkembangan budaya dan ekonomi, sehingga melahirkan apa yang diistilahkan sejarawan [[Simon Schama]] dengan ''"embarrassment of riches"'' (jengah kaya).<ref name="Schama">Schama, Simon, ''The Embarrassment of Riches'', Bath: William Collins & Sons, 1987. Di hlm. 8: "Kesuksesan mereka yang luar biasa itu meluap sampai ke ubun-ubun, tetapi membuat mereka sedikit muak. Bahkan dokumen-dokumen bermegah diri mereka yang paling tidak sungkan mengumbar pujian sekalipun dihantui bayang-bayang ''overvloed'', kelimpahan yang meninggi laksana banjir bandangsuatu dunia yang jenuh dengan wanti-wanti sekaligus euforia... Akan tetapi pada akhirnya suara hati nurani yang terus-menerus menyengat rasa puas diri melahirkan kesadaran yang kita maknai sebagai rasa jengah."</ref> [[Tulip mania|Spekulasi dalam usaha dagang tulip]] berbuntut pada kejatuhan pasar saham yang pertama pada tahun 1637, tetapi krisis ekonomi cepat teratasi. Semua perkembangan inilah yang membuat abad ke-17 dijuluki Zaman Keemasan Negeri Belanda.


The invention<ref>[http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/leeg001haer01_01/leeg001haer01_01_0028.php Sawmills (or "''saagmolens''" in Dutch)] were invented in [[Uitgeest]], according to the "Haarlemmermeer boeck" by [[Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater]]</ref> of the [[sawmill]] enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading and for defence of the republic's economic interests by military means. National industries such as shipyards and sugar refineries expanded as well.
Reka cipta<ref>Menurut "Haarlemmermeer boeck" karangan [[Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater]], [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/leeg001haer01_01/leeg001haer01_01_0028.php Kilang gergaji ({{lang-nd|saagmolen}})] direka cipta di [[Uitgeest]]</ref> [[penggergajian kayu|kilang gergaji]] memungkinkan kapal dibuat dalam jumlah besar untuk dipakai berdagang ke seluruh dunia dan melindungi kepentingan-kepentingan ekonomi Republik Belanda dengan kekuatan militer. Industri-industri nasional seperti galangan-galangan kapal dan pabrik-pabrik gula turut pula berkembang.


[[File:Anatomie Nicolaes Tulp.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]], by [[Rembrandt van Rijn]], 1632 CE.]]
[[File:Rembrandt van Rijn - The Anatomy Lesson of Dr Nicolaes Tulp - 146 - Mauritshuis.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Pelajaran Anatomi Dr. Nicolaes Tulp|Les Anatomi dari Dr. Nicolaes Tulp]], lukisan karya [[Rembrandt van Rijn]], 1632]]
The Dutch, traditionally able seafarers and keen mapmakers,<ref>The maps used by [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, 3rd Duke of Alba]] to attack Dutch cities overland and by water were made by Dutch mapmakers.</ref> obtained an increasingly dominant position in world trade, a position which before had been occupied by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Spain|Spaniards]]. In 1602 the [[Dutch East India Company]] (Dutch: ''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or ''VOC'') was founded. It was the first-ever [[multinational corporation]], financed by shares that established the [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|first modern stock exchange]]. It became the world's largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. To finance the growing trade within the region, the [[Bank of Amsterdam]] was established in 1609, the precursor to, if not the first true [[central bank]].<ref>Quinn, Stephen. Roberds, William. ''The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking''. August 2005.{{cite web |url=http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-06-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195946/http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |archivedate=23 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
Bangsa Belanda, yang turun-temurun terbiasa melaut dan mahir membuat peta,<ref>Peta-peta yang digunakan [[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Adipati Alba ke-3]] untuk menyerbu kota-kota Belanda lewat laut maupun darat adalah peta-peta buatan orang-orang Belanda sendiri.</ref> kian tampil mengemuka di kancah perdagangan dunia, menggeser [[Portugal|bangsa Portugis]] dan [[Spanyol|bangsa Spanyol]]. Pada tahun 1602, [[Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie|Serikat Perusahaan Hindia Timur]] ({{lang-el|Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie}}, disingkat VOC) didirikan. VOC adalah [[badan usaha multinasional]] pertama di dunia, dan didanai dari hasil penjualan saham. Kegiatan jual beli saham VOC merupakan [[Amsterdam Stock Exchange|bursa saham modern pertama]] di dunia. VOC menjadi perusahaan dagang terbesar di dunia pada abad ke-17. Untuk mendanai usaha dagang yang kian berkembang di Negeri Belanda, [[Bank Amsterdam]] didirikan pada tahun 1609. Bank Amsterdam adalah cikal bakal, atau mungkin juga adalah [[bank sentral]] sejati yang pertama di dunia.<ref>Quinn, Stephen. Roberds, William. ''The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking''. Agustus 2005.{{cite web |url=http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-06-08 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723195946/http://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/wp0516.pdf |archivedate=23 Juli 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>


Dutch ships [[whaling|hunted whales]] off [[Svalbard]], traded spices in India and [[Indonesia]] (via the [[Dutch East India Company]]) and founded colonies in [[New Amsterdam]] (now New York), South Africa and the [[West Indies]]. In addition some Portuguese colonies were conquered, namely in Northeastern [[Brazil]], Angola, [[Indonesia]] and [[Ceylon]]. In 1640 by the [[Dutch East India Company]] began a trade monopoly with Japan through the trading post on [[Dejima]].
Kapal-kapal Belanda [[perburuan paus|berburu paus]] di perairan [[Svalbard]], berdagang rempah-rempah di India dan [[Indonesia]] (melalui VOC), dan mendirikan koloni-koloni di [[Nieuw Amsterdam]] (sekarang [[New York]]), Afrika Selatan, dan [[Hindia Barat]]. Selain itu, bangsa Belanda juga merebut sejumlah koloni Portugis, misalnya koloni-koloni Portugis di kawasan timur laut [[Brazil]], Angola, [[Indonesia]], dan [[Sri Lanka|Sailan]]. Pada tahun 1640, VOC mulai memonopoli perdagangan dengan Jepang melalui pos dagang di [[Dejima]].


The Dutch also dominated trade between European countries. The Low Countries were favorably positioned on a crossing of east-west and north-south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through the [[Rhine]] river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the [[Baltic region|Baltic lands]] and returned with grain destined for countries around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. By the 1680s, an average of nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the [[Baltic Sea]] each year.<ref>"[http://www.balticconnections.net/index.cfm?article=Mercantilism+in+the+West+Baltic Baltic Connections: Mercantilism in the West Baltic]", BalticConnections.net. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> The Dutch were able to gain control of much of the trade with the nascent English colonies in North America and following the end of war with Spain in 1648, Dutch trade with that country also flourished.
Bangsa Belanda juga mendominasi perdagangan antarnegara di Eropa.<!-- Negeri-Negeri Rendah were favorably positioned on a crossing of east-west and north-south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through the [[Rhine]] river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the [[Baltic region|Baltic lands]] and returned with grain destined for countries around the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. By the 1680s, an average of nearly 1000 Dutch ships entered the [[Baltic Sea]] each year.<ref>"[http://www.balticconnections.net/index.cfm?article=Mercantilism+in+the+West+Baltic Baltic Connections: Mercantilism in the West Baltic]", BalticConnections.net. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> The Dutch were able to gain control of much of the trade with the nascent English colonies in North America and following the end of war with Spain in 1648, Dutch trade with that country also flourished.


[[File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] was a [[businessman]] and [[scientist]] in the [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age of Dutch science and technology]].]]
[[File:Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723). Natuurkundige te Delft Rijksmuseum SK-A-957.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]] was a [[businessman]] and [[scientist]] in the [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age of Dutch science and technology]].]]
[[Renaissance Humanism]], of which Desiderius [[Erasmus]] (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance. Overall, levels of tolerance were sufficiently high to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from [[Portugal]] who brought much wealth with them. The revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in France in 1685 resulted in the immigration of many French [[Huguenots]], many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. Still tolerance had its limits, as philosopher [[Baruch de Spinoza]] (1632–1677) would find out. Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. Especially the renowned [[University of Leiden]] (established in 1575 by the Dutch [[stadtholder]], [[William the Silent|William of Oranje]], as a token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years' War) became a gathering place for these people. For instance French philosopher [[René Descartes]] lived in Leiden from 1628 until 1649.
[[Renaissance Humanism]], of which Desiderius [[Erasmus]] (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance. Overall, levels of tolerance were sufficiently high to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from [[Portugal]] who brought much wealth with them. The revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in France in 1685 resulted in the immigration of many French [[Huguenots]], many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. Still tolerance had its limits, as philosopher [[Baruch de Spinoza]] (1632–1677) would find out. Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. Especially the renowned [[Universitas Leiden]] (established in 1575 by the Dutch [[stadtholder]], [[William the Silent|Willem van Oranje]], as a token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years' War) became a gathering place for these people. For instance French philosopher [[René Descartes]] lived in Leiden from 1628 until 1649.


Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international [[Admiralty law|law of the sea]] and [[commercial law]]. [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) played a leading part in the foundation of [[international law]]. Again due to the Dutch climate of tolerance, book publishers flourished. Many books about religion, philosophy and science that might have been deemed controversial abroad were printed in the Netherlands and secretly exported to other countries. Thus during the 17th century the Dutch Republic became more and more Europe's publishing house.
Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international [[Admiralty law|law of the sea]] and [[commercial law]]. [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583–1645) played a leading part in the foundation of [[international law]]. Again due to the Dutch climate of tolerance, book publishers flourished. Many books about religion, philosophy and science that might have been deemed controversial abroad were printed in the Netherlands and secretly exported to other countries. Thus during the 17th century the Dutch Republic became more and more Europe's publishing house.
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The Golden Age was also an important time for developments in literature. Some of the major figures of this period were [[Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero]], [[Jacob Cats]], [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft]] and [[Joost van den Vondel]]. Since Latin was the lingua franca of education, relatively few men could speak, write, and read Dutch all at the same time.
The Golden Age was also an important time for developments in literature. Some of the major figures of this period were [[Gerbrand Adriaenszoon Bredero]], [[Jacob Cats]], [[Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft]] and [[Joost van den Vondel]]. Since Latin was the lingua franca of education, relatively few men could speak, write, and read Dutch all at the same time.


Music did not develop very much in the Netherlands since the Calvinists considered it an unnecessary extravagance, and organ music was forbidden in Reformed Church services, although it remained common at secular functions.
Music did not develop very much in the Netherlands since the Calvinists considered it an unnecessary extravagance, and organ music was forbidden in Reformed Church services, although it remained common at secular functions.-->


== Kekaisaran bangsa Belanda ==
==Dutch Empire==


=== The Dutch in the Americas ===
=== Bangsa Belanda di Benua Amerika ===
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|left|200px|New Amsterdam in 1664 CE.]]
[[File:GezichtOpNieuwAmsterdam.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nieuw Amsterdam pada tahun 1664]]
{{main article|Dutch West India Company|New Netherland|New Amsterdam}}
{{utama|Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie|Nieuw Nederland|Nieuw Amsterdam}}


''Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie'' (Perusahaan Hindia Barat Berizin) adalah [[badan usaha berizin]] yang beranggotakan para [[saudagar]] Belanda. Pada tanggal 2 Juni 1621, serikat dagang ini diberi [[:wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company|izin]] memonopoli perdagangan di [[Hindia Barat]] ([[Kepulauan Karibia]]) oleh pemerintah [[Republik Belanda|Republik Serikat Tujuh Negeri Belanda]] dan diserahi kewenangan hukum atas [[perbudakan di Afrika|usaha perdagangan budak Afrika]], Brazil, [[Kepulauan Karibia]], dan Amerika Utara. Daerah operasinya membentang dari Afrika Barat sampai ke Benua Amerika dan Kepulauan Pasifik. Perusahaan ini sangat besar jasanya bagi usaha [[kolonisasi bangsa Belanda di Benua Amerika]]. Benteng-benteng dan permukiman-permukiman pertama bangsa Belanda di [[Guyana]] dan [[Sungai Amazon]] didirikan pada era 1590-an. Usaha kolonisasi bangsa Belanda tidak segiat Inggris dan Prancis. Banyak permukiman bangsa Belanda yang hilang atau ditinggalkan pada akhir abad itu, tetapi Negeri Belanda mampu melanggengkan kepemilikannya atas [[Suriname]] dan beberapa pulau di Karibia.<!--
The ''Dutch West India Company'' was a [[chartered company]] (known as the "GWC") of Dutch [[merchant]]s. On 2 June 1621, it was granted a [[:wikisource:Charter of the Dutch West India Company|charter]] for a trade monopoly in the [[West Indies]] (meaning the Caribbean) by the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] and given jurisdiction over the [[African slave trade]], Brazil, the [[Caribbean]], and North America. Its area of operations stretched from West Africa to the Americas, and the Pacific islands. The company became instrumental in the [[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]. The first forts and settlements in [[Guyana]] and on the [[Amazon River]] date from the 1590s. Actual colonization, with Dutch settling in the new lands, was not as common as with England and France. Many of the Dutch settlements were lost or abandoned by the end of that century, but the Netherlands managed to retain possession of [[Suriname]] and a number of Dutch Caribbean islands.


[[File:Peter Stuyvesant.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Peter Stuyvesant]], Director-General of [[New Netherland]] (New York). His provincial capital, [[New Amsterdam]], was located at the southern tip of the island of [[Manhattan]].]]
[[File:Peter Stuyvesant.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Peter Stuyvesant]], Direktur Jenderal [[New Netherland]] (New York). His provincial capital, [[New Amsterdam]], was located at the southern tip of the island of [[Manhattan]].]]
The colony was a private business venture to exploit the [[fur trade|fur trade in beaver pelts]]. New Netherland was slowly settled during its first decades, partially as a result of policy mismanagement by the [[Dutch West India Company]] (WIC), and conflicts with Native Americans. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the [[Atlantic World]], tolerating a highly diverse ethnic mix. The surrender of [[Fort Amsterdam]] to the British control in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the [[Second Anglo–Dutch War]]. In 1673 the Dutch re-took the area, but later relinquished it under the 1674 [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]] ending the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].
The colony was a private business venture to exploit the [[fur trade|fur trade in beaver pelts]]. New Netherland was slowly settled during its first decades, partially as a result of policy mismanagement by the [[Dutch West India Company]] (WIC), and conflicts with Native Americans. During the 1650s, the colony experienced dramatic growth and became a major port for trade in the [[Atlantic World]], tolerating a highly diverse ethnic mix. The surrender of [[Fort Amsterdam]] to the British control in 1664 was formalized in 1667, contributing to the [[Second Anglo–Dutch War]]. In 1673 the Dutch re-took the area, but later relinquished it under the 1674 [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]] ending the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]].


Descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in the [[History of the United States]], as typified by the Roosevelt and Vanderbilt families. The Hudson Valley still boasts a Dutch heritage. The concepts of civil liberties and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] introduced in the province became mainstays of American political and social life.<ref>Jaap Jacobs, ''The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America'' (2nd ed. 2009) [https://www.questia.com/read/109275503/new-netherland-a-dutch-colony-in-seventeenth-century online]</ref>
Descendants of the original settlers played a prominent role in the [[History of the United States]], as typified by the Roosevelt and Vanderbilt families. The Hudson Valley still boasts a Dutch heritage. The concepts of civil liberties and [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]] introduced in the province became mainstays of American political and social life.<ref>Jaap Jacobs, ''The Colony of New Netherland: A Dutch Settlement in Seventeenth-Century America'' (2nd ed. 2009) [https://www.questia.com/read/109275503/new-netherland-a-dutch-colony-in-seventeenth-century online]</ref>


===Slave trade===
=== Perdagangan budak ===
{{main article|History of Aruba|History of Curaçao|History of Saint Martin|History of Suriname}}
{{main article|History of Aruba|History of Curaçao|History of Saint Martin|History of Suriname}}
Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished in the Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.<ref>Postma, Johannes, ''The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815'' (2008){{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> In 1619 The Netherlands took the lead in building a large-scale [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] between Africa and Virginia, by 1650 becoming the pre-eminent slave trading country in Europe. It was overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historians agree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596–1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the Dutch Guianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<ref>van Welie, Rik, [http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340 "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison"], ''NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids,'' 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96, Table 2 & Table 3. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies<ref>Vink, Markus, [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century"], ''Journal of World History'', 14.2 (2003): 76 pars.. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> and slaves from the East Indies to Africa and the West Indies.
Although slavery was illegal inside the Netherlands it flourished in the Dutch Empire, and helped support the economy.<ref>Postma, Johannes, ''The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815'' (2008){{Full citation needed|date=November 2012}}, p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> In 1619 The Netherlands took the lead in building a large-scale [[Atlantic slave trade|slave trade]] between Africa and Virginia, by 1650 becoming the pre-eminent slave trading country in Europe. It was overtaken by Britain around 1700. Historians agree that in all the Dutch shipped about 550,000 African slaves across the Atlantic, about 75,000 of whom died on board before reaching their destinations. From 1596–1829, the Dutch traders sold 250,000 slaves in the Dutch Guianas, 142,000 in the Dutch Caribbean islands, and 28,000 in Dutch Brazil.<ref>van Welie, Rik, [http://www.kitlv-journals.nl/index.php/nwig/article/view/3580/4340 "Slave Trading and Slavery in the Dutch Colonial Empire: A Global Comparison"], ''NWIG: New West Indian Guide / Nieuwe West-Indische Gids,'' 2008, Vol. 82 Issue 1/2, pp. 47–96, Table 2 & Table 3. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> In addition, tens of thousands of slaves, mostly from India and some from Africa, were carried to the Dutch East Indies<ref>Vink, Markus, [http://www.historycooperative.org/cgi-bin/justtop.cgi?act=justtop&url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jwh/14.2/vink.html "'The World's Oldest Trade': Dutch Slavery and Slave Trade in the Indian Ocean in the Seventeenth Century"], ''Journal of World History'', 14.2 (2003): 76 pars.. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref> and slaves from the East Indies to Africa and the West Indies.
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{{main article|Dutch East India Company|Dutch East Indies}}
{{main article|Dutch East India Company|Dutch East Indies}}
[[File:Andries Beeckman - The Castle of Batavia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Dutch Batavia built in what is now [[Jakarta]], by [[Andries Beeckman]] c. 1656 CE.]]
[[File:Andries Beeckman - The Castle of Batavia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Dutch Batavia built in what is now [[Jakarta]], by [[Andries Beeckman]] c. 1656 CE.]]
The Dutch East India Company, called the '''VOC''' began in 1602, when the government gave it a monopoly to trade with Asia. It had many world firsts—the first [[multinational corporation]], the first company to issue stock, and was the first [[megacorporation]], possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonial settlements.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|pages=102–103}}</ref>
The Dutch East India Company, called the '''VOC''' began in 1602, when the government gave it a monopoly to trade with Asia. It had many world firsts—the first [[multinational corporation]], the first company to issue stock, and was the first [[megacorporation]], possessing quasi-governmental powers, including the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, coin money, and establish colonial settlements.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Globe Encompassed: The Age of European Discovery, 1500-1700|url=https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames|author=Ames, Glenn J.|year=2008|pages=[https://archive.org/details/globeencompassed0000ames/page/102 102]–103}}</ref>


England and France soon copied its model but could not match its record. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships. It returned over 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. The VOC was active chiefly in the [[Dutch East Indies]], now [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]], where its base was [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), which remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years; colonized parts of [[Taiwan]] between [[Taiwan under Dutch rule|1624–1662 and 1664–1667]] and the only western trading post in Japan, [[Dejima]].
England and France soon copied its model but could not match its record. Between 1602 and 1796 the VOC sent almost a million Europeans to work in the Asia trade on 4,785 ships. It returned over 2.5 million tons of Asian trade goods. The VOC enjoyed huge profits from its spice monopoly through most of the 17th century. The VOC was active chiefly in the [[Dutch East Indies]], now [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]], where its base was [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (now [[Jakarta]]), which remained an important trading concern and paid an 18% annual dividend for almost 200 years; colonized parts of [[Taiwan]] between [[Taiwan under Dutch rule|1624–1662 and 1664–1667]] and the only western trading post in Japan, [[Dejima]].


[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[India]]n [[Kingdom of Travancore]] after the [[Battle of Colachel]]. (Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]])]]
[[File:De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Eustachius De Lannoy]] of the [[Dutch East India Company]] surrenders to Maharaja [[Marthanda Varma]] of the [[India]]n [[Kingdom of Travancore]] after the [[Battle of Colachel]]. (Depiction at [[Padmanabhapuram Palace]])]]
By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of [[Ceylon]] (modern-day [[Sri Lanka]]). Afterward, they established ports in [[Dutch Malabar|Dutch occupied Malabar]], leading to [[Dutch India|Dutch settlements and trading posts in India]]. However, their expansion into [[India]] was halted, after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] by the [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]], during the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M. O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1 http://mod.nic.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>
By the 17th century, the Dutch East India Company established their base in parts of [[Ceylon]] (modern-day [[Sri Lanka]]). Afterward, they established ports in [[Dutch Malabar|Dutch occupied Malabar]], leading to [[Dutch India|Dutch settlements and trading posts in India]]. However, their expansion into [[India]] was halted, after their defeat in the [[Battle of Colachel]] by the [[Travancore|Kingdom of Travancore]], during the [[Travancore-Dutch War]]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M. O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref>[http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html#l1 http://mod.nic.in] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 Maret 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>


Eventually, the Dutch East India Company was weighted down by corruption, the VOC went bankrupt in 1800. Its possessions were taken over by the government and turned into the [[Dutch East Indies]].
Eventually, the Dutch East India Company was weighted down by corruption, the VOC went bankrupt in 1800. Its possessions were taken over by the government and turned into the [[Dutch East Indies]].
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[[Dutch language|Dutch]] was the official language, but a dialect had formed that was quite distinct from Dutch. The [[Afrikaans]] language originated mainly from 17th-century Dutch dialects.<ref>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/afrikaans.htm "Afrikaans"], Omniglot.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/8437/Afrikaans-language "Afrikaans language"], Britannica.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref>
[[Dutch language|Dutch]] was the official language, but a dialect had formed that was quite distinct from Dutch. The [[Afrikaans]] language originated mainly from 17th-century Dutch dialects.<ref>[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/afrikaans.htm "Afrikaans"], Omniglot.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/8437/Afrikaans-language "Afrikaans language"], Britannica.com. Retrieved 9 October 2011.</ref>


This Dutch dialect sometimes referred to as the "kitchen language" (''kombuistaal''),<ref>Alatis, James E., Heidi E. Hamilton and Ai-Hui Tan (2002). ''Linguistics, language and the professions: education, journalism, law, medicine, and technology''. Washington, DC: University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-87840-373-8}}. p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> would eventually in the late 19th century be recognised as a distinct language called [[Afrikaans]] and replace Dutch as the official language of the [[Afrikaners]].
This Dutch dialect sometimes referred to as the "kitchen language" (''kombuistaal''),<ref>Alatis, James E., Heidi E. Hamilton and Ai-Hui Tan (2002). ''Linguistics, language and the professions: education, journalism, law, medicine, and technology''. Washington, DC: Lembaga Pers Universitas. {{ISBN|978-0-87840-373-8}}. p. {{Page needed|date=October 2011}}</ref> would eventually in the late 19th century be recognised as a distinct language called [[Afrikaans]] and replace Dutch as the official language of the [[Afrikaners]].


As the 18th century drew to a close, Dutch mercantile power began to fade and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands, then briefly relinquished it back to the Dutch (1803), before definitively conquering it in 1806. British [[sovereignty]] of the area was recognised at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. By the time the Dutch colony was seized by the British in 1806, it had grown into an established settlement with 25,000 slaves, 20,000 white colonists, 15,000 [[Khoisan]], and 1,000 freed black slaves. Outside Cape Town and the immediate hinterland, isolated black and white [[pastoralists]] populated the country.
As the 18th century drew to a close, Dutch mercantile power began to fade and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] moved in to fill the vacuum. They seized the Cape Colony in 1795 to prevent it from falling into French hands, then briefly relinquished it back to the Dutch (1803), before definitively conquering it in 1806. British [[sovereignty]] of the area was recognised at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. By the time the Dutch colony was seized by the British in 1806, it had grown into an established settlement with 25,000 slaves, 20,000 white colonists, 15,000 [[Khoisan]], and 1,000 freed black slaves. Outside Cape Town and the immediate hinterland, isolated black and white [[pastoralists]] populated the country.
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In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century.<ref>Edwards, Elizabeth, "Amsterdam and William III," ''History Today,'' (Dec 1993), Vol. 43, Issue 12 pp. 25–31</ref>
In Amsterdam the network was so large that members of the same family could be related to opposing factions and pursue widely separated interests. The young men who had risen to positions of authority in the 1670s and 1680s consolidated their hold on office well into the 1690s and even the new century.<ref>Edwards, Elizabeth, "Amsterdam and William III," ''History Today,'' (Dec 1993), Vol. 43, Issue 12 pp. 25–31</ref>


Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on the water-ways and other essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Elise Van Nederveen Meerkerk|author2=Griet Vermeesch|title=Serving the Urban Community: The Rise of Public Facilities in the Low Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GyqI-UjSTy8C&pg=PA158|year=2010|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|page=158|isbn=9789052603506}}</ref>
Amsterdam's regents provided good services to residents. They spent heavily on the water-ways and other essential infrastructure, as well as municipal almshouses for the elderly, hospitals and churches.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Elise Van Nederveen Meerkerk|author2=Griet Vermeesch|title=Serving the Urban Community: The Rise of Public Facilities in the Low Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GyqI-UjSTy8C&pg=PA158|year=2010|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universita Amsterdam|page=158|isbn=9789052603506}}</ref>


Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But toleration was practiced for the convenience of the city. Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe were far more carefully vetted and those who became dependent on the city were encouraged to move on.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paolo Bernardini|author2=Norman Fiering|title=The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1400–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JAGMuePO0C&pg=PA372|year=2004|publisher=Berghahn Books|page=372|isbn=9781571814302}}</ref> Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants was made in 1681 when [[Louis XIV]]'s religious policy was beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no encouragement was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the 1670s<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonathan Israel|title=The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the Glorious Revolution and Its World Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCvyi5_m6ScC&pg=PA111|year=2003|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=111|isbn=9780521544061}}</ref> (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Dunford|title=The Rough Guide to Amsterdam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16nrEWPp-GQC&pg=PA58|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|page=58|display-authors=etal|isbn=9781858288987}}</ref>
Amsterdam's wealth was generated by its commerce, which was in turn sustained by the judicious encouragement of entrepreneurs whatever their origin. This open door policy has been interpreted as proof of a tolerant ruling class. But toleration was practiced for the convenience of the city. Therefore, the wealthy Sephardic Jews from Portugal were welcomed and accorded all privileges except those of citizenship, but the poor Ashkenazi Jews from Eastern Europe were far more carefully vetted and those who became dependent on the city were encouraged to move on.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Paolo Bernardini|author2=Norman Fiering|title=The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1400–1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m0JAGMuePO0C&pg=PA372|year=2004|publisher=Berghahn Books|page=372|isbn=9781571814302}}</ref> Similarly, provision for the housing of Huguenot immigrants was made in 1681 when [[Louis XIV]]'s religious policy was beginning to drive these Protestants out of France; no encouragement was given to the dispossessed Dutch from the countryside or other towns of Holland. The regents encouraged immigrants to build churches and provided sites or buildings for churches and temples for all except the most radical sects and the Catholics by the 1670s<ref>{{cite book|author=Jonathan Israel|title=The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays on the Glorious Revolution and Its World Impact|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NCvyi5_m6ScC&pg=PA111|year=2003|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Cambridge|page=111|isbn=9780521544061}}</ref> (although even the Catholics could practice quietly in a chapel within the Beguinhof).<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Dunford|title=The Rough Guide to Amsterdam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=16nrEWPp-GQC&pg=PA58|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|page=58|display-authors=etal|isbn=9781858288987}}</ref>


===First Stadtholderless Period and the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1650–1674)===
===First Stadtholderless Period and the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1650–1674)===
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[[File:Vonstetinaseconddayof4daybattleof1666.jpg|thumb|"The Second Day of the Four Day Battle of 1666"]]
[[File:Vonstetinaseconddayof4daybattleof1666.jpg|thumb|"The Second Day of the Four Day Battle of 1666"]]
{{main article|Anglo-Dutch wars}}
{{main article|Anglo-Dutch wars}}
The Republic and England were major rivals in world trade and naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Republic's [[Royal Netherlands Navy|navy]] was the rival of Britain's Royal Navy as the most powerful navy in the world. The Republic fought a series of three [[Anglo-Dutch wars|naval wars against England]] in 1652–74.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Richard Hill|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzrya4r-2n8C&pg=PA73|year=2002|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=68–75|isbn=9780198605270}}</ref>
The Republic and England were major rivals in world trade and naval power. Halfway through the 17th century the Republic's [[Royal Netherlands Navy|navy]] was the rival of Britain's Royal Navy as the most powerful navy in the world. The Republic fought a series of three [[Anglo-Dutch wars|naval wars against England]] in 1652–74.<ref>{{cite book|author=John Richard Hill|title=The Oxford Illustrated History of the Royal Navy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bzrya4r-2n8C&pg=PA73|year=2002|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Oxford|pages=68–75|isbn=9780198605270}}</ref>


In 1651, England imposed its first [[1651 Navigation Act|Navigation Act]], which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], which left the Navigation Act in effect.
In 1651, England imposed its first [[1651 Navigation Act|Navigation Act]], which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], which left the Navigation Act in effect.
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[[File:Cornelis Troost02.jpg|thumb|The Inspectors of the Collegium Medicum in Amsterdam, by [[Cornelis Troost]], 1724. This period is known as the "Periwig Era".]]
[[File:Cornelis Troost02.jpg|thumb|The Inspectors of the Collegium Medicum in Amsterdam, by [[Cornelis Troost]], 1724. This period is known as the "Periwig Era".]]


The ''Second Stadtholderless Period'' ({{lang-nl|Tweede Stadhouderloze Tijdperk}}) is the designation in Dutch [[historiography]] of the period between the death of [[stadtholder]] [[William III of England|William III]] on 19 March<ref>This is the date from the [[Gregorian calendar]] that was followed at the time in the Dutch Republic; according to the [[Julian calendar]], still used in England at the time, the date of death was 8 March.</ref> 1702 and the appointment of [[William IV, Prince of Orange]] as stadtholder and captain general in all provinces of the [[Dutch Republic]] on 2 May 1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left vacant in the provinces of [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]], and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], though in other provinces that office was filled by members of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau) during various periods.
The ''Second Stadtholderless Period'' ({{lang-nl|Tweede Stadhouderloze Tijdperk}}) is the designation in Dutch [[historiography]] of the period between the death of [[stadtholder]] [[William III of England|William III]] pada 19 Maret<ref>This is the date from the [[Gregorian calendar]] that was followed at the time in the Dutch Republic; according to the [[Julian calendar]], still used in England at the time, the date of death was 8 Maret.</ref> 1702 and the appointment of [[William IV, Prince of Orange]] as stadtholder and captain general in all provinces of the [[Dutch Republic]] on 2 May 1747. During this period the office of stadtholder was left vacant in the provinces of [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]], and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]], though in other provinces that office was filled by members of the House of Nassau-Dietz (later called Orange-Nassau) during various periods.


During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-hand, the latter causing the former. Though the economy declined considerably, causing deindustralization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a ''rentier''-class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the fall of the [[Dutch States Party|States-Party regime]] and the restoration of the Stadtholderate in all provinces. However, though the new stadtholder acquired near-dictatorial powers, this did not improve the situation.
During the period, the Republic lost its Great-Power status and its primacy in world trade, processes that went hand-in-hand, the latter causing the former. Though the economy declined considerably, causing deindustralization and deurbanization in the maritime provinces, a ''rentier''-class kept accumulating a large capital fund that formed the basis for the leading position the Republic achieved in the international capital market. A military crisis at the end of the period caused the fall of the [[Dutch States Party|States-Party regime]] and the restoration of the Stadtholderate in all provinces. However, though the new stadtholder acquired near-dictatorial powers, this did not improve the situation.
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Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S. ambassador (and future [[President of the United States|President]]) [[John Adams]] managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic, making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize the [[Continental Congress]] in April 1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well.
Although the Dutch Republic did not enter into a formal alliance with the United States and their allies, U.S. ambassador (and future [[President of the United States|President]]) [[John Adams]] managed to establish diplomatic relations with the Dutch Republic, making it the second European country to diplomatically recognize the [[Continental Congress]] in April 1782. In October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce was concluded as well.


Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also [[Battle of Dogger Bank (1781)|met once off the Dutch coast]]. The war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of the country.<ref>Edler, Friedrich, ''The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution'' (1911, reprinted 2001) Honolulu, Hawaii: University Press of the Pacific, p. 88</ref> The [[Treaty of Paris (1784)]], according to [[Fernand Braudel]], "sounded the knell of Dutch greatness."<ref>[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984. p. 273.</ref>
Most of the war consisted of a series of largely successful British operations against Dutch colonial economic interests, although British and Dutch naval forces also [[Battle of Dogger Bank (1781)|met once off the Dutch coast]]. The war ended disastrously for the Dutch and exposed the weakness of the political and economic foundations of the country.<ref>Edler, Friedrich, ''The Dutch Republic and The American Revolution'' (1911, reprinted 2001) Honolulu, Hawaii: Lembaga Pers Universitas Kawasan Pasifik, hlm. 88</ref> The [[Treaty of Paris (1784)]], according to [[Fernand Braudel]], "sounded the knell of Dutch greatness."<ref>[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984. p. 273.</ref>


==The French-Batavian period (1785–1815)==
==The French-Batavian period (1785–1815)==
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Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed [[militia]]s called ''[[exercitiegenootschap]]pen''. In 1785, there was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, ''Freedom'' being the rallying cry. [[Herman Willem Daendels]] attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments ([[vroedschap]]). The goal was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations", wrote French historian [[Fernand Braudel]], who saw it as a forerunner of the [[French Revolution]].
Support for the Patriots came mostly from the middle class. They formed [[militia]]s called ''[[exercitiegenootschap]]pen''. In 1785, there was an open Patriot rebellion, which took the form of an armed insurrection by local militias in certain Dutch towns, ''Freedom'' being the rallying cry. [[Herman Willem Daendels]] attempted to organise an overthrow of various municipal governments ([[vroedschap]]). The goal was to oust government officials and force new elections. "Seen as a whole this revolution was a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations", wrote French historian [[Fernand Braudel]], who saw it as a forerunner of the [[French Revolution]].


In 1785 [[William V, Prince of Orange|the stadholder]] left The Hague and moved his court to [[Nijmegen]] in [[Guelders]], a city remote from the heart of Dutch political life. In June 1787, his energetic wife [[Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange|Wilhelmina]] (the sister of [[Frederick William II of Prussia]]) tried to travel to [[The Hague]]. Outside [[Schoonhoven]], she was stopped by Patriot militiamen and taken to a farm near [[Goejanverwellesluis]]. Within two days she was forced to return to Nijmegen, an insult not unnoticed in Prussia.
In 1785 [[William V, Prince of Orange|the stadholder]] left The Hague and moved his court to [[Nijmegen]] in [[Guelders]], a city remote from the heart of Dutch political life. Pada bulan Juni 1787, his energetic wife [[Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange|Wilhelmina]] (the sister of [[Frederick William II of Prussia]]) tried to travel to [[The Hague]]. Outside [[Schoonhoven]], she was stopped by Patriot militiamen and taken to a farm near [[Goejanverwellesluis]]. Within two days she was forced to return to Nijmegen, an insult not unnoticed in Prussia.


The House of Orange reacted with severity, relying on [[Prussia]]n troops led by [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick]] and a small contingent of British troops to [[Prussian invasion of Holland|suppress the rebellion]]. Dutch banks at this time still held much of the world's [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. Government-sponsored banks owned up to 40% of Great Britain's [[national debt]] and there were close connections to the [[House of Stuart]]. The stadholder had supported British policies after the [[American Revolution]].
The House of Orange reacted with severity, relying on [[Prussia]]n troops led by [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick]] and a small contingent of British troops to [[Prussian invasion of Holland|suppress the rebellion]]. Dutch banks at this time still held much of the world's [[Capital (economics)|capital]]. Government-sponsored banks owned up to 40% of Great Britain's [[national debt]] and there were close connections to the [[House of Stuart]]. The stadholder had supported British policies after the [[American Revolution]].
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{{Main article|Batavian Republic}}
{{Main article|Batavian Republic}}
[[File:Vrijheidsboom.jpg|left|thumb|Liberty tree erected in Dam Square in Amsterdam, 1795 by H. Numan.]]
[[File:Vrijheidsboom.jpg|left|thumb|Liberty tree erected in Dam Square in Amsterdam, 1795 by H. Numan.]]
The [[French Revolution]] was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when in January 1795 the [[Flanders Campaign|French army invaded]]. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the [[Batavian Republic]] ({{lang-nl|Bataafse Republiek}}) [[Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam|in Amsterdam]]. Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself. The new government was virtually a puppet of France.<ref>C. Cook & J. Stevenson, ''The routledge companion to European history since 1763'' (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p. 66; J. Dunn, ''Democracy: A history'' (NY: Atlantic Books, 2005), p. 86.</ref> The Batavian Republic enjoyed widespread support and sent soldiers to fight in the French armies. The 1799 [[Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland]] was repulsed by Batavian–French forces. Nevertheless, Napoleon replaced it because the regime of [[Grand Pensionary]] [[Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck]] (1805–06) was insufficiently docile.<ref>[[R.R. Palmer|Palmer, R.R.]] "Much in Little: The Dutch Revolution of 1795," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1954) 26#1 pp. 15–35 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874870 in JSTOR]</ref>
The [[French Revolution]] was popular, and numerous underground clubs were promoting it when pada bulan Januari 1795 the [[Flanders Campaign|French army invaded]]. The underground rose up, overthrew the municipal and provincial governments, and proclaimed the [[Batavian Republic]] ({{lang-nl|Bataafse Republiek}}) [[Batavian Revolution in Amsterdam|in Amsterdam]]. Stadtholder William V fled to England and the States General dissolved itself. The new government was virtually a puppet of France.<ref>C. Cook & J. Stevenson, ''The routledge companion to European history since 1763'' (Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p. 66; J. Dunn, ''Democracy: A history'' (NY: Atlantic Books, 2005), p. 86.</ref> The Batavian Republic enjoyed widespread support and sent soldiers to fight in the French armies. The 1799 [[Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland]] was repulsed by Batavian–French forces. Nevertheless, Napoleon replaced it because the regime of [[Grand Pensionary]] [[Rutger Jan Schimmelpenninck]] (1805–06) was insufficiently docile.<ref>[[R.R. Palmer|Palmer, R.R.]] "Much in Little: The Dutch Revolution of 1795," ''Journal of Modern History'' (1954) 26#1 pp. 15–35 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874870 in JSTOR]</ref>


The confederal structure of the old Dutch Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state. The 1798 constitution had a genuinely democratic character, though a coup d'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power. Ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and many of the current government departments date their history back to this period. Meanwhile, the exiled stadholder [[Kew Letters|handed over the Dutch colonies]] in "safekeeping" to Great Britain and ordered the colonial governors to comply. This permanently ended the colonial empire in Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony. The Dutch East Indies was returned to the Netherlands under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]].
The confederal structure of the old Dutch Republic was permanently replaced by a unitary state. The 1798 constitution had a genuinely democratic character, though a coup d'état of 1801 put an authoritarian regime in power. Ministerial government was introduced for the first time in Dutch history and many of the current government departments date their history back to this period. Meanwhile, the exiled stadholder [[Kew Letters|handed over the Dutch colonies]] in "safekeeping" to Great Britain and ordered the colonial governors to comply. This permanently ended the colonial empire in Guyana, Ceylon and the Cape Colony. The Dutch East Indies was returned to the Netherlands under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]].
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{{Main article|Kingdom of Holland}}
{{Main article|Kingdom of Holland}}


In 1806 Napoleon restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the [[Kingdom of Holland]], putting his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778–1846), on the throne. The new king was unpopular, but he was willing to cross his brother for the benefit of his new kingdom. Napoleon forced his abdication in 1810 and incorporated the Netherlands directly into the [[First French Empire|French empire]], imposing economic controls and conscription of all young men as soldiers. When the French retreated from the northern provinces in 1813, a [[Driemanschap|Triumvirate]] took over at the helm of a [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|provisional government]]. Although most members of the provisional government had been among the men who had driven out William V 18 years earlier, the leaders of the provisional government knew that any new regime would have to be headed by his son, William Frederick. They also knew that it would be better in the long term if the Dutch people themselves installed the prince, rather than have him imposed on the country by the anti-French alliance. Accordingly, the Triumvirate called William Frederick back on November 30 and offered him the crown. He refused, but instead proclaimed himself "[[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|hereditary sovereign prince]]" on December 6.
In 1806 Napoleon restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the [[Kingdom of Holland]], putting his brother [[Louis Bonaparte]] (1778–1846), on the throne. The new king was unpopular, but he was willing to cross his brother for the benefit of his new kingdom. Napoleon forced his abdication in 1810 and incorporated the Netherlands directly into the [[First French Empire|French empire]], imposing economic controls and conscription of all young men as soldiers. When the French retreated from the northern provinces in 1813, a [[Driemanschap|Triumvirate]] took over at the helm of a [[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|provisional government]]. Although most members of the provisional government had been among the men who had driven out William V 18 years earlier, the leaders of the provisional government knew that any new regime would have to be headed by his son, William Frederick. They also knew that it would be better in the long term if the Dutch people themselves installed the prince, rather than have him imposed on the country by the anti-French alliance. Accordingly, the Triumvirate called William Frederick back on November 30 and offered him the crown. He refused, but instead proclaimed himself "[[Sovereign Principality of the United Netherlands|hereditary sovereign prince]]" pada tanggal 6 Desember.


The [[Great Powers]] had [[Eight Articles of London|secretly agreed]] to merge the northern Netherlands with the more populated [[Austrian Netherlands]] and the smaller [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]] into a single constitutional monarchy. Having a stronger country on France's northern border was considered (especially by [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander]]) to be an important part of the strategy to keep France's power in check. In 1814, William Frederick gained sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands and Liège as well. On March 15, 1815; with the encouragement of the powers gathered at the [[Congress of Vienna]], William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I]]. This was made official later in 1815, when the Low Countries were formally recognized as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]], with the [[House of Orange-Nassau]] as hereditary rulers. William had thus fulfilled the nearly three-century quest of the House of Orange to unite the Low Countries under a single rule.
The [[Great Powers]] had [[Eight Articles of London|secretly agreed]] to merge the northern Netherlands with the more populated [[Austrian Netherlands]] and the smaller [[Prince-Bishopric of Liège]] into a single constitutional monarchy. Having a stronger country on France's northern border was considered (especially by [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander]]) to be an important part of the strategy to keep France's power in check. In 1814, William Frederick gained sovereignty over the Austrian Netherlands and Liège as well. Pada 15 Maret 1815; with the encouragement of the powers gathered at the [[Congress of Vienna]], William Frederick raised the Netherlands to the status of a kingdom and proclaimed himself [[William I of the Netherlands|King William I]]. This was made official later in 1815, when the Low Countries were formally recognized as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]], with the [[House of Orange-Nassau]] as hereditary rulers. William had thus fulfilled the nearly three-century quest of the House of Orange to unite the Low Countries under a single rule.


==United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)==
==United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815–1839)==
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In the Catholic South,<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government, while the population of [[Flanders]] was divided. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect ("Flemish") and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership after having been the state church for centuries in the south. Few Catholics held high office in state or army. Furthermore, political liberals in the south complained about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.
In the Catholic South,<ref>see [http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/neth18151830.html online maps 1830, 1839]</ref> William's policies were unpopular. The French-speaking Walloons strenuously rejected his attempt to make Dutch the universal language of government, while the population of [[Flanders]] was divided. Flemings in the south spoke a Dutch dialect ("Flemish") and welcomed the encouragement of Dutch with a revival of literature and popular culture. Other Flemings, notably the educated bourgeoisie, preferred to speak French. Although Catholics possessed legal equality, they resented their subordination to a government that was fundamentally Protestant in spirit and membership after having been the state church for centuries in the south. Few Catholics held high office in state or army. Furthermore, political liberals in the south complained about the king's authoritarian methods. All southerners complained of underrepresentation in the national legislature. Although the south was industrializing and was more prosperous than the north the accumulated grievances allowed the multiple opposition forces to coalesce. The outbreak of revolution in France in 1830 was a signal for action, at first on behalf of autonomy for Belgium, as the southern provinces were now called, and later on behalf of total independence. William dithered and his half-hearted efforts to reconquer Belgium were thwarted both by the efforts of the Belgians themselves and by the diplomatic opposition of the great powers.


At the [[London Conference of 1830]], the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (June 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William’s attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–39 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian [[Treaty of London (1839)|separation treaty of 1839]]. It divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of the 11 northern provinces.<ref>{{cite book|first = J. C. H. |last=Blom|title= History of the Low Countries|date=1999|pages=297–312}}</ref>
At the [[London Conference of 1830]], the chief powers of Europe ordered (in November 1830) an armistice between the Dutch and the Belgians. The first draft for a treaty of separation of Belgium and the Netherlands was rejected by the Belgians. A second draft (Juni 1831) was rejected by William I, who resumed hostilities. Franco-British intervention forced William to withdraw Dutch forces from Belgium late in 1831, and in 1833 an armistice of indefinite duration was concluded. Belgium was effectively independent but William’s attempts to recover Luxembourg and Limburg led to renewed tension. The London Conference of 1838–39 prepared the final Dutch-Belgian [[Treaty of London (1839)|separation treaty of 1839]]. It divided Luxembourg and Limburg between the Dutch and Belgian crowns. The Kingdom of the Netherlands thereafter was made up of the 11 northern provinces.<ref>{{cite book|first = J. C. H. |last=Blom|title= History of the Low Countries|date=1999|pages=297–312}}</ref>


==Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)==
==Democratic and Industrial Development (1840–1900)==
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The Netherlands did not industrialize as rapidly as Belgium after 1830, but it was prosperous enough. Griffiths argues that certain government policies facilitated the emergence of a national economy in the 19th century. They included the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds, a unified coinage system, modern methods of tax collection, standardized weights and measures, and the building of many roads, canals, and railroads. However, compared to Belgium, which was leading in industrialization on the Continent, the Netherlands moved slowly. Possible explanations for this difference are the higher costs due to geography and high wages, and the emphasis of entrepreneurs on trade rather than industry.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, ''Industrial Retardation in the Netherlands, 1830–1850'' (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979).</ref>
The Netherlands did not industrialize as rapidly as Belgium after 1830, but it was prosperous enough. Griffiths argues that certain government policies facilitated the emergence of a national economy in the 19th century. They included the abolition of internal tariffs and guilds, a unified coinage system, modern methods of tax collection, standardized weights and measures, and the building of many roads, canals, and railroads. However, compared to Belgium, which was leading in industrialization on the Continent, the Netherlands moved slowly. Possible explanations for this difference are the higher costs due to geography and high wages, and the emphasis of entrepreneurs on trade rather than industry.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, ''Industrial Retardation in the Netherlands, 1830–1850'' (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1979).</ref>
For example, in the Dutch coastal provinces agricultural productivity was relatively high. Hence, industrial growth arrived relatively late – after 1860 – because incentives to move to labour-intensive industry were quite weak.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=19|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>
For example, in the Dutch coastal provinces agricultural productivity was relatively high. Hence, industrial growth arrived relatively late – after 1860 – because incentives to move to labour-intensive industry were quite weak.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Cambridge|page=19|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>
However, the provinces of North Brabant and Overijssel did industrialize, and they became the most economically advanced areas of the country.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, "The Creation of a National Dutch Economy: 1795–1909," ''Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis,'' 1982, Vol. 95 Issue 4, pp. 513–53 (in English)</ref><ref>Joel Mokyr, "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study," ''Journal of Economic History'' (1974) 34#2 pp. 365–99 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116987 in JSTOR]</ref>
However, the provinces of North Brabant and Overijssel did industrialize, and they became the most economically advanced areas of the country.<ref>Richard T. Griffiths, "The Creation of a National Dutch Economy: 1795–1909," ''Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis,'' 1982, Vol. 95 Issue 4, pp. 513–53 (in English)</ref><ref>Joel Mokyr, "The Industrial Revolution in the Low Countries in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Case Study," ''Journal of Economic History'' (1974) 34#2 pp. 365–99 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2116987 in JSTOR]</ref>


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[[File:Old-Amsterdam 1891-street-1.jpg|thumb|Street in Amsterdam in 1891 ({{Interlanguage link multi|Vijzelstraat|nl}} looking towards Muntplein).]]
[[File:Old-Amsterdam 1891-street-1.jpg|thumb|Street in Amsterdam in 1891 ({{Interlanguage link multi|Vijzelstraat|nl}} looking towards Muntplein).]]
Dutch social and political life became divided by fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion. The economy was not affected. One of the people most responsible for designing pillarization was [[Abraham Kuyper]] (1837–1920), a leading politician, [[neo-Calvinist]] theologian, and journalist. Kuyper established orthodox Calvinist organizations, and also provided a theoretical framework by developing such concepts as "sphere-sovereignty" that celebrated Dutch society as a society of organized minorities. ''Verzuiling'' ("pillarization" or "pluralism") after 1850 became the solution to the danger of internal conflict. Everyone was part of one (and only one) pillar (''zuil'') based chiefly on religion (Protestant, Catholic, secular). The secular pillar eventually split into a socialist/working class pillar and a liberal (pro-business) secular pillar. Each pillar built a full set of its own social organizations, including churches (for the religious pillars), political parties, schools, universities,<ref>The oldest universities, in Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen, had a secular-liberal character. In 1880 Kuyper opened a Protestant university in Amsterdam and in 1923 a Catholic one opened in Nijmegen. The Amsterdam municipal university, which opened in 1877, leaned toward secular-socialism, but was formally neutral.</ref> labor unions, sport clubs, boy scout unions and other youth clubs, and newspapers. The members of different ''zuilen'' lived in close proximity in cities and villages, spoke the same language, and did business with one another, but seldom interacted informally and rarely intermarried.<ref>A Dutch rhyme forbade intermarriage thus: ''Twee geloven op één kussen, daar slaapt de Duivel tussen'' [Two religions on one pillow, there the Devil sleeps in between.] On the decline of intermarriage see Erik Beekink, et al. "Changes in Choice of Spouse as an Indicator of a Society in a State of Transition: Woerden, 1830–1930." ''Historical Social Research'' 1998 23(1–2): 231–53. {{ISSN|0172-6404}}</ref> In politics Kuyper formed the [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1879, and headed it until 1905.
Dutch social and political life became divided by fairly clear-cut internal borders that were emerging as the society pillarized into three separate parts based on religion. The economy was not affected. One of the people most responsible for designing pillarization was [[Abraham Kuyper]] (1837–1920), a leading politician, [[neo-Calvinist]] theologian, and journalist. Kuyper established orthodox Calvinist organizations, and also provided a theoretical framework by developing such concepts as "sphere-sovereignty" that celebrated Dutch society as a society of organized minorities. ''Verzuiling'' ("pillarization" or "pluralism") after 1850 became the solution to the danger of internal conflict. Everyone was part of one (and only one) pillar (''zuil'') based chiefly on religion (Protestant, Catholic, secular). The secular pillar eventually split into a socialist/working class pillar and a liberal (pro-business) secular pillar. Each pillar built a full set of its own social organizations, including churches (for the religious pillars), political parties, schools, universities,<ref>The oldest universities, in Leiden, Utrecht, and Groningen, had a secular-liberal character. In 1880 Kuyper opened a Protestant universitas in Amsterdam and in 1923 a Catholic one opened in Nijmegen. The Amsterdam municipal universitas, which opened in 1877, leaned toward secular-socialism, but was formally neutral.</ref> labor unions, sport clubs, boy scout unions and other youth clubs, and newspapers. The members of different ''zuilen'' lived in close proximity in cities and villages, spoke the same language, and did business with one another, but seldom interacted informally and rarely intermarried.<ref>A Dutch rhyme forbade intermarriage thus: ''Twee geloven op één kussen, daar slaapt de Duivel tussen'' [Two religions on one pillow, there the Devil sleeps in between.] On the decline of intermarriage see Erik Beekink, et al. "Changes in Choice of Spouse as an Indicator of a Society in a State of Transition: Woerden, 1830–1930." ''Historical Social Research'' 1998 23(1–2): 231–53. {{ISSN|0172-6404}}</ref> In politics Kuyper formed the [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1879, and headed it until 1905.


Pillarization was officially recognized in the [[Pacification of 1917]], whereby socialists and liberals achieved their goal of universal male suffrage and the religious parties were guaranteed equal funding of all schools.<ref>Kossmann, ''Low Countries'' pp-57</ref> In 1930 radio was organized so that each pillar had full control of its own network. When television began in the late 1940s the pillars divided up time equally on the one station. In politics and civic affairs leaders of the pillar organizations cooperated and the acknowledged the right of the other pillars, so public life generally ran smoothly.<ref>Arend Lijphart, ''The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism, and Democracy in the Netherlands'' (1975) is the standard analysis from a leading political scientist; Michael Wintle, "Pillarisation, Consociation, and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited: a European View." ''West European Politics'' 2000 23(3): 139–52, defends the concept; more critical is J. C. H. Blom, "Pillarisation in Perspective." ''West European Politics'' (2000) 23(3): 153–64.</ref><ref>Johan Sturm, et al. "Educational Pluralism: A Historical Study of So-Called "Pillarization" in the Netherlands, Including a Comparison with Some Developments in South African Education," ''Comparative Education,'' (1998) 34#3 pp. 281–97 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3099832 in JSTOR]</ref>
Pillarization was officially recognized in the [[Pacification of 1917]], whereby socialists and liberals achieved their goal of universal male suffrage and the religious parties were guaranteed equal funding of all schools.<ref>Kossmann, ''Low Countries'' pp-57</ref> In 1930 radio was organized so that each pillar had full control of its own network. When television began in the late 1940s the pillars divided up time equally on the one station. In politics and civic affairs leaders of the pillar organizations cooperated and the acknowledged the right of the other pillars, so public life generally ran smoothly.<ref>Arend Lijphart, ''The Politics of Accommodation. Pluralism, and Democracy in the Netherlands'' (1975) is the standard analysis from a leading political scientist; Michael Wintle, "Pillarisation, Consociation, and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited: a European View." ''West European Politics'' 2000 23(3): 139–52, defends the concept; more critical is J. C. H. Blom, "Pillarisation in Perspective." ''West European Politics'' (2000) 23(3): 153–64.</ref><ref>Johan Sturm, et al. "Educational Pluralism: A Historical Study of So-Called "Pillarization" in the Netherlands, Including a Comparison with Some Developments in South African Education," ''Comparative Education,'' (1998) 34#3 pp. 281–97 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3099832 in JSTOR]</ref>


===Flourishing of art, culture and science===
===Flourishing of art, culture and science===
The late 19th century saw a cultural revival. The [[Hague School]] brought a revival of realist painting, 1860-1890. The world-famous Dutch painter was [[Vincent van Gogh]], but he spent most of his career in France.<ref>Richard Bionda and [[Carel Blotkamp]], eds. ''The Age of Van Gogh: Dutch Painting 1880–1895'' (1997)</ref> Literature, music, architecture and science also flourished. A representative leader of science was [[Johannes Diderik van der Waals]] (1837–1923), a working class youth who taught himself physics, earned a PhD at the nation's leading school Leiden University, and in 1910 won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries in thermodynamics. [[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1853–1928) and his student [[Pieter Zeeman]] (1865–1943) shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in physics. Other notable scientists included biologist [[Hugo de Vries]] (1848–1935), who rediscovered Mendelian genetics.<ref>Leo Beek, ''Dutch Pioneers of Science'' (1986)</ref>
The late 19th century saw a cultural revival. The [[Hague School]] brought a revival of realist painting, 1860-1890. The world-famous Dutch painter was [[Vincent van Gogh]], but he spent most of his career in France.<ref>Richard Bionda and [[Carel Blotkamp]], eds. ''The Age of Van Gogh: Dutch Painting 1880–1895'' (1997)</ref> Literature, music, architecture and science also flourished. A representative leader of science was [[Johannes Diderik van der Waals]] (1837–1923), a working class youth who taught himself physics, earned a PhD at the nation's leading school Universitas Leiden, and in 1910 won the Nobel Prize for his discoveries in thermodynamics. [[Hendrik Lorentz]] (1853–1928) and his student [[Pieter Zeeman]] (1865–1943) shared the 1902 Nobel Prize in physics. Other notable scientists included biologist [[Hugo de Vries]] (1848–1935), who rediscovered Mendelian genetics.<ref>Leo Beek, ''Dutch Pioneers of Science'' (1986)</ref>


==1900 to 1940==
==1900 to 1940==
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The military forces in the Dutch East Indies were controlled by the governor and were not part of the regular Dutch army. As the map shows, the Dutch slowly expanded their holdings from their base in Java to include all of modern Indonesia by 1920. Most islands were not a problem but there was a long, costly campaign against the [[Aceh Sultanate|Achin (Aceh)]] state in northern Sumatra.
The military forces in the Dutch East Indies were controlled by the governor and were not part of the regular Dutch army. As the map shows, the Dutch slowly expanded their holdings from their base in Java to include all of modern Indonesia by 1920. Most islands were not a problem but there was a long, costly campaign against the [[Aceh Sultanate|Achin (Aceh)]] state in northern Sumatra.


The Netherlands had not fought a major military campaign since the 1760s, and the strength of its armed forces had gradually dwindled. The Dutch decided not to ally themselves with anyone, and kept out of all European wars especially the First World War that swirled about it.<ref name = "hvhqei">Maartje M. Abbenhuis, ''The Art of Staying Neutral the Netherlands in the First World War, 1914–1918'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2006).</ref>
The Netherlands had not fought a major military campaign since the 1760s, and the strength of its armed forces had gradually dwindled. The Dutch decided not to ally themselves with anyone, and kept out of all European wars especially the First World War that swirled about it.<ref name = "hvhqei">Maartje M. Abbenhuis, ''The Art of Staying Neutral the Netherlands in the First World War, 1914–1918'' (Lembaga Pers Universitas Amsterdam, 2006).</ref>


=== Neutrality during the First World War ===
=== Neutrality during the First World War ===
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[[File:Afsluitdijk 01.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Afsluitdijk]], the dike closing off the [[Zuiderzee]], was constructed between 1927 and 1933. Public works projects like this were one way to deal with high unemployment during the [[Great Depression]].]]
[[File:Afsluitdijk 01.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Afsluitdijk]], the dike closing off the [[Zuiderzee]], was constructed between 1927 and 1933. Public works projects like this were one way to deal with high unemployment during the [[Great Depression]].]]
The Dutch were affected by the war, troops were mobilized and conscription was introduced in the face of harsh criticism from opposition parties. In 1918, mutinies broke out in the military. Food shortages were extensive, due to the control the belligerents exercised over the Dutch. Each wanted their share of Dutch produce. As a result, the price of potatoes rose sharply because Britain had demanded so much from the Dutch. Food riots even broke out in the country.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> A big problem was smuggling. When Germany had conquered Belgium, the Allies saw it as enemy territory and stopped exporting to Belgium. Food became scarce for the Belgian people, since the Germans seized all food. This gave the Dutch the opportunity to start to smuggle. This, however, caused great problems in the Netherlands, including inflation and further food shortages. The Allies demanded that the Dutch stop the smuggling, and the government took measures to remain neutral. The government placed many cities under 'state of siege'. On 8 January 1916, a {{convert|5|km|mi|adj=on}} zone was created by the government along the border. In that zone, goods could be moved on main roads with a permit.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> German authorities in Belgium had an electrified fence erected all along the Belgian–Dutch border that caused many refugees from Belgium to lose their lives. The fence was guarded by older German Landsturm soldiers.<ref>{{cite web|title=De Dodendraad – Wereldoorlog I|url=http://www.bunkergordel.be/14.023%20De%20Dodendraad.htm|publisher=Bunkergordel.be|accessdate=19 March 2013}}</ref>
The Dutch were affected by the war, troops were mobilized and conscription was introduced in the face of harsh criticism from opposition parties. In 1918, mutinies broke out in the military. Food shortages were extensive, due to the control the belligerents exercised over the Dutch. Each wanted their share of Dutch produce. As a result, the price of potatoes rose sharply because Britain had demanded so much from the Dutch. Food riots even broke out in the country.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> A big problem was smuggling. When Germany had conquered Belgium, the Allies saw it as enemy territory and stopped exporting to Belgium. Food became scarce for the Belgian people, since the Germans seized all food. This gave the Dutch the opportunity to start to smuggle. This, however, caused great problems in the Netherlands, including inflation and further food shortages. The Allies demanded that the Dutch stop the smuggling, and the government took measures to remain neutral. The government placed many cities under 'state of siege'. Pada 8 Januari 1916, a {{convert|5|km|mi|adj=on}} zone was created by the government along the border. In that zone, goods could be moved on main roads with a permit.<ref name = "hvhqei"/> German authorities in Belgium had an electrified fence erected all along the Belgian–Dutch border that caused many refugees from Belgium to lose their lives. The fence was guarded by older German Landsturm soldiers.<ref>{{cite web|title=De Dodendraad – Wereldoorlog I|url=http://www.bunkergordel.be/14.023%20De%20Dodendraad.htm|publisher=Bunkergordel.be|accessdate=19 Maret 2013}}</ref>


=== Interwar period ===
=== Interwar period ===
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===The war in the Dutch East Indies===
===The war in the Dutch East Indies===
{{Main article|Dutch East Indies campaign}}
{{Main article|Dutch East Indies campaign}}
On 8 December 1941, the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Netherlands declared war on Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html |title=THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS DECLARES WAR WITH JAPAN |publisher=ibiblio |accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref> The Dutch government in exile in London had for long been working with London and with Washington to cut off oil supplies to Japan. Japanese forces [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|invaded the Dutch East Indies]] on 11 January 1942. The Dutch surrendered 8 March after Japanese troops landed on [[Java island|Java]]. Dutch citizens and everybody with Dutch ancestry, the so-called "[[Indo people|Indo's]]" were captured and put to work in labour camps or interned. As in the homeland, many Dutch ships, planes and military personnel managed to reach safe territory, in this case Australia, from where they were able to fight again.
On 8 December 1941, the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Netherlands declared war on Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1941/411208c.html |title=THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS DECLARES WAR WITH JAPAN |publisher=ibiblio |accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref> The Dutch government in exile in London had for long been working with London and with Washington to cut off oil supplies to Japan. Japanese forces [[Netherlands East Indies campaign|invaded the Dutch East Indies]] pada 11 Januari 1942. Belanda menyerah pada tanggal 8 Maret after Japanese troops landed on [[Java island|Java]]. Dutch citizens and everybody with Dutch ancestry, the so-called "[[Indo people|Indo's]]" were captured and put to work in labour camps or interned. As in the homeland, many Dutch ships, planes and military personnel managed to reach safe territory, in this case Australia, from where they were able to fight again.


===False hopes, the Hunger Winter and Liberation===
===False hopes, the Hunger Winter and Liberation===
In Europe, after the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] landed in [[Normandy]] in June 1944, progress was slow until the [[Invasion of Normandy|Battle of Normandy]] ended in August 1944. German resistance collapsed in western Europe and the allied armies advanced quickly towards the Dutch border. The [[First Canadian Army]] and the Second British Army conducted operations on Dutch soil from September onwards. On 17 September a daring operation, [[Operation Market Garden]], was executed with the goal of capturing bridges across three major rivers in the southern Netherlands. Despite desperate fighting by American, British and Polish forces, the bridge at [[Arnhem]], across the Neder Rijn, could not be captured.
In Europe, after the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] landed in [[Normandy]] pada bulan Juni 1944, progress was slow until the [[Invasion of Normandy|Battle of Normandy]] ended in August 1944. German resistance collapsed in western Europe and the allied armies advanced quickly towards the Dutch border. The [[First Canadian Army]] and the Second British Army conducted operations on Dutch soil from September onwards. On 17 September a daring operation, [[Operation Market Garden]], was executed with the goal of capturing bridges across three major rivers in the southern Netherlands. Despite desperate fighting by American, British and Polish forces, the bridge at [[Arnhem]], across the Neder Rijn, could not be captured.


Areas south of the Rhine river were liberated in the period September–December 1944, including the province of Zeeland, which was liberated in October and November in the [[Battle of the Scheldt]]. This opened [[Antwerp]] to allied shipping. The [[First Canadian Army]] held a static line along the [[river Meuse]] (Maas) from December 1944 through February 1945.
Areas south of the Rhine river were liberated in the period September–December 1944, including the province of Zeeland, which was liberated in October and November in the [[Battle of the Scheldt]]. This opened [[Antwerp]] to allied shipping. The [[First Canadian Army]] held a static line along the [[river Meuse]] (Maas) from December 1944 through Februari 1945.


The rest of the country remained occupied until the spring of 1945. In the face of Dutch defiance the Nazis deliberately cut off food supplies resulting in near-starvation in the cities during the ''[[Hongerwinter]]'' ([[Hunger winter]]) of 1944–45. Soup kitchens were set up but many fragile people died.<ref>William I. Hitchcock, ''The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe'' (2009) pp. 98–129</ref> A few days before the Allied victory the Germans allowed emergency shipments of food.
The rest of the country remained occupied until the spring of 1945. In the face of Dutch defiance the Nazis deliberately cut off food supplies resulting in near-starvation in the cities during the ''[[Hongerwinter]]'' ([[Hunger winter]]) of 1944–45. Soup kitchens were set up but many fragile people died.<ref>William I. Hitchcock, ''The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe'' (2009) pp. 98–129</ref> A few days before the Allied victory the Germans allowed emergency shipments of food.


[[File:Crowd of Dutch civilians celebrating the liberation of Utrecht by the Canadian Army.jpg|thumb|Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of [[I Canadian Corps]] troops in [[Utrecht]] after the German surrender, 7 May 1945.]]
[[File:Crowd of Dutch civilians celebrating the liberation of Utrecht by the Canadian Army.jpg|thumb|Dutch civilians celebrating the arrival of [[I Canadian Corps]] troops in [[Utrecht]] after the German surrender, 7 May 1945.]]
The [[First Canadian Army]] launched [[Operation Veritable]] in early February, cracking the [[Battle of the Siegfried Line|Siegfried Line]] and reaching the banks of the [[Rhine]] in early March. In the final weeks of the war in Europe, the First Canadian Army was charged with clearing the [[Netherlands]] of German forces.
The [[First Canadian Army]] launched [[Operation Veritable]] in awal bulan Februari, cracking the [[Battle of the Siegfried Line|Siegfried Line]] and reaching the banks of the [[Rhine]] pada awal bulan Maret. In the final weeks of the war in Europe, the First Canadian Army was charged with clearing the [[Netherlands]] of German forces.


The [[Liberation of Arnhem]] began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan, as the three infantry brigades of the 49th Division leapfrogged each other through the city. Within four days Arnhem, now a ruined city, was totally under Allied control.<ref>Waddy, John A Tour of the Arnhem Battlefields (Pen & Sword Books, 2001; first published 1999) ({{ISBN|0-85052-571-3}}), p. 192</ref>
The [[Liberation of Arnhem]] began on 12 April 1945 and proceeded to plan, as the three infantry brigades of the 49th Division leapfrogged each other through the city. Within four days Arnhem, now a ruined city, was totally under Allied control.<ref>Waddy, John A Tour of the Arnhem Battlefields (Pen & Sword Books, 2001; first published 1999) ({{ISBN|0-85052-571-3}}), p. 192</ref>


The Canadians then immediately advanced further into the country, encountering and defeating a German counterattack at [[Otterlo]] and Dutch SS resistance at [[Ede, Netherlands|Ede]]. On 27 April a temporary truce came into effect, allowing the distribution of food aid to the starving Dutch civilians in areas under German control ([[Operations Manna and Chowhound|Operation Manna]]). On 5 May 1945, Generaloberst Blaskowitz agreed to the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands, signing the surrender to Canadian general [[Charles Foulkes (Canadian general)|Charles Foulkes]] at [[Wageningen]].<ref>Stacey, Colonel Charles Perry, ''Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War'', Volume III, ''[http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/Victory_e.pdf The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-West Europe 1944–1945]'' (The Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery Ottawa, 1960) (Downloaded: 4 July 2009), pp. 576–614</ref> (The fifth of May is now celebrated annually in the Netherlands as [[Liberation Day]].) Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered, bringing the war in Europe to a close.
The Canadians then immediately advanced further into the country, encountering and defeating a German counterattack at [[Otterlo]] and Dutch SS resistance at [[Ede, Netherlands|Ede]]. On 27 April a temporary truce came into effect, allowing the distribution of food aid to the starving Dutch civilians in areas under German control ([[Operations Manna and Chowhound|Operation Manna]]). On 5 May 1945, Generaloberst Blaskowitz agreed to the unconditional surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands, signing the surrender to Canadian general [[Charles Foulkes (Canadian general)|Charles Foulkes]] at [[Wageningen]].<ref>Stacey, Colonel Charles Perry, ''Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War'', Volume III, ''[http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/his/docs/Victory_e.pdf The Victory Campaign: The Operations in North-West Europe 1944–1945]'' (The Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery Ottawa, 1960) (Diunduh: 4 Juli 2009), pp. 576–614</ref> (The fifth of May is now celebrated annually in the Netherlands as [[Liberation Day]].) Three days later Germany unconditionally surrendered, bringing the war in Europe to a close.


After the euphoria and settling of scores had ended, the Dutch were a traumatized people with a ruined economy, a shattered infrastructure and several destroyed cities including [[Rotterdam]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Arnhem]] and part of [[The Hague]].
After the euphoria and settling of scores had ended, the Dutch were a traumatized people with a ruined economy, a shattered infrastructure and several destroyed cities including [[Rotterdam]], [[Nijmegen]], [[Arnhem]] and part of [[The Hague]].
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Immediately after the war, there was rationing, including of cigarettes, textiles, washing powder and coffee. Even wooden shoes were rationed. There were severe housing shortages.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alan S. Milward|title=The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mw3j5k7bz0C&pg=PA18|year=1987|publisher=U. of California Press|pages=18–}}</ref><ref>Nelleke Bakker and Janneke Wubs, "A Mysterious Success: Doctor Spock and the Netherlands in the 1950s," Paedagogica Historica (2002) 38#1 pp. 215–17.</ref> In the 1950s, there was [[Dutch diaspora|mass emigration]], especially to [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Canada]], [[Dutch Australian|Australia]] and [[Dutch New Zealander|New Zealand]]. Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce [[population density]] prompted some 500,000 [[Dutch people]] to leave the country after the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/Netherlands |title=Netherlands |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> The Netherlands failed to hold the Dutch East Indies, as Indonesia became independent and 300,000 Dutch inhabitants (and their Indonesian allies) left the islands.
Immediately after the war, there was rationing, including of cigarettes, textiles, washing powder and coffee. Even wooden shoes were rationed. There were severe housing shortages.<ref>{{cite book|author=Alan S. Milward|title=The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mw3j5k7bz0C&pg=PA18|year=1987|publisher=U. of California Press|pages=18–}}</ref><ref>Nelleke Bakker and Janneke Wubs, "A Mysterious Success: Doctor Spock and the Netherlands in the 1950s," Paedagogica Historica (2002) 38#1 pp. 215–17.</ref> In the 1950s, there was [[Dutch diaspora|mass emigration]], especially to [[Canadians of Dutch descent|Canada]], [[Dutch Australian|Australia]] and [[Dutch New Zealander|New Zealand]]. Government-encouraged emigration efforts to reduce [[population density]] prompted some 500,000 [[Dutch people]] to leave the country after the war.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409956/Netherlands |title=Netherlands |work=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> The Netherlands failed to hold the Dutch East Indies, as Indonesia became independent and 300,000 Dutch inhabitants (and their Indonesian allies) left the islands.


Postwar politics saw shifting coalition governments. The 1946 Parliamentary elections saw the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) come in first just ahead of the [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|socialist Labour party]] (PvdA). Louis J. M. Beel formed a [[First Beel cabinet|new coalition cabinet.]] The United States began [[Marshall Plan]] aid in 1948 that pumped cash into the economy, fostered modernization of business, and [[GITP International BV|encouraged economic cooperation]].<ref>Hans Krabbendam and Cornelis A Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 761-72.</ref>
Postwar politics saw shifting coalition governments. The 1946 Parliamentary elections saw the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) come in first just ahead of the [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|socialist Labour party]] (PvdA). Louis J. M. Beel formed a [[First Beel cabinet|new coalition cabinet.]] The United States began [[Marshall Plan]] aid in 1948 that pumped cash into the economy, fostered modernization of business, and [[GITP International BV|encouraged economic cooperation]].<ref>Hans Krabbendam and Cornelis A Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 761-72.</ref>


The 1948 elections led to a new coalition led by Labor's [[Willem Drees]]. He led four successive cabinets [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-1|Drees I]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-2|Drees II]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-3|Drees III]] and [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-4|Drees IV]] until late 1958. His terms saw four major political developments: the traumas of decolonization, [[economic reconstruction]], the establishment of the Dutch [[welfare state]], and international integration and co-operation, including the formation of [[Benelux]], the [[OEEC]], [[NATO]], the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]], and the [[EEC]].
The 1948 elections led to a new coalition led by Labor's [[Willem Drees]]. He led four successive cabinets [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-1|Drees I]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-2|Drees II]], [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-3|Drees III]] and [[Netherlands cabinet Drees-4|Drees IV]] until late 1958. His terms saw four major political developments: the traumas of decolonization, [[economic reconstruction]], the establishment of the Dutch [[welfare state]], and international integration and co-operation, including the formation of [[Benelux]], the [[OEEC]], [[NATO]], the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]], and the [[EEC]].
Baris 884: Baris 897:
[[File:Netherlands. Viewed from a U.S. Army helicopter, a Zuid Beveland town gives a hint of the tremendous damage wrought... - NARA - 541705.tif|thumb|A town in [[Zuid Beveland]] inundated in 1953.]]
[[File:Netherlands. Viewed from a U.S. Army helicopter, a Zuid Beveland town gives a hint of the tremendous damage wrought... - NARA - 541705.tif|thumb|A town in [[Zuid Beveland]] inundated in 1953.]]


The [[North Sea flood of 1953|last major flood in the Netherlands]] took place in early February 1953, when a huge storm caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest of the Netherlands. More than 1,800 people drowned in the ensuing inundation.
The [[North Sea flood of 1953|last major flood in the Netherlands]] took place pada awal bulan Februari 1953, when a huge storm caused the collapse of several dikes in the southwest of the Netherlands. More than 1,800 people drowned in the ensuing inundation.


The Dutch government subsequently decided on a large-scale programme of public works (the "[[Deltawerken|Delta Works]]") to protect the country against future flooding. The project took more than thirty years to complete. The Oosterscheldedam, an advanced sea storm barrier, became operational in 1986. According to Dutch government engineers, the odds of a major inundation anywhere in the Netherlands are now one in 10,000 years.
The Dutch government subsequently decided on a large-scale programme of public works (the "[[Deltawerken|Delta Works]]") to protect the country against future flooding. The project took more than thirty years to complete. The Oosterscheldedam, an advanced sea storm barrier, became operational in 1986. According to Dutch government engineers, the odds of a major inundation anywhere in the Netherlands are now one in 10,000 years.
Baris 891: Baris 904:
The [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), was founded in 1951 by the six founding members: Belgium, the Netherlands and [[Luxembourg]] (the [[Benelux]] countries) and West Germany, France and Italy. Its purpose was to pool the steel and coal resources of the member states, and to support the economies of the participating countries. As a side effect, the ECSC helped defuse tensions between countries which had recently been enemies in the war. In time, this economic merger grew, adding members and broadening in scope, to become the [[European Economic Community]], and later the European Union.
The [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), was founded in 1951 by the six founding members: Belgium, the Netherlands and [[Luxembourg]] (the [[Benelux]] countries) and West Germany, France and Italy. Its purpose was to pool the steel and coal resources of the member states, and to support the economies of the participating countries. As a side effect, the ECSC helped defuse tensions between countries which had recently been enemies in the war. In time, this economic merger grew, adding members and broadening in scope, to become the [[European Economic Community]], and later the European Union.


The United States started to have more influence. After the war higher education changed from a German model to more of an American model.<ref>Jan C. C. Rupp, "The Americanization of Dutch Academia in the Postwar Era," ''European Contributions To American Studies,'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 133–50</ref>{{Dubious|date=February 2013}} American influences had been small in the interwar era, and during the war the Nazis had emphasised the dangers of a "degraded" American culture as represented by jazz. However, the Dutch became more attracted to the United States during the postwar era, perhaps partly because of antipathy towards the Nazis<ref>Kees Wouters, "Fear of the "Uncivilized'": Dutch Responses to American Entertainment Music, 1920–1945," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 43–61</ref> but certainly because of American movies and consumer goods. The Marshall Plan also introduced the Dutch to American management practices.{{Dubious|date=February 2013}} NATO brought in American military doctrine and technology.<ref>Jan Hoffenaar, "'Hannibal ante portas': The Soviet Military Threat and the Build-up of the Dutch Armed Forces, 1948–1958," ''Journal of Military History'' (2002) 66#1 pp. 163–91.</ref> Intellectuals, artists and the political left, however, remained more reserved about the Americans.<ref>Hans Renders, "Art, ideology and Americanization in post-war Dutch Mandril: Journalistic innovation of a conservative kind," ''Quaerendo'' (2006) 36#1 pp. 114–34 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=cb1ba525-b35a-48aa-9881-b0868475cebc%40sessionmgr15&vid=1&hid=25 online]</ref> According to Rob Kroes, the anti-Americanism in the Netherlands was ambiguous: American culture was both accepted and criticised at the same time.<ref>Rob Kroes, "The Great Satan Versus the Evil Empire: Anti-Americanism in the Netherlands," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1987) 11#1 pp. 37–50.</ref>
The United States started to have more influence. After the war higher education changed from a German model to more of an American model.<ref>Jan C. C. Rupp, "The Americanization of Dutch Academia in the Postwar Era," ''European Contributions To American Studies,'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 133–50</ref> American influences had been small in the interwar era, and during the war the Nazis had emphasised the dangers of a "degraded" American culture as represented by jazz. However, the Dutch became more attracted to the United States during the postwar era, perhaps partly because of antipathy towards the Nazis<ref>Kees Wouters, "Fear of the "Uncivilized'": Dutch Responses to American Entertainment Music, 1920–1945," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1996) 30#1 pp. 43–61</ref> but certainly because of American movies and consumer goods. The Marshall Plan also introduced the Dutch to American management practices. NATO brought in American military doctrine and technology.<ref>Jan Hoffenaar, "'Hannibal ante portas': The Soviet Military Threat and the Build-up of the Dutch Armed Forces, 1948–1958," ''Journal of Military History'' (2002) 66#1 pp. 163–91.</ref> Intellectuals, artists and the political left, however, remained more reserved about the Americans.<ref>Hans Renders, "Art, ideology and Americanization in post-war Dutch Mandril: Journalistic innovation of a conservative kind," ''Quaerendo'' (2006) 36#1 pp. 114–34 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=cb1ba525-b35a-48aa-9881-b0868475cebc%40sessionmgr15&vid=1&hid=25 online]</ref> According to Rob Kroes, the anti-Americanism in the Netherlands was ambiguous: American culture was both accepted and criticised at the same time.<ref>Rob Kroes, "The Great Satan Versus the Evil Empire: Anti-Americanism in the Netherlands," ''European Contributions to American Studies'' (1987) 11#1 pp. 37–50.</ref>


The Netherlands is a founding member of the [[European Union|EU]], [[NATO]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. Together with Belgium and [[Luxembourg]] it forms the [[Benelux]] economic union. The country is host to the [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] and five international courts: the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the [[International Court of Justice]], the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], the [[International Criminal Court]] and the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]]. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency [[Europol]] and judicial co-operation agency [[Eurojust]]. This has led to the city being dubbed "the world's legal capital".<ref>{{Cite book|last = van Krieken|first = Peter J.|author2=David McKay|title = The Hague: Legal Capital of the World|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year= 2005|isbn = 90-6704-185-8}}, specifically, ''"In the 1990s, during his term as United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali started calling The Hague the world's legal capital."''</ref>
The Netherlands is a founding member of the [[European Union|EU]], [[NATO]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. Together with Belgium and [[Luxembourg]] it forms the [[Benelux]] economic union. The country is host to the [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] and five international courts: the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], the [[International Court of Justice]], the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], the [[International Criminal Court]] and the [[Special Tribunal for Lebanon]]. The first four are situated in The Hague, as is the EU's criminal intelligence agency [[Europol]] and judicial co-operation agency [[Eurojust]]. This has led to the city being dubbed "the world's legal capital".<ref>{{Cite book|last = van Krieken|first = Peter J.|author2=David McKay|title = The Hague: Legal Capital of the World|url = https://archive.org/details/haguelegalcapita0000unse|publisher=Lembaga Pers Universitas Cambridge|year= 2005|isbn = 90-6704-185-8}}, specifically, ''"In the 1990s, during his term as United Nations Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali started calling The Hague the world's legal capital."''</ref>


===Decolonisation and multiculturalism===
===Decolonisation and multiculturalism===
Baris 899: Baris 912:
[[File:Arrivalrotterdam.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Arrival of the vessel ''[[Castel Felice]]'' with "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians) on the Lloydkade in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 20 May 1958.]]
[[File:Arrivalrotterdam.jpg|upright|thumb|left|Arrival of the vessel ''[[Castel Felice]]'' with "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians) on the Lloydkade in Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 20 May 1958.]]


The [[Dutch East Indies]] had long been a valuable resource to the Netherlands, generating in the 1930s about 14 percent of the Dutch national income, and home to thousands of Dutch and officials, businessmen and missionaries. <ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) p 610.</ref> By the first half of the 20th century, new organisations and leadership had developed in the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Under its [[Dutch Ethical Policy|Ethical Policy]], the government had helped create an educated Indonesian elite. These profound changes constituted the "[[Indonesian National Revival]]". Increased political activism and Japanese occupation undermining Dutch rule culminated in nationalists [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|proclaiming independence]] on 17 August 1945, two days after the surrender of Japan.<ref>Ricklefs, M.C. ''A Modern History of Indonesia'', (2nd ed. 1991), Chapters 14–15</ref> The Dutch did not plan to let go, for they would be left as merely a minor second-class power ranking with Denmark perhaps. However the Netherlands was much too weak to reconquer Indonesia. The Japanese had imprisoned all the Dutch residents, and turned the islands over to a native government, which was widely popular. The British military arrived to disarm the Japanese. The Dutch finally returned and attempted to eradicate the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] with force, (sometimes [[Rawagede massacre|brutal]] in nature).<ref> Gert Oostindie, et al. "The decolonization war in Indonesia, 1945-1949: War crimes in Dutch veterans' egodocuments." ''War in History'' (2018) 25#2 pp 254-276, argues that "war crimes formed a structural ingredient of Dutch warfare."</ref>
The [[Dutch East Indies]] had long been a valuable resource to the Netherlands, generating in the 1930s about 14 percent of the Dutch national income, and home to thousands of Dutch and officials, businessmen and missionaries.<ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) p 610.</ref> By the first half of the 20th century, new organisations and leadership had developed in the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Under its [[Dutch Ethical Policy|Ethical Policy]], the government had helped create an educated Indonesian elite. These profound changes constituted the "[[Indonesian National Revival]]". Increased political activism and Japanese occupation undermining Dutch rule culminated in nationalists [[Indonesian Declaration of Independence|proclaiming independence]] on 17 August 1945, two days after the surrender of Japan.<ref>Ricklefs, M.C. ''A Modern History of Indonesia'', (2nd ed. 1991), Chapters 14–15</ref> The Dutch did not plan to let go, for they would be left as merely a minor second-class power ranking with Denmark perhaps. However the Netherlands was much too weak to reconquer Indonesia. The Japanese had imprisoned all the Dutch residents, and turned the islands over to a native government, which was widely popular. The British military arrived to disarm the Japanese. The Dutch finally returned and attempted to eradicate the [[Indonesian National Revolution]] with force, (sometimes [[Rawagede massacre|brutal]] in nature).<ref> Gert Oostindie, et al. "The decolonization war in Indonesia, 1945-1949: War crimes in Dutch veterans' egodocuments." ''War in History'' (2018) 25#2 pp 254-276, argues that "war crimes formed a structural ingredient of Dutch warfare."</ref>


Hundreds of thousands of Indonesians supported the Dutch position; when Independence finally arrived, most of them were relocated to the Netherlands. Britain mediated a compromise signed in March 1947 whereby de facto control of the new [[Indonesian Republic]] was acknowledged over Java, Maduro and Sumatra, while acknowledging Dutch control over the numerous smaller and far less important islands. Supposedly there would be a federated Indonesian state and a union with the Netherlands, but that never happened. The Indonesians wanted complete transfer of power, and the Dutch refused. By 1946 the United States was financing the Dutch in Indonesia, and was able to exert pressure on The Hague. Increasing international pressure--including American hints about cutting off military funds-- forced the Netherlands to withdraw. A decisive episode was the success of the Indonesian Republic in crushing a communist revolt. Washington now realize that Indonesia was part of the Cold War against communism, and the Indonesian government was a necessary ally-- and that the Dutch tactics were counterproductive and chaotic, and could only help communist insurgencies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frances Gouda|title=American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zh1VtsxRlRAC&pg=PA36|year=2002|publisher=Amsterdam UP|page=36, 196}}</ref> The Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian independence on 27 December 1949. Public opinion blamed the Washington for the Dutch colonial failure.<ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 609-13.</ref> Only Irian, the western half of [[New Guinea]] remained under Dutch control as [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1961, when the Netherlands transferred sovereignty of this area to Indonesia.
Hundreds of thousands of Indonesians supported the Dutch position; when Independence finally arrived, most of them were relocated to the Netherlands. Britain mediated a compromise signed pada bulan Maret 1947 whereby de facto control of the new [[Indonesian Republic]] was acknowledged over Java, Maduro and Sumatra, while acknowledging Dutch control over the numerous smaller and far less important islands. Supposedly there would be a federated Indonesian state and a union with the Netherlands, but that never happened. The Indonesians wanted complete transfer of power, and the Dutch refused. By 1946 the United States was financing the Dutch in Indonesia, and was able to exert pressure on The Hague. Increasing international pressure--including American hints about cutting off military funds-- forced the Netherlands to withdraw. A decisive episode was the success of the Indonesian Republic in crushing a communist revolt. Washington now realize that Indonesia was part of the Cold War against communism, and the Indonesian government was a necessary ally-- and that the Dutch tactics were counterproductive and chaotic, and could only help communist insurgencies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Frances Gouda|title=American Visions of the Netherlands East Indies/Indonesia: US Foreign Policy and Indonesian Nationalism, 1920-1949|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zh1VtsxRlRAC&pg=PA36|year=2002|publisher=Amsterdam UP|page=36, 196}}</ref> The Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian independence on 27 December 1949. Public opinion blamed the Washington for the Dutch colonial failure.<ref>Krabbendam and Van Minnen, eds. ''Four Centuries of Dutch-American Relations: 1609-2009'' (2009) pp 609-13.</ref> Only Irian, the western half of [[New Guinea]] remained under Dutch control as [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1961, when the Netherlands transferred sovereignty of this area to Indonesia.


During and after the Indonesian National Revolution, around 300,000 people, predominantly "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians), left Indonesia for the Netherlands. This migration occurred in five distinct waves over a period of 20 years. It included Indos (many of whom spent the war years in Japanese concentration camps), former [[Republic of South Maluku|South Moluccan]] soldiers and their families, "New-Guinea Issue" Dutch citizens, Dutch citizens from [[Netherlands New Guinea]] (including Papuan civil servants and their families), and other Indos who had remained behind but later regretted their decision to take out Indonesian citizenship.<ref>Van Nimwegen, Nico [http://www.nidi.nl/shared/content/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf ''De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders''], Report no.64 (Publisher: NIDI, The Hague, 2002) p. 23 {{ISSN|0922-7210}} {{ISBN|978-90-70990-92-3}} {{OCLC|55220176}} {{cite web |url=http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-11-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222032012/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah09.shtml Sejarah Indonesia – An Online Timeline of Indonesian History – The Sukarno years: 1950 to 1965] Source: www.gimonco.com. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</ref>
During and after the Indonesian National Revolution, around 300,000 people, predominantly "[[Indo people|Indos]]" (Dutch-Indonesian Eurasians), left Indonesia for the Netherlands. This migration occurred in five distinct waves over a period of 20 years. It included Indos (many of whom spent the war years in Japanese concentration camps), former [[Republic of South Maluku|South Moluccan]] soldiers and their families, "New-Guinea Issue" Dutch citizens, Dutch citizens from [[Netherlands New Guinea]] (including Papuan civil servants and their families), and other Indos who had remained behind but later regretted their decision to take out Indonesian citizenship.<ref>Van Nimwegen, Nico [http://www.nidi.nl/shared/content/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf ''De demografische geschiedenis van Indische Nederlanders''], Report no.64 (Publisher: NIDI, The Hague, 2002) p. 23 {{ISSN|0922-7210}} {{ISBN|978-90-70990-92-3}} {{OCLC|55220176}} {{cite web |url=http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-11-24 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091222032012/http://www.nidi.knaw.nl/en/output/reports/nidi-report-64.pdf/nidi-report-64.pdf |archivedate=22 December 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah09.shtml Sejarah Indonesia – An Online Timeline of Indonesian History – The Sukarno years: 1950 to 1965] Source: www.gimonco.com. Retrieved 24 November 2011.</ref>
Baris 916: Baris 929:
Secularization, or the decline in religiosity, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural areas of Friesland and Groningen. Then, it spread to Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the other large cities in the west. Finally the Catholic southern areas showed religious declines. As the social distance between the Calvinists and Catholics narrowed (and they began to intermarry<ref>John Hendrickx, et al. "Religious Assortative Marriage in The Netherlands, 1938–1983," ''Review of Religious Research'' (1991) 33#2 pp. 123–45</ref>), it became possible to merge their parties. The [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1977 merged with the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) and the Protestant [[Christian Historical Union]] (CHU) to form the [[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (CDA).<ref>{{cite book|author=Herman Bakvis|title=Catholic Power in the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKEcvKSQ0WoC&pg=PA216|year=1981|publisher=McGill-Queens|pages=172–73, 216}}</ref> However, a countervailing trend later appeared as the result of a religious revival in the Protestant [[Bible Belt (Netherlands)|Bible Belt]], and the growth of the Muslim and Hindu communities as a result of immigration and high fertility levels.<ref>Hans Knippenberg, "Secularization in the Netherlands in its historical and geographical dimensions," ''GeoJournal'' (1998) 45#3 pp. 209–20. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/k0658n63j673385u/ online]</ref><ref>Tomáš Sobotka and Feray Adigüzel, "Religiosity and spatial demographic differences in the Netherlands" (2002) [http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115144546/http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/ |date=15 November 2012 }}</ref>
Secularization, or the decline in religiosity, first became noticeable after 1960 in the Protestant rural areas of Friesland and Groningen. Then, it spread to Amsterdam, Rotterdam and the other large cities in the west. Finally the Catholic southern areas showed religious declines. As the social distance between the Calvinists and Catholics narrowed (and they began to intermarry<ref>John Hendrickx, et al. "Religious Assortative Marriage in The Netherlands, 1938–1983," ''Review of Religious Research'' (1991) 33#2 pp. 123–45</ref>), it became possible to merge their parties. The [[Anti-Revolutionary Party]] (ARP) in 1977 merged with the [[Catholic People's Party]] (KVP) and the Protestant [[Christian Historical Union]] (CHU) to form the [[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (CDA).<ref>{{cite book|author=Herman Bakvis|title=Catholic Power in the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKEcvKSQ0WoC&pg=PA216|year=1981|publisher=McGill-Queens|pages=172–73, 216}}</ref> However, a countervailing trend later appeared as the result of a religious revival in the Protestant [[Bible Belt (Netherlands)|Bible Belt]], and the growth of the Muslim and Hindu communities as a result of immigration and high fertility levels.<ref>Hans Knippenberg, "Secularization in the Netherlands in its historical and geographical dimensions," ''GeoJournal'' (1998) 45#3 pp. 209–20. [http://www.springerlink.com/content/k0658n63j673385u/ online]</ref><ref>Tomáš Sobotka and Feray Adigüzel, "Religiosity and spatial demographic differences in the Netherlands" (2002) [http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115144546/http://som.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/ |date=15 November 2012 }}</ref>


After 1982, there was a retrenchment of the welfare system, especially regarding old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, and disability pensions/early retirement benefits.<ref>Christoffer Green-Pedersen, ''The Politics of Justification: Party Competition and Welfare-State Retrenchment in Denmark and the Netherlands from 1982 to 1998'' (Amsterdam University Press, 2002), p.13; [https://www.questia.com/read/109682081/the-politics-of-justification-party-competition-and online]; Green-Pedersen, "The Puzzle of Dutch Welfare State Retrenchment," ''West European Politics'' (2001) 24#3 pp. 135–50</ref>
After 1982, there was a retrenchment of the welfare system, especially regarding old-age pensions, unemployment benefits, and disability pensions/early retirement benefits.<ref>Christoffer Green-Pedersen, ''The Politics of Justification: Party Competition and Welfare-State Retrenchment in Denmark and the Netherlands from 1982 to 1998'' (Lembaga Pers Universitas Amsterdam, 2002), p.13; [https://www.questia.com/read/109682081/the-politics-of-justification-party-competition-and online]; Green-Pedersen, "The Puzzle of Dutch Welfare State Retrenchment," ''West European Politics'' (2001) 24#3 pp. 135–50</ref>


Following the [[Dutch general election, 1994|election of 1994]], in which the Christian democratic [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] lost a considerable portion of its representatives, the [[social liberalism|social-liberal]] [[Democrats 66]] (D66) doubled in size and formed a coalition with the [[labour party (Netherlands)]] (PvdA), and the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD). This [[purple (government)]] coalition marked the first absence of the CDA in government in decades. During the Purple Coalition years, a period lasting until the rise of the populist politician [[Pim Fortuyn]], the government addressed issues previously viewed as taboo under the Christian-influenced cabinet. At this time, the Dutch government introduced unprecedented legislation based on a policy of official tolerance (''gedoogbeleid''). Abortion and [[euthanasia]] were decriminalized, but stricter guidelines were set for their implementation. Drug policy, especially with regard to the regulation of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], was reformed. Prostitution was legalised, but confined to brothels where the health and safety of those involved could be properly monitored. With the 2001 [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-Sex Marriage Act]], the Netherlands became the first country to legalise [[same-sex marriage]]. In addition to social reforms, the Purple Coalition also presided over a period of remarkable economic prosperity.
Following the [[Dutch general election, 1994|election of 1994]], in which the Christian democratic [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] lost a considerable portion of its representatives, the [[social liberalism|social-liberal]] [[Democrats 66]] (D66) doubled in size and formed a coalition with the [[labour party (Netherlands)]] (PvdA), and the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (VVD). This [[purple (government)]] coalition marked the first absence of the CDA in government in decades. During the Purple Coalition years, a period lasting until the rise of the populist politician [[Pim Fortuyn]], the government addressed issues previously viewed as taboo under the Christian-influenced cabinet. At this time, the Dutch government introduced unprecedented legislation based on a policy of official tolerance (''gedoogbeleid''). Abortion and [[euthanasia]] were decriminalized, but stricter guidelines were set for their implementation. Drug policy, especially with regard to the regulation of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], was reformed. Prostitution was legalised, but confined to brothels where the health and safety of those involved could be properly monitored. With the 2001 [[Same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-Sex Marriage Act]], the Netherlands became the first country to legalise [[same-sex marriage]]. In addition to social reforms, the Purple Coalition also presided over a period of remarkable economic prosperity.


===Recent politics===
===Recent politics===
[[File:Wim_Kok_1994.jpg|thumb|[[Wim Kok]] served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 22 August 1994 until 22 July 2002.]]
[[File:Wim_Kok_1994.jpg|thumb|[[Wim Kok]] served as Prime Minister of the Netherlands from 22 August 1994 until 22 Juli 2002.]]


In the 1998 election the [[First cabinet of Wim Kok|Purple Coalition]] consisting of Social Democrats, and left and right wing Liberals, increased its majority. Both the social-democratic PvdA and the conservative liberal VVD grew at the cost of their junior partner in cabinet, the progressive liberal D66. The voters rewarded the Purple Coalition for its economic performance, which had included reduction of unemployment and the budget deficit, steady growth and job creation combined with wage freezes and trimming of the welfare state, together with a policy of fiscal restraint.<ref>[http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2231_98.htm Netherlands: Elections held in 1998] Inter-Parliamentary Union</ref> The result was the [[Second cabinet of Wim Kok|second Kok cabinet]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Aarts | first1 = Kees | last2 = Semetko | first2 = Holli A. | author-link1 = Kees Aarts (political scientist) | title = Representation and responsibility: the 1998 Dutch election in perspective | journal = [[Acta Politica]] | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–29 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | date = 1999 | url = http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ap | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref>
In the 1998 election the [[First cabinet of Wim Kok|Purple Coalition]] consisting of Social Democrats, and left and right wing Liberals, increased its majority. Both the social-democratic PvdA and the conservative liberal VVD grew at the cost of their junior partner in cabinet, the progressive liberal D66. The voters rewarded the Purple Coalition for its economic performance, which had included reduction of unemployment and the budget deficit, steady growth and job creation combined with wage freezes and trimming of the welfare state, together with a policy of fiscal restraint.<ref>[http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/arc/2231_98.htm Netherlands: Elections held in 1998] Inter-Parliamentary Union</ref> The result was the [[Second cabinet of Wim Kok|second Kok cabinet]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Aarts | first1 = Kees | last2 = Semetko | first2 = Holli A. | author-link1 = Kees Aarts (political scientist) | title = Representation and responsibility: the 1998 Dutch election in perspective | journal = [[Acta Politica]] | volume = 34 | issue = 2 | pages = 111–29 | publisher = Palgrave Macmillan | date = 1999 | url = http://www.palgrave-journals.com/ap | ref = harv | postscript = .}}</ref>
Baris 944: Baris 957:


Colors =
Colors =
id:orange value:rgb(1,0.5,0) # oranje
id:orange value:rgb(1,0.5,0) # jingga
id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light yellow
id:yellow value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # kuning muda
id:lorange value:rgb(1,0.7,0) # light orange
id:lorange value:rgb(1,0.7,0) # jingga muda
id:black value:black
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Baris 970: Baris 983:
</timeline>
</timeline>


== Sejarawan dan historiografi ==
==Historians and historiography==


===Historians===
=== Sejarawan ===
* Julia Adams, economic and social history<ref>J. Adams. ''The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe''. Ithica: Cornell University Press, 2005</ref>
* Julia Adams, sejarah ekonomi dan sosial<ref>J. Adams. ''The Familial State: Ruling Families and Merchant Capitalism in Early Modern Europe''. Ithica: Lembaga Pers Universitas Cornell, 2005</ref>
* [[Petrus Johannes Blok]], survey<ref>Petrus Johannes Blok. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 vol 1898–1912) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 1 to 1500, online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 2 to 1559. online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 3: The War with Spain 1559-162, online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 part 4 on Golden Age online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 online edition from Google, vol 5 on the 18th and 19th centuries]</ref>
* [[Petrus Johannes Blok]], survei<ref>Petrus Johannes Blok. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 jld. 1898–1912) [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 1 s.d. tahun 1500, tersedia daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 2 s.d. tahun 1559, tersedia daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 3: Perang melawan Spanyol 1559-1562, tersedia daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 bagian 4 mengenai Zaman Keemasan, tersedia daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 edisi daring di Google, bagian 5 mengenai abad ke-18 dan ke-19]</ref>
* [[Hans Blom (historian)|J. C. H. Blom]], survey<ref>J. C. H. Blom, and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006). {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}. 504 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 excerpt and text search]; also [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]</ref>
* [[Hans Blom (historian)|J. C. H. Blom]], survei<ref>J. C. H. Blom, dan E. Lamberts, (penyunting) ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006). {{ISBN|978-1-84545-272-8}}. 504 hlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 excerpt and text search]; also [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132?title=History%20of%20the%20Low%20Countries complete edition online]</ref>
* M. R. Boxell, political history<ref>See Jaap Verheul, Besamusca, Emmeline, and J. Verheul et. all. Discovering the Dutch: on Culture and Society of the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP, 2010. Print.</ref>
* M. R. Boxell, political history<ref>See Jaap Verheul, Besamusca, Emmeline, and J. Verheul et. all. Discovering the Dutch: on Culture and Society of the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam UP, 2010. Print.</ref>
* [[Pieter Geyl]], Dutch revolt; historiography<ref>Pieter Geyl, ''The Revolt of the Netherlands: 1555–1609'' (1958) [https://www.questia.com/read/98720656?title=The%20Revolt%20of%20the%20Netherlands%20(1555-1609) online edition]</ref>
* [[Pieter Geyl]], Dutch revolt; historiography<ref>Pieter Geyl, ''The Revolt of the Netherlands: 1555–1609'' (1958) [https://www.questia.com/read/98720656?title=The%20Revolt%20of%20the%20Netherlands%20(1555-1609) online edition]</ref>
Baris 986: Baris 999:
* [[Jan de Vries (historian)|Jan de Vries]], economic history<ref>See Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth," ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1996), pp. 223–29 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027 in JSTOR]</ref>
* [[Jan de Vries (historian)|Jan de Vries]], economic history<ref>See Arthur van Riel, "Review: Rethinking the Economic History of the Dutch Republic: The Rise and Decline of Economic Modernity Before the Advent of Industrialized Growth," ''The Journal of Economic History,'' Vol. 56, No. 1 (Mar. 1996), pp. 223–29 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2124027 in JSTOR]</ref>


===Historiography===
=== Historiografi ===
The American [[John Lothrop Motley]] was the first foreign historian to write a major history of the Dutch Republic. In 3500 pages he crafted a literary masterpiece that was translated into numerous languages; his dramatic story reached a wide audience in the 19th century. Motley relied heavily on Dutch scholarship and immersed himself in the sources. His style no longer attracts readers, and scholars have moved away from his simplistic dichotomies of good versus evil, Dutch versus Spanish, Catholic versus Protestant, freedom versus authoritarianism. His theory of causation over-emphasized ethnicity as an unchanging characteristic, exaggerated the importance of William of Orange, and gave undue importance to the issue religious tolerance.<ref>Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians," ''New England Quarterly'' (1962) 35#3 pp. 318–36 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363823 in JSTOR]</ref>
[[John Lothrop Motley]] yang berkebangsaan Amerika adalah sejarawan asing pertama yang banyak menulis tentang sejarah Republik Belanda. Dalam 3500 halaman, ia menorehkan sebuah mahakarya sastra yang kala itu diterjemahkan ke dalam berbagai bahasa; kisah dramatisnya menarik minat banyak orang pada abad ke-19. John Lothrop Motley relied heavily on Dutch scholarship and immersed himself in the sources. His style no longer attracts readers, and scholars have moved away from his simplistic dichotomies of good versus evil, Dutch versus Spanish, Catholic versus Protestant, freedom versus authoritarianism. His theory of causation over-emphasized ethnicity as an unchanging characteristic, exaggerated the importance of William of Orange, and gave undue importance to the issue religious tolerance.<ref>Robert Wheaton, "Motley and the Dutch Historians," ''New England Quarterly'' (1962) 35#3 pp. 318–36 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/363823 in JSTOR]</ref>


The pioneering Dutch cultural historian [[Johan Huizinga]] (1872–1945), author of ''The Autumn of the Middle Ages'' (1919) (the English translation was called ''The Waning of the Middle Ages'') and ''Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture'' (1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and influenced the historical anthropology of younger historians of the French [[Annales School]]. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments."<ref>Peter Burke, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" ''History Today'' (Nov 1986) (36): 23–28; William U. Bouwsma, "The ''Waning of the Middle Ages'' by Johan Huizinga." ''Daedalus'' 1974 103(1): 35–43; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History." ''American Historical Review'' (1964) 69#3 pp. 607–30 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1845780 in JSTOR]; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics," ''History and Theory'' (1978) 17#1 pp. 63–93 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2504901 in JSTOR]</ref>
The pioneering Dutch cultural historian [[Johan Huizinga]] (1872–1945), yang menulis buku ''The Autumn of the Middle Ages'' (terbit tahun 1919) dan ''Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play Element in Culture'' (terbit tahun 1935), which expanded the field of cultural history and influenced the historical anthropology of younger historians of the French [[Annales School]]. He was influenced by art history and advised historians to trace "patterns of culture" by studying "themes, figures, motifs, symbols, styles and sentiments."<ref>Peter Burke, "Historians and Their Times: Huizinga, Prophet of 'Blood and Roses.'" ''History Today'' (Nov 1986) (36): 23–28; William U. Bouwsma, "The ''Waning of the Middle Ages'' by Johan Huizinga." ''Daedalus'' 1974 103(1): 35–43; R. L. Colie, "Johan Huizinga and the Task of Cultural History." ''American Historical Review'' (1964) 69#3 pp. 607–30 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1845780 in JSTOR]; Robert Anchor, "History and Play: Johan Huizinga and His Critics," ''History and Theory'' (1978) 17#1 pp. 63–93 [https://www.jstor.org/pss/2504901 in JSTOR]</ref>


The "polder model" continues to strongly influence historians as well as Dutch political discussion. The polder model stresses the need for finding consensus; it discourages furious debate and angry dissent in both academia and politics – in contrast to the highly developed, intense debates in Germany.<ref>Chris Lorenz, "Het 'Academisch Poldermodel' En De Westforschung in Nederland," [The Dutch Academic Polder Model and Westforschung in the Netherlands]. ''Tijdschrift Voor Geschiedenis'' 2005 118(2): 252–70. {{ISSN|0040-7518}}</ref>
The "polder model" continues to strongly influence historians as well as Dutch political discussion. The polder model stresses the need for finding consensus; it discourages furious debate and angry dissent in both academia and politics – in contrast to the highly developed, intense debates in Germany.<ref>Chris Lorenz, "Het 'Academisch Poldermodel' En De Westforschung in Nederland," [The Dutch Academic Polder Model and Westforschung in the Netherlands]. ''Tijdschrift Voor Geschiedenis'' 2005 118(2): 252–70. {{ISSN|0040-7518}}</ref>


The [[H-Net]] list '''H-Low-Countries''' is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the region and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries publishes conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<ref>See [http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/ home page, with discussion logs]</ref> After World War II both research-oriented and teaching-oriented historians have been rethinking their interpretive approaches to Dutch history, balancing traditional memories and modern scholarship.<ref>Alexander Albicher, "A forced but passionate marriage: The changing relationship between past and present in Dutch history education 1945-1979," ''Paedagogica Historica'' (2012) 48#6 pp 840–58</ref> In terms of popular history, there has been an effort to ensure greater historical accuracy in museums and historic tourist sites.<ref>Susan Broomhall, and Jennifer Spinks, "Interpreting place and past in narratives of Dutch heritage tourism," ''Rethinking History'' (2010) 14#2 pp 267–85.</ref>
The [[H-Net]] list '''H-Low-Countries''' is published free by email and is edited by scholars. Its occasional messages serve an international community with diverse methodological approaches, archival experiences, teaching styles, and intellectual traditions, promotes discussion relevant to the region and to the different national histories in particular, with an emphasis on the Netherlands. H-Low-Countries publishes conference announcements, questions and discussions; reviews of books, journals, and articles; and tables of contents of journals on the history of the Low Countries (in both Dutch and English).<ref>See [http://www.h-net.org/~lowc/ home page, with discussion logs]</ref> Sesudah Perang Dunia II, baik sejarawan yang berorientasi penelitian maupun sejarawan yang berorientasi mengajar telah memikirkan kembali pendekaran-pendekatan interpretif mereka terhadap sejarah bangsa Belanda, menyeimbangkan antara ingatan-ingatan tradisional dan keilmuan modern.<ref>Alexander Albicher, "A forced but passionate marriage: The changing relationship between past and present in Dutch history education 1945-1979," ''Paedagogica Historica'' (2012) 48#6 pp 840–58</ref> In terms of popular history, there has been an effort to ensure greater historical accuracy in museums and historic tourist sites.<ref>Susan Broomhall, and Jennifer Spinks, "Interpreting place and past in narratives of Dutch heritage tourism," ''Rethinking History'' (2010) 14#2 pp 267–85.</ref>


Once heralded as the leading event of modern Dutch history, the [[Dutch Revolt]] lasted from 1568 to 1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major debates among scholars regarding the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While agreeing that the intellectual milieus of late 19th and 20th centuries affected historians' interpretations, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Europe. In recent decades grand theory has fallen out of favor among most scholars, who emphasize the particular over the general. Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 no longer says the revolt was the culmination of an inevitable process leading to independence and freedom. Instead scholars have put the political and economic details of the towns and provinces under the microscope, while agreeing on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most influential new studies have been rooted in demographic and economic history, though scholars continue to debate the relationship between economics and politics. The religious dimension has been viewed in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Calvinism, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<ref>Laura Cruz, "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective." ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914–34.</ref>
Once heralded as the leading event of sejarah Belanda modern, [[Pemberontakan Belanda|pemberontakan rakyat Belanda]] berlangsung sejak 1568 sampai 1648, and historians have worked to interpret it for even longer. Cruz (2007) explains the major debates among scholars regarding the Dutch bid for independence from Spanish rule. While agreeing that the intellectual milieus of late 19th and 20th centuries affected historians' interpretations, Cruz argues that writings about the revolt trace changing perceptions of the role played by small countries in the history of Europe. In recent decades grand theory has fallen out of favor among most scholars, who emphasize the particular over the general. Dutch and Belgian historiography since 1945 no longer says the revolt was the culmination of an inevitable process leading to independence and freedom. Instead scholars have put the political and economic details of the towns and provinces under the microscope, while agreeing on the weaknesses of attempts at centralization by the Habsburg rulers. The most influential new studies have been berakar dalam sejarah demografi dan ekonomi, though scholars continue to debate the relationship between economics and politics. The religious dimension has been viewed in terms of mentalities, exposing the minority position of Kalvinisme, while the international aspects have been studied more seriously by foreign historians than by the Dutch themselves.<ref>Laura Cruz, "The 80 Years' Question: the Dutch Revolt in Historical Perspective." ''History Compass'' 2007 5(3): 914–34.</ref>


[[Pieter Geyl]] was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the University of London (1919–1935) and at the State University of Utrecht (1936–58). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<ref>Three volumes appeared in English translation, ''The Revolit of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (1932); and ''The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century'' (2 vol 1936, 1964).</ref> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th-century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547–1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the [[world history]] approach of [[Arnold J. Toynbee]].<ref>Herbert H. Rowen, "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1965 37(1): 35–49. {{ISSN|0022-2801}} [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563 in Jstor]</ref>
[[Pieter Geyl]] was the leading historian of the Dutch Revolt, and a highly influential professor at the Universitas London (1919–1935) and at the State Universitas Utrecht (1936–58). He wrote a six-volume history of the Dutch-speaking peoples.<ref>Three volumes appeared in English translation, ''The Revolit of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (1932); and ''The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century'' (2 vol 1936, 1964).</ref> The Nazis imprisoned him in World War II. In his political views, Geyl adopted the views of the 17th-century Dutch Louvestein faction, led by Johan van Oldenbarneveldt (1547–1619) and Johan de Witt (1625–72). It stood for liberty, toleration, and national interests in contrast to the Orange stadholders who sought to promote their own self-interest. According to Geyl, the Dutch Republic reached the peak of its powers during the 17th century. He was also a staunch nationalist and suggested that Flanders could split off from Belgium and join the Netherlands. Later he decried what he called radical nationalism and stressed more the vitality of Western Civilization. Geyl was highly critical of the [[world history]] approach of [[Arnold J. Toynbee]].<ref>Herbert H. Rowen, "The Historical Work of Pieter Geyl." ''Journal of Modern History'' 1965 37(1): 35–49. {{ISSN|0022-2801}} [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1874563 in Jstor]</ref>


[[Jan Romein]] (1893-1962) created a "theoretical history" in an attempt to reestablish the relevance of history to public life in the 1930s at a time of immense political uncertainty and cultural crisis, when Romein thought that history had become too inward-looking and isolated from other disciplines. Romein, a Marxist, wanted history to contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Frederick John Teggart]], and others, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the university level after the war. Romein used the term integral history as a substitute for cultural history and focused his attention on the period around the turn of the century. He concluded that a serious crisis occurred in European civilization in 1900 because of the rise of anti-Semitism, extreme nationalism, discontent with the parliamentary system, depersonalization of the state, and the rejection of positivism. European civilization waned as the result of this crisis which was accompanied by the rise of the United States, the Americanization of the world, and the emergence of Asia. His interpretation is reminiscent of that of his mentor Johan Huizinga and was criticized by his colleague Pieter Geyl.<ref>A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [Theory and Practice in the "Theoretical History" of Jan Romein]. ''Theoretische Geschiedenis'' 1994 21(3): 257–70. {{ISSN|0167-8310}}; P. Blaas, "An Attempt at Integral History." ''Acta Historiae Neerlandica'' 1971 (5): 271–315. {{ISSN|0065-129X}}</ref>
[[Jan Romein]] (1893-1962) menciptakan sebuah "sejarah teoritis" dalam rangka menegakkan kembali relevansi sejarah dengan kehidupan masyarakat pada era 1930-an yang kala itu hidup dalam suasana penuh ketidakpastian politik dan mengalami krisis budaya, manakala Romein berpikir bahwa sejarah sudah menjadi terlampau asyik dengan diri sendiri dan terkucil dari bidang-bidang keilmuan lain. Romein, a Marxist, wanted history to contribute to social improvement. At the same time, influenced by the successes of theoretical physics and his study of [[Oswald Spengler]], [[Arnold J. Toynbee]], [[Frederick John Teggart]], dan lain-lain, he spurred on the development of theoretical history in the Netherlands, to the point where it became a subject in its own right at the universitas level after the war. Romein used the term integral history as a substitute for cultural history and focused his attention on the period around the turn of the century. He concluded that a serious crisis occurred in European civilization in 1900 because of the rise of anti-Semitisme, nasionalisme ekstrim, ketidakpuasan terhadap sistem parlementer, depersonalisasi negara, dan penolakan terhadap positivisme. Peradaban Eropa meredup sebagai akibat dari krisis ini seiring dengan bangkitnya Amerika Serikat, Amerikanisasi dunia, dan kebangkitan Asia. Tafsirnya mengingatkan orang pada tafsir mentornya, Johan Huizinga, dan menuai kritikan dari koleganya, Pieter Geyl.<ref>A. C. Otto, "Theorie En Praktijk in De Theoretische Geschiedenis Van Jan Romein" [Teori dan Praktik dalam "Sejarah Teoritis" oleh Jan Romein]. ''Theoretische Geschiedenis'' 1994 21(3): 257–70. {{ISSN|0167-8310}}; P. Blaas, "An Attempt at Integral History." ''Acta Historiae Neerlandica'' 1971 (5): 271–315. {{ISSN|0065-129X}}</ref>-->


==See also==
== Lihat pula ==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Belanda pada Perang Dunia II|Negeri Belanda pada Perang Dunia II]]
*[[Canon of Dutch History]]
* [[Daftar Kepala Monarki Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Culture of the Netherlands]]
* [[Daftar Perdana Menteri Belanda|Daftar Perdana Menteri Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Demographics of the Netherlands]]
* [[Demografi Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Dutch diaspora]]
*[[Dutch East Indies]]
* [[Geografi Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Dutch Empire]]
* [[Hindia Belanda]]
* [[Imperium Belanda]]
*[[Economy of the Netherlands]]
* [[Kanon Sejarah Negeri Belanda]]
*[[Geography of the Netherlands]]
*[[History of Belgium]]
* [[Kebudayaan Negeri Belanda]]
* [[Politik Belanda]]
*[[History of religion in the Netherlands]]
* [[Provinsi-provinsi di Negeri Belanda]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of Germany]]
* [[Sejarah Belgia]]
*[[History of Luxembourg]]
* [[Sejarah Jerman]]
* [[Sejarah Luksemburg]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of the Netherlands]]
* [[Sejarah maritim Belanda]]
*[[List of monarchs of the Netherlands]]
*[[Politics of the Netherlands]]
*[[Provinces of the Netherlands]]
*[[Netherlands in World War II]]
{{div col end}}
{{div col end}}


==Notes==
== Rujukan ==
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{{Reflist|33em}}
{{Reflist|33em}}


== Bahan bacaan lanjutan ==
==Further reading==
See also: {{Interlanguage link multi|Bibliography of the history of the Netherlands|nl|3=Bibliografie van de geschiedenis der Nederlanden}}
Lihat pula: {{Interlanguage link multi|Kepustakaan sejarah Belanda|nl|3=Bibliografie van de geschiedenis der Nederlanden}}
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries''. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|1-4039-4828-3}}.
* Arblaster, Paul. ''A History of the Low Countries''. Palgrave Essential Histories Series New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006. 298 pp.&nbsp;{{ISBN|1-4039-4828-3}}.
* Barnouw, A. J. ''The Making of Modern Holland: A Short History'' (Allen & Unwin, 1948) [https://www.questia.com/library/104575060/the-making-of-modern-holland-a-short-history online edition]
* Barnouw, A. J. ''The Making of Modern Holland: A Short History'' (Allen & Unwin, 1948) [https://www.questia.com/library/104575060/the-making-of-modern-holland-a-short-history edisi daring]
* Blok, Petrus Johannes. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 vol 1898–1912) famous classic; [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 1 to 1500, online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 2 to 1559. online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 part 3: The War with Spain 1559–1621, online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 part 4 on Golden Age online from Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 online edition from Google, vol 5 on the 18th and 19th centuries]
* Blok, Petrus Johannes. ''History of the People of the Netherlands'' (5 jilid 1898–1912) karya klasik ternama; [https://books.google.com/books?id=s8kOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 1 sampai tahun 1500, daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=0coOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 2 sampai tahun 1559, daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=NH8SAAAAYAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 bagian 3: Perang Melawan Spanyol 1559–1621, daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=PckOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editions:0sw5yfkxR-fObZWwVX#PPP12,M1 bagian 4 mengenai Zaman Keemasan, daring di Google]; [https://books.google.com/books?id=gf8bAAAAMAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=intitle:Netherlands+inauthor:blok&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0&source=gbs_toc_s&cad=1 edisi daring di Google, bagian 5 mengenai abad ke-18 dan ke-19]
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, eds. ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 excerpt and text search]; also [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132 complete edition online]
* Blom, J. C. H. and E. Lamberts, (penyunting) ''History of the Low Countries'' (2006) 504 hlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1845452720 pencarian kutipan dan teks]; serta [https://www.questia.com/read/1379132 edisi daring lengkap]
* van der Burg, Martijn. "Transforming the Dutch Republic into the Kingdom of Holland: the Netherlands between Republicanism and Monarchy (1795-1815)," ''European Review of History'' (2010) 17#2, pp.&nbsp;151–70 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie42eqLtaashd%2ff7Ebj3u2L8ra2R7GlsEivqJ5Jr7CyTLiotTjOw6SM8Nfsi9%2fZ8oHt5Od8u6yxTrKptEyxrKSE3%2bTlVePkpHzgs%2baB35zyeeWzv2ak1%2bxVsq%2buULSmsE6k3O2K69fyVe7a5F7z4ups4%2b7y&hid=113 online]
* van der Burg, Martijn. "Transforming the Dutch Republic into the Kingdom of Holland: the Netherlands between Republicanism and Monarchy (1795-1815)," ''European Review of History'' (2010) 17#2, hlmn.&nbsp;151–170 [http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie42eqLtaashd%2ff7Ebj3u2L8ra2R7GlsEivqJ5Jr7CyTLiotTjOw6SM8Nfsi9%2fZ8oHt5Od8u6yxTrKptEyxrKSE3%2bTlVePkpHzgs%2baB35zyeeWzv2ak1%2bxVsq%2buULSmsE6k3O2K69fyVe7a5F7z4ups4%2b7y&hid=113 daring]
*{{Cite book|author1=Frijhoff, Willem |author2=Marijke Spies|title=Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1950, prosperity and welfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZfvCVndvXoC|year=2004|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Gorcum}}
* {{Cite book|author1=Frijhoff, Willem |author2=Marijke Spies|title=Dutch Culture in a European Perspective: 1950, prosperity and welfare|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZfvCVndvXoC|year=2004|publisher=Uitgeverij Van Gorcum}}
* Geyl, Pieter. ''The Revolt of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (Barnes & Noble, 1958) [https://www.questia.com/library/98720632/the-revolt-of-the-netherlands-1555-1609 online edition], famous classic
* Geyl, Pieter. ''The Revolt of the Netherlands (1555–1609)'' (Barnes & Noble, 1958) [https://www.questia.com/library/98720632/the-revolt-of-the-netherlands-1555-1609 edisi daring], karya klasik ternama
* Van Hoesel, Roger, and Rajneesh Narula. ''Multinational Enterprises from the Netherlands'' (1999) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220624/https://www.questia.com/read/103819399/multinational-enterprises-from-the-netherlands online edition]
* Van Hoesel, Roger, dan Rajneesh Narula. ''Multinational Enterprises from the Netherlands'' (1999) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220624/https://www.questia.com/read/103819399/multinational-enterprises-from-the-netherlands edisi daring]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264 pp. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313306583 excerpt and text search]
* Hooker, Mark T. ''The History of Holland'' (1999) 264 hlmn. [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0313306583 pencarian kutipan dan teks]
* [[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]]. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) a major synthesis; [https://www.questia.com/read/91981119 complete online edition]; also [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198207344 excerpt and text search]
* [[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]]. ''The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806'' (1995) sebuah sintesis utama; [https://www.questia.com/read/91981119 edisi daring lengkap]; serta [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0198207344 pencarian kutipan dan teks]
* Koopmans, Joop W., and Arend H. Huussen Jr. ''Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands'' (2nd ed. 2007)[https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Netherlands-Dictionaries-Europe/dp/0810856271/ excerpt and text search]
* Koopmans, Joop W., dan Arend H. Huussen Jr. ''Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands'' (edisi ke-2, 2007)[https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionary-Netherlands-Dictionaries-Europe/dp/0810856271/ pencarian kutipan dan teks]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978), detailed survey; [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/koss002lage01_01/ full text online in Dutch (use CHROME browser for automatic translation to English)]
* Kossmann, E. H. ''The Low Countries 1780–1940'' (1978), survei terperinci; [http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/koss002lage01_01/ teks lengkap daring dalam bahasa Belanda (gunakan peramban CHROME untuk terjemahan otomatis ke dalam bahasa Inggris)]
* Kossmann-Putto, J. A. and E. H. Kossmann. ''The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands'' (1987)
* Kossmann-Putto, J. A. dan E. H. Kossmann. ''The Low Countries: History of the Northern and Southern Netherlands'' (1987)
* Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. ''The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780-1870'' (2nd ed. 1979), 552 pp.
* Milward, Alan S. dan S. B. Saul. ''The Economic Development of Continental Europe 1780-1870'' (edisi ke-2, 1979), 552 hlmn.
* Milward, Alan S. and S. B. Saul. ''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914'' (1977) pp.&nbsp;142–214
* Milward, Alan S. dan S. B. Saul. ''The Development of the Economies of Continental Europe: 1850-1914'' (1977) hlmn.&nbsp;142–214
* Moore, Bob, and Henk Van Nierop. ''Twentieth-Century Mass Society in Britain and the Netherlands'' (Berg 2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/118217447/twentieth-century-mass-society-in-britain-and-the online edition]
* Moore, Bob, dan Henk Van Nierop. ''Twentieth-Century Mass Society in Britain and the Netherlands'' (Berg 2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/118217447/twentieth-century-mass-society-in-britain-and-the edisi daring]
* van Oostrom, Frits, and Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* van Oostrom, Frits, dan Hubert Slings. ''A Key to Dutch History'' (2007)
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 pp. history of towns in the Low Countries [https://www.questia.com/read/1276323 online free]
* Pirenne, Henri. ''Belgian Democracy, Its Early History'' (1910, 1915) 250 hlmn. sejarah kota-kota di Negeri-Negeri Ranah [https://www.questia.com/read/1276323 daring cuma-cuma]
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. 5th ed. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. {{ISBN|90-6109-440-2}}
* Rietbergen, P.J.A.N. ''A Short History of the Netherlands. From Prehistory to the Present Day''. Edisi ke-5. Amersfoort: Bekking, 2002. {{ISBN|90-6109-440-2}}
*[[Simon Schama|Schama, Simon]], ''[[The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age]]'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0679781242 excerpt and text search], very well written broad survey
* [[Simon Schama|Schama, Simon]], ''[[The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age]]'' (1991) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/0679781242 pencarian kutipan dan teks], survei dengan cakupan yang luas dan ditulis dengan sangat baik
* Schama, Simon. ''Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780– 1813'' (London: Collins, 1977)
* Schama, Simon. ''Patriots and Liberators: Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780– 1813'' (London: Collins, 1977)
* Treasure, Geoffrey. ''The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780'' (3rd ed. 2003). pp 463–93.
* Treasure, Geoffrey. ''The Making of Modern Europe, 1648–1780'' (edisi ke-3, 2003). hlmn. 463–493.
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 pp. [https://www.questia.com/read/82243176 online edition]
* Vlekke, Bernard H. M. ''Evolution of the Dutch Nation'' (1945) 382 hlmn. [https://www.questia.com/read/82243176 edisi daring]
* Wintle, Michael P. ''An Economic and Social History of the Netherlands, 1800–1920: Demographic, Economic, and Social Transition'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105016141 online edition]
* Wintle, Michael P. ''An Economic and Social History of the Netherlands, 1800–1920: Demographic, Economic, and Social Transition'' (Lembaga Pers Universitas Cambridge, 2000) [https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=105016141 edisi daring]
*Van Tuyll Van Serooskerken, Hubert P. '' The Netherlands and World War I: Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival'' (Brill 2001) [https://www.questia.com/read/118479769/the-netherlands-and-world-war-i-espionage-diplomacy online edition]
* Van Tuyll Van Serooskerken, Hubert P. '' The Netherlands and World War I: Espionage, Diplomacy and Survival'' (Brill 2001) [https://www.questia.com/read/118479769/the-netherlands-and-world-war-i-espionage-diplomacy edisi daring]
* Vries, Jan de, and A. van der Woude. ''The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815'' (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
* Vries, Jan de, dan A. van der Woude. ''The First Modern Economy. Success, Failure, and Perseverance of the Dutch Economy, 1500–1815'' (Lembaga Pers Universitas Cambridge, 1997)
* Vries, Jan de. "Benelux, 1920–1970," in C. M. Cipolla, ed. ''The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One'' (1976) pp.&nbsp;1–71
* Vries, Jan de. "Benelux, 1920–1970," dalam C. M. Cipolla (penyunting), ''The Fontana Economic History of Europe: Contemporary Economics Part One'' (1976) hlmn.&nbsp;1–71
* van Zanden, J. L. ''The Economic History of The Netherlands 1914–1995: A Small Open Economy in the 'Long' Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-History-Netherlands-1914-1995-Contemporary/dp/0415150035/ excerpt and text search]
* van Zanden, J. L. ''The Economic History of The Netherlands 1914–1995: A Small Open Economy in the 'Long' Twentieth Century'' (Routledge, 1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Economic-History-Netherlands-1914-1995-Contemporary/dp/0415150035/ pencarian kutipan dan teks]
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''Dutch Foreign Policy since 1815'' (1959). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kgbsCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dutch+intitle:Foreign+intitle:Policy+intitle:since+intitle:1815&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwih-are3KHZAhVCxWMKHXstDboQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false online]; [https://www.questia.com/library/3392771/dutch-foreign-policy-since-1815-a-study-in-small full text at Questia]
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''Dutch Foreign Policy since 1815'' (1959). [https://books.google.com/books?id=kgbsCAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Dutch+intitle:Foreign+intitle:Policy+intitle:since+intitle:1815&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwih-are3KHZAhVCxWMKHXstDboQ6AEIKTAA#v=onepage&q&f=false daring]; [https://www.questia.com/library/3392771/dutch-foreign-policy-since-1815-a-study-in-small teks lengkap di situs web Questia]
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''The neutrality of the Netherlands during the world war'' (1927).
* Vandenbosch, Amry. ''The neutrality of the Netherlands during the world war'' (1927).
* Wielenga, Friso. ''A History of the Netherlands: From the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day'' (2015) 344 pp
* Wielenga, Friso. ''A History of the Netherlands: From the Sixteenth Century to the Present Day'' (2015) 344 hlmn.

{{refend}}
{{refend}}


=== Geografi dan lingkungan hidup ===
===Geography and environment===
{{refbegin}}
{{refbegin}}
* Burke, Gerald L. ''The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries'' (1960)
* Burke, Gerald L. ''The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries'' (1960)
* Lambert, Audrey M. ''The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands'' (1985); focus on the history of land reclamation
* Lambert, Audrey M. ''The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands'' (1985); berfokus pada sejarah reklamasi daratan
* Meijer, Henk. ''Compact geography of The Netherlands'' (1985)
* Meijer, Henk. ''Compact geography of The Netherlands'' (1985)
* Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. ''Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg'' (1975) [https://www.questia.com/read/85882918/benelux-an-economic-geography-of-belgium-the-netherlands online]
* Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. ''Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg'' (1975) [https://www.questia.com/read/85882918/benelux-an-economic-geography-of-belgium-the-netherlands daring]
{{refend}}-->
{{refend}}


== Pranala luar ==
== Pranala luar ==
{{Commons category|History of the Netherlands|Sejarah Belanda}}
{{Commons category|History of the Netherlands|Sejarah Negeri Belanda}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041013072113/http://www.20eeuwennederland.nl/periodes ''Chronologisch overzicht van de Nederlandse geschiedenis'' (Ikhtisar Knonologis Sejarah Belanda)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041013072113/http://www.20eeuwennederland.nl/periodes ''Chronologisch overzicht van de Nederlandse geschiedenis'' (Ikhtisar Knonologis Sejarah Negeri Belanda)]
* [http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/default.htm ''De Tachtigjarige Oorlog'' (Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun)]
* [http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/default.htm ''De Tachtigjarige Oorlog'' (Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun)]
* [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/dtc/ ''Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies''], sebuah jurnal lintas ilmu
* [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maney/dtc/ ''Dutch Crossing: Journal of Low Countries Studies''], jurnal lintas keilmuan
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14971 Sejarah Holland, George Edmundson, 1922, Project Gutenberg EBook.]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14971 Sejarah Holland, George Edmundson, 1922, buku elektronik Project Gutenberg.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120926161214/http://www.innl.nl/page/14332/en Sejarah Belanda dari 50 SM sampai 2005]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120926161214/http://www.innl.nl/page/14332/en Sejarah Negeri Belanda dari tahun 50 SM sampai tahun 2005]
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_the_Netherlands:_Primary_Documents Sejarah Belanda: Dokumen-Dokumen Primer]
* [http://eudocs.lib.byu.edu/index.php/History_of_the_Netherlands:_Primary_Documents Sejarah Negeri Belanda: Dokumen-Dokumen Primer]
* [http://www.niod.nl/ Institut Belanda untuk Dokumentasi Perang]
* [http://www.niod.nl/ Institut Negeri Belanda untuk Dokumentasi Perang]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/country/netherlands.html Belanda: Peta, Sejarah, Geografi, Pemerintahan, Budaya, Fakta, Panduan Wisata dan Perjalanan &#124; Infoplease.com]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/country/netherlands.html Belanda: Peta, Sejarah, Geografi, Pemerintahan, Budaya, Fakta, Panduan Wisata dan Perjalanan &#124; Infoplease.com]
* [http://www.historical-novel.com/ Ikhtisar novel-novel sejarah tentang Belanda dan Belgia]
* [http://www.historical-novel.com/ Ikhtisar novel-novel sejarah tentang Negeri Belanda dan Belgia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208142100/http://historical-novel.com/ |date=2011-02-08 }}
* [http://home.zonnet.nl/van.duijvenbode/en/geschnl-o.htm Survei singkat mengenai sejarah Belanda]
* [http://home.zonnet.nl/van.duijvenbode/en/geschnl-o.htm Survei singkat mengenai sejarah Negeri Belanda]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090612225030/http://www.entoen.nu/default.aspx?lan=e Kanon Belanda]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090612225030/http://www.entoen.nu/default.aspx?lan=e Kanon Sejarah Negeri Belanda]
* [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/index2.html Belanda pada Zaman Prasejarah]
* [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/index2.html Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Prasejarah]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1043528.stm Lini masa sejak 1914]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1043528.stm Lini masa Negeri Belanda mulai tahun 1914]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=701881&Searchpage=1&Main=701881&Words=dutch+history&topic=&Search=true#Post701881 Tur Virtual Sejarah Belanda (101 situs di Google Earth dengan tautan)]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=701881&Searchpage=1&Main=701881&Words=dutch+history&topic=&Search=true#Post701881 Tur Virtual Sejarah Negeri Belanda (101 situs di Google Earth dengan tautan)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930024040/http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=EarthHistory&Number=701881&Searchpage=1&Main=701881&Words=dutch+history&topic=&Search=true#Post701881 |date=2007-09-30 }}
* [http://nlgis.nl Sistem Informasi Geografi Belanda (1812–1997) ]
* [http://nlgis.nl Sistem Informasi Geografi Negeri Belanda (1812–1997) ]


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{{History of Europe}}
{{Sejarah Eropa}}
{{Sejarah Eropa menurut negara}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Sejarah Belanda}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sejarah Belanda}}

Revisi terkini sejak 2 Agustus 2024 22.15

Sejarah Negeri Belanda adalah sejarah bangsa maritim yang tumbuh dan berkembang di daerah tanah rendah delta sungai yang bermuara ke Laut Utara di kawasan barat laut benua Eropa. Catatan sejarah Negeri Belanda bermula dengan kurun waktu empat abad manakala daerah ini menjadi perbatasan wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi yang dijaga militer. Daerah perbatasan ini kian lama kian terdesak serbuan suku-suku rumpun Jermanik yang berpindah ke arah barat. Seiring runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi dan bermulanya Abad Pertengahan, tiga suku terbesar dari rumpun bangsa Jermanik tampil menguasai daerah ini, yakni orang Frisia di sebelah utara serta kawasan pesisir, orang Saksen Hilir di sebelah timur laut, dan orang Franka di sebelah selatan.

Pada Abad Pertengahan, wangsa Karoling berhasil menguasai daerah ini, dan memperluas wilayah kekuasaan mereka hingga mencakup hampir seluruh kawasan barat Eropa. Negeri Belanda kala itu merupakan bagian dari Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir di dalam wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi Suci yang didirikan dan diperintah orang Franka. Selama beberapa abad, Negeri Belanda terbagi-bagi menjadi sejumlah swapraja feodal, antara lain Brabant, Holland, Zeeland, Friesland, dan Gelre, dengan garis perbatasan yang terus-menerus berubah. Belum ada wilayah kesatuan yang setara dengan wilayah negara Belanda sekarang ini.

Pada 1433, Adipati Burgundia berhasil menguasai seluruh daerah tanah rendah di Kadipaten Lotharingia Hilir, dan mendirikan swapraja Negeri Belanda Burgundia. Wilayah swapraja ini meliputi kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda, Belgia, Luksemburg, dan sebagian Prancis.

Raja-raja Spanyol yang beragama Katolik menindak keras penyebaran agama Kristen Protestan, yang menimbulkan perseteruan antarkelompok masyarakat di dua kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negara Belgia dan daerah Holland di Negeri Belanda. Pemberontakan rakyat Belanda yang berkobar sesudahnya mengakibatkan swapraja Negeri Belanda Burgundia pecah menjadi Negeri Belanda Spanyol dan Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi. Negeri Belanda Spanyol adalah wilayah di sebelah selatan yang warganya memeluk agama Kristen Katolik dan menuturkan bahasa Prancis maupun bahasa Belanda (kurang lebih meliputi wilayah negara Belgia dan negara Luksemburg sekarang ini), sementara Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi adalah wilayah di sebelah utara yang mayoritas warganya beragama Kristen Protestan dan hanya sedikit yang beragama Kristen Katolik penutur bahasa Belanda. Wilayah Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi inilah yang menjadi cikal bakal Negeri Belanda modern.

Pada Zaman Keemasan Negeri Belanda yang mencapai puncaknya sekitar tahun 1667, terjadi perkembangan di bidang usaha dagang, industri, seni rupa, dan ilmu pengetahuan. Negari Belanda berkembang menjadi sebuah imperium makmur yang menguasai koloni-koloni di berbagai pelosok dunia, dan Kongsi Hindia Timur atau Kompeni Belanda muncul sebagai salah satu perusahaan dagang nasional tertua dan terpenting yang berasaskan kewirausahaan dan usaha dagang.

Pada abad ke-18, kedigdayaan dan kemakmuran Negeri Belanda merosot. Negara ini melemah akibat berulang kali berperang melawan negara-negara tetangga yang lebih kuat, yakni Inggris dan Prancis. Kerajaan Inggris merebut Nieuw Amsterdam, koloni Belanda di Amerika Utara, dan mengganti namanya menjadi New York. Kerusuhan dan perseteruan sengit timbul di antara kaum pendukung Willem van Oranje dan kaum Patriot. Revolusi Prancis merembet sampai ke Negeri Belanda selepas tahun 1789, dan bermuara pada pembentukan negara Republik Batavia pada tahun 1795. Napoleon menjadikan Republik Batavia sebagai salah satu negara satelit Prancis dengan nama Kerajaan Holland pada tahun 1806, namun kemudian hari hanya menjadi salah satu provinsi Kekaisaran Prancis.

Setelah rezim Napoleon tumbang pada kurun waktu 1813–1815, berdiri Kerajaan Belanda Serikat dengan wilayah yang diperluas, dan diperintah wangsa Oranje selaku kepala monarki yang juga berdaulat atas Belgia dan Luksemburg. Raja Belanda menerapkan pembaharuan-pembaharuan ala Kristen Protestan secara paksa di Belgia, sehingga rakyat Belgia bangkit memberontak pada tahun 1830, dan akhirnya merdeka pada tahun 1839. Setelah beberapa waktu tunduk pada pemerintah yang berhaluan konservatif, Negeri Belanda menjadi negara demokrasi parlementer yang dikepalai seorang kepala monarki konstitusional berdasarkan konstitusi tahun 1848. Negara Luksemburg modern secara resmi merdeka dari Negeri Belanda pada tahun 1839, namun masih mengakui Raja Belanda sebagai kepala negara sampai dengan tahun 1890. Mulai dari 1890, jabatan kepala negara Luksemburg beralih ke cabang lain dari wangsa Nassau.

Negeri Belanda bersikap netral pada Perang Dunia I, tetapi tetap saja diserbu dan diduduki Jerman Nazi pada Perang Dunia II. Jerman Nazi beserta antek-anteknya menciduk dan membunuh hampir semua warga Yahudi Belanda (yang paling terkenal adalah Anne Frank). Manakala perlawanan rakyat Belanda semakin sengit, Jerman Nazi menghambat pasokan pangan ke daerah-daerah, sehingga menimbulkan bencana kelaparan dahsyat pada kurun waktu 1944–1945. Pada tahun 1942, Hindia Belanda direbut Jepang, tetapi orang-orang Belanda sudah lebih dahulu menghancurkan sumur-sumur minyak yang sangat dibutuhkan Jepang. Indonesia memproklamasikan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1945. Suriname mendapatkan kemerdekaannya pada tahun 1975. Pada tahun-tahun pascaperang, Negeri Belanda mengalami pemulihan ekonomi (berkat penerapan Rencana Marshall yang dicetuskan Amerika Serikat), dan selanjutnya menerapkan konsep negara berkesejahteraan pada kurun waktu yang aman dan makmur. Negeri Belanda membentuk persekutuan baru di bidang ekonomi dengan Belgia dan Luksemburg, yang dinamakan Uni Beneluks. Ketiga negara ini kelak menjadi anggota pendiri Uni Eropa dan NATO. Pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir ini, ekonomi Negeri Belanda telah terjalin rapat dengan ekonomi negara Jerman, dan kini sangat makmur.

Prasejarah (sebelum 800 SM)

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Perubahan-perubahan bersejarah atas bentang alam

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Prasejarah kawasan yang kini menjadi Negeri Belanda lebih banyak dipengaruhi letak geografinya yang rendah dan terus-menerus berubah.

Negeri Belanda pada 5500 SM
Negeri Belanda pada 3850 SM
Negeri Belanda pada 2750 SM
Negeri Belanda pada 500 SM
Negeri Belanda pada 50 M
  Gisik dan gumuk
  Dataran endapan pasir akibat pasang surut, dataran endapan lumpur akibat pasang surut, rawa asin
  Rawa gambut dan daerah lanau dataran banjir
(termasuk alur sungai tua dan celah di tepian sungai yang sudah terisi lanau atau gambut)
  Lembah-lembah sungai utama (tidak tertutup gambut)
  Gumuk sungai (gumuk Pleistosen)
  Perairan terbuka (laut, laguna, sungai)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen (> -6 m dibandingkan dengan NAP)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( -6 m – 0 m)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 0 m – 10 m)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 10 m – 20 m)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 20 m – 50 m)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 50 m – 100 m)
  Bentang alam Pleistosen ( 100 m – 200 m)

Kelompok masyarakat pemburu-peramu tertua (sebelum 5000 SM)

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Arca kecil dari kayu ek setinggi 125 cm (49,2 inci), ditemukan di Willemstad, Negeri Belanda. Diperkirakan dibuat sekitar tahun 4500 SM. Terpajang di Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden.

Kawasan yang kini menjadi Negeri Belanda sudah dihuni manusia purba sekurang-kurangnya pada 37.000 tahun yang lampau, terbukti dari penemuan alat-alat yang terbuat dari batu api di Woerden pada 2010.[1] Pada 2009, sisa-sisa sebuah tengkorak manusia Neanderthal berumur 40.000 tahun ditemukan dalam kegiatan pengerukan pasir dari dasar Laut Utara di perairan lepas pantai Zeeland.[2]

Pada Zaman Es terakhir, Negeri Belanda merupakan daerah beriklim tundra dengan vegetasi yang jarang, dan penduduknya bertahan hidup dengan bermata pencaharian sebagai pemburu-peramu. Selepas Zaman Es, Negeri Belanda didiami pelbagai kelompok masyarakat berkebudayaan Batu Tua. Diketahui bahwa sekitar tahun 8000 SM, sekelompok masyarakat berkebudayaan Batu Madya bermukim di dekat Bergumermeer (Friesland). Sekelompok masyarakat yang bermukim di tempat lain diketahui sudah pandai membuat perahu. Perahu Pesse adalah perahu tertua di dunia yang ditemukan di Negeri Belanda.[3][4] Berdasarkan analisis penentuan umur C14, perahu ini dibuat pada kurun waktu 8200–7600 SM.[4] Perahu Pesse kini terpajang di Museum Drents di Assen.

Masyarakat pribumi pemburu-peramu berkebudayaan Swifterbant terbukti sudah berdiam di Negeri Belanda sejak sekitar 5600 SM.[5] Kebudayaan ini berkaitan erat dengan sungai-sungai dan perairan terbuka serta masih berkerabat dengan kebudayaan Ertebølle (5300–4000 SM) di kawasan selatan Skandinavia. Di kawasan barat Negeri Belanda, suku-suku pengusung kebudayaan yang sama boleh jadi sudah mendirikan pondok-pondok perburuan untuk keperluan berburu selama musim dingin, termasuk berburu anjing laut.

Kedatangan budaya bercocok tanam (sekitar 5000–4000 SM)

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Kepandaian bercocok tanam masuk ke Negeri Belanda sekitar 5000 SM bersama kebudayaan Tembikar Linear, yang mungkin dibawa masyarakat-masyarakat tani dari kawasan tengah Eropa. Kegiatan bercocok tanam hanya dilakukan di dataran tinggi löss (tanah hasil endapan debu yang terbawa angin) di pelosok selatan Negeri Belanda (kawasan selatan Limburg), namun bahkan di tempat itu pun praktik bercocok tanam tidak bertahan lama. Lahan-lahan usaha tani tidak berkembang di semua daerah lain di Negeri Belanda.

Ada pula sejumlah jejak keberadaan permukiman-permukiman kecil yang tersebar di seluruh Negeri Belanda. Para pemukim di negeri ini mulai beternak antara 4800 SM dan 4500 SM. Arkeolog Belanda, Leendert Louwe Kooijmans, menulis bahwa "semakin lama semakin jelas bahwasanya transformasi bercocok tanam dari komunitas-komunitas prasejarah merupakan suatu proses yang sepenuhnya alamiah dan berlangsung sangat lamban."[5] Transformasi ini terjadi seawal-awalnya pada 4300 SM–4000 SM,[6] dan melibatkan pengenalan biji-bijian dalam jumlah kecil ke dalam spektrum perekonomian tradisional yang luas.[7]

Kebudayaan Bejana Corong dan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lainnya (sekitar 4000–3000 SM)

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Hunebed D27, dolmen terbesar di Negeri Belanda, berlokasi di dekat Desa Borger, Provinsi Drenthe.

Kebudayaan Bejana Corong adalah sebuah kebudayaan tani yang berkembang mulai dari Denmark melewati Jerman sampai ke kawasan utara Negeri Belanda. Pada kurun waktu dalam prasejarah Negeri Belanda ini, didirikan peninggalan-peninggalan menonjol yang pertama, yakni dolmen-dolmen, monumen-monumen makam dari batu berukuran besar. Dolmen-dolmen ini ditemukan di Provinsi Drenthe, dan mungkin sekali didirikan antara 4100 SM dan 3200 SM.

Di kawasan barat, kebudayaan Vlaardingen (sekitar 2600 SM), yang tampaknya merupakan sebuah kebudayaan pemburu-peramu yang lebih primitif, terus bertahan hidup sampai memasuki Zaman Batu Muda.

Kebudayaan Gerabah Dawai dan kebudayaan Bejana Genta (sekitar 3000–2000 SM)

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Sekitar 2950 SM, terjadi peralihan dari kebudayaan tani Bejana Corong ke kebudayaan gembala Bejana Dawai, sebuah ruang lingkup arkeologi yang luas muncul di kawasan barat dan tengah Eropa, yang dihubung-hubungkan dengan perkembangan rumpun bahasa India-Eropa. Peralihan ini mungkin sekali merupakan dampak dari perkembangan-perkembangan di kawasan timur Jerman, dan berlangsung dalam dua generasi.[8]

Kebudayaan Bejana Genta juga berkembang di Negeri Belanda.[9][10]

Kebudayaan Bejana Dawai dan kebudayaan Bejana Genta bukanlah kebudayaan asli Negeri Belanda namun pada hakikatnya merupakan kebudayaan-kebudayaan lintas Eropa yang berkembang di hampir seluruh kawasan utara dan tengah Eropa.

Bukti pertama penggunaan roda berasal dari kurun waktu ini, yakni sekitar 2400 SM. Kebudayaan ini juga mulai mencoba-coba mengolah tembaga. Bukti-bukti mengenai perkembangan ini meliputi paron-paron batu, pisau-pisau tembaga, dan sebilah mata tombak tembaga yang ditemukan di Veluwe. Temuan-temuan peralatan tembaga menunjukkan bahwa kala itu sudah ada hubungan dagang dengan kawasan-kawasan lain di Eropa karena tanah Negeri Belanda tidak mengandung tembaga.

Zaman Perunggu (sekitar 2000–800 SM)

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Sarana upacara dari perunggu (bukan pedang, namun disebut "Pedang Jutphaas"), diperkirakan berasal dari 1800–1500 SM dan ditemukan di kawasan selatan Utrecht.

Zaman Perunggu mungkin sekali bermula sekitar 2000 SM dan berakhir sekitar 800 SM. Alat-alat perunggu tertua ditemukan di sebuah makam pribadi dari Zaman Perunggu yang disebut makam "Pandai Logam Wageningen". Lebih banyak lagi benda Zaman Perunggu dari masa-masa yang lebih kemudian telah ditemukan di Epe, Drouwen, dan daerah-daerah lain. Kepingan benda-benda perunggu yang ditemukan di Voorschoten tampaknya disiapkan untuk didaur ulang. Kegiatan daur ulang menunjukkan betapa berharganya perunggu bagi masyarakat Zaman Perunggu. Benda-benda perunggu yang lumrah dari kurun waktu ini meliputi pisau, pedang, kapak, fibula (peniti), dan gelang tangan.

Lokasi kebudayaan Elp dan kebudayaan Hilversum pada Zaman Perunggu.

Sebagian besar benda peninggalan Zaman Perunggu di Negeri Belanda ditemukan di Drenthe. Salah satu jenis dari benda-benda peninggalan ini menunjukkan bahwa jaringan dagang pada kurun waktu ini sudah membentang sampai ke tempat-tempat yang jauh, yakni sejumlah situlae (ember) perunggu berukuran besar hasil temuan di Drenthe yang agaknya dibuat di kawasan timur Prancis atau di Swiss. Benda-benda ini digunakan sebagai wadah untuk mencampur minuman anggur dengan air (adat Romawi/Yunani). Banyaknya barang temuan di Drenthe yang berupa barang-barang langka dan bernilai tinggi, misalnya beberapa untai kalung manik-manik timah, menyiratkan bahwa Drenthe merupakan sebuah pusat dagang di Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Perunggu.

Masyarakat-masyarakat pribumi berkebudayaan Bejana Genta (2700–2100 SM) berkembang menjadi masyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan Bejana Kawat Duri (2100–1800 SM). Pada milenium kedua SM, Negeri Belanda merupakan daerah perbatasan antara kawasan berkebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Atlantik dan kawasan berkebudayaan Zaman Perunggu Nordik, dan terbagi menjadi wilayah utara dan wilayah selatan yang dipisahkan aliran Sungai Rhein.

Di wilayah utara, berkembang kebudayaan Elp (sekitar 1800–800 SM),[11] yakni kebudayaan arkeologi Zaman Perunggu yang ditandai pembuatan tembikar gerabah bermutu rendah yang disebut "Kümmerkeramik" (atau "Grobkeramik"). Tahap permulaan dari kurun waktu perkembangan kebudayaan Elp bercirikan tumuli atau gundukan-gundukan makam (1800–1200 SM) yang berkaitan erat dengan tumuli semasa di kawasan utara Jerman serta Skandinavia, dan tampaknya masih berkerabat dengan kebudayaan Tumulus (1600–1200 SM) di kawasan tengah Eropa. Tahap permulaan ini disusul tahap perkembangan berikutnya yang bercirikan adat penguburan kebudayaan Padang Tempayan atau adat kremasi (1200–800 SM). Wilayah selatan didominasi kebudayaan Hilversum (1800–800 M), yang tampaknya mewarisi keterkaitan budaya dengan Britania dari kebudayaan Bejana Kawat Duri sebelumnya.

Zaman pra-Romawi (800 SM – 58 SM)

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Zaman Besi

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Rekonstruksi tempat tinggal Zaman Besi di Reijntjesveld, dekat Desa Orvelte, Provinsi Drenthe.
Pedang besi lengkung asli dari Vorstengraf, Oss, tersimpan di Rijksmuseum van Oudheden.

Zaman Besi mendatangkan kemakmuran bagi masyarakat yang bermukim di Negeri Belanda. Bijih besi terdapat di seluruh pelosok Negeri Belanda, termasuk besi rawa gambut yang diekstrasi dari bijih di daerah rawa gambut (moeras ijzererts) di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, bola-bola berkandungan besi alami yang ditemukan di Veluwe, dan bijih besi merah dekat sungai-sungai di Brabant. Para pandai logam berkelana dari satu permukiman kecil ke permukiman kecil lainnya dengan membawa serta perunggu dan besi untuk ditempa menjadi alat-alat berdasarkan pesanan, yakni kapak, pisau, jarum peniti, mata panah, dan pedang. Beberapa temuan bahkan menyiratkan bahwa para pandai logam ini sudah pandai pula membuat pedang berbahan baja Damaskus dengan menggunakan metode penempaan yang sudah lebih maju sehingga mampu memadukan kelenturan besi dengan kekuatan baja.

Di Oss, sebuah makam yang diperkirakan berasal dari tahun 500 SM ditemukan di dalam sebuah gundukan makam selebar 52 meter (gundukan makam terbesar di kawasan barat Eropa). Makam yang dijuluki "kubur raja" (Vorstengraf) ini berisi benda-benda yang luar biasa, antara lain sebilah pedang besi bertatahkan emas dan batu koral.

Pada abad-abad menjelang kedatangan bangsa Romawi, wilayah utara yang dahulu dihuni masyarakat berkebudayaan Elp berkembang menjadi masyarakat yang mungkin sekali berkebudayaan Jermanik Harpstedt,[12] sementara wilayah selatan dipengaruhi kebudayaan Hallstatt dan berasimilasi ke dalam kebudayaan Keltik La Tène. Suku-suku rumpun Jermanik yang berpindah ke arah selatan dan barat, serta kebudayaan Hallstatt yang meluas ke arah utara kala itu menarik masyarakat yang bermukim di Negeri Belanda ke dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh mereka.[13] Keadaan ini selaras dengan keterangan dalam catatan Yulius Kaisar bahwasanya Sungai Rhein merupakan batas antara wilayah masyarakat Keltik dan wilayah masyarakat Jermanik.

Kedatangan suku-suku rumpun Jermanik

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Persebaran suku-suku utama dari rumpun Jermanik ca. 1 M.

Suku-suku rumpun Jermanik mula-mula mendiami kawasan selatan Skandinavia, Schleswig-Holstein, dan Hamburg,[14] tetapi masyarakat-masyarakat berkebudayaan Zaman Besi dari kawasan yang sama, seperti masyarakat berkebudayaan Wessenstedt (800–600 SM) dan masyarakat berkebudayaan Jastorf, mungkin pula termasuk dalam kelompok ini.[15] Memburuknya iklim di Skandinavia sekitar 850–760 SM yang semakin pesat sekitar 650 SM mungkin memicu perpindahan suku-suku ini. Bukti-bukti arkeologi menyiratkan bahwa pada sekitar 750 SM, Negeri Belanda sampai ke Vistula dan kawasan selatan Skandinavia didiami masyarakat Jermanik yang relatif seragam.[14] Di kawasan barat Negeri Belanda, dataran-dataran banjir di daerah pesisir untuk pertama kalinya didiami kaum pendatang baru ini, karena daerah-daerah yang lebih tinggi di sekitarnya sudah mengalami pertambahan populasi dan menjadi lahan tandus.[16]

Ketika proses perpindahan ini rampung sekitar 250 SM, terbentuklah kelompok-kelompok budaya dan bahasa.[17][18]

Kelompok pertama, yang diberi nama masyarakat "Jermanik Laut Utara", mendiami kawasan utara Negeri Belanda (daerah di sebelah utara sungai-sungai besar) dan menyebar ke seluruh pesisir Laut Utara sampai ke Jutland. Kelompok ini kadang-kadang disebut pula masyarakat "Ingveon", dan mencakup suku-suku yang kemudian hari berkembang menjadi antara lain orang Frisia purwa dan orang Saksen purwa.[18]

Kelompok kedua, yang oleh para ahli diberi nama masyarakat "Jermanik Weser-Rhein" (atau "Jermanik Rhein-Weser"), tersebar di sepanjang kawasan tengah dari daerah aliran Sungai Rhein serta Sungai Weser, dan mendiami kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (daerah di sebelah selatan sungai-sungai besar). Kelompok ini kadang-kadang disebut pula masyarakat "Istveon", dan terdiri atas suku-suku yang kemudian hari berkembang menjadi suku Franka Sali.[18]

Masyarakat Keltik di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda

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Persebaran diakronik masyarakat Keltik, menunjukkan perluasan wilayah di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda:
  Pusat kebudayaan Hallstatt, pada abad ke-6 SM
  Perluasan wilayah maksimal masyarakat Keltik, pada 275 SM
  Daerah orang Lusitania di Iberia, tempat keberadaan masyarakat Keltik tidak dapat dipastikan
  daerah-daerah tempat bahasa-bahasa Keltik masih dituturkan secara luas sampai sekarang

Kebudayaan Keltik berasal dari kebudayaan Hallstatt (ca. 800–450 SM) di kawasan tengah Eropa, yakni kebudayaan yang meninggalkan jejak berupa benda-benda bekal kubur yang ditemukan di Hallstatt, Austria.[19] Kemudian hari, pada kurun waktu perkembangan kebudayaan La Tène (ca. 450 SM sampai Negeri Belanda ditaklukkan bangsa Romawi), kebudayaan Keltik ini, baik melalui difusi maupun migrasi, menyebar luas sampai ke kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda ini merupakan batas utara dari daerah persebaran orang Galia.

Pada bulan Maret 2005, 17 keping uang logam Keltik ditemukan di Echt, Limburg. Kepingan-kepingan uang perak yang bercampur tembaga dan emas ini diperkirakan berasal dari sekitar tahun 50 SM sampai 20 M. Pada bulan Oktober 2008, harta karun berupa 39 keping uang emas dan 70 keping uang perak Keltik ditemukan di daerah Amby, Maastricht.[20] Kepingan-kepingan uang emas diyakini berasal dari masyarakat Eburones.[21] Benda-benda buatan masyarakat Keltik juga telah ditemukan di daerah Zutphen.[22]

Meskipun harta karun sangat jarang ditemukan, pada beberapa dasawarsa terakhir, sejumlah kepingan uang logam dan benda-benda buatan Keltik lainnya telah ditemukan di seluruh kawasan tengah, timur, dan selatan Negeri Belanda. Menurut para arkeolog, barang-barang temuan ini membuktikan bahwa sekurang-kurangnya daerah Lembah Sungai Maas di Negeri Belanda termasuk dalam ruang lingkup pengaruh kebudayaan La Tène. Para arkeolog Belanda bahkan berspekulasi bahwa Zutphen (yang terletak di kawasan tengah wilayah Negeri Belanda) merupakan daerah permukiman masyarakat Keltik sebelum kedatangan bangsa Romawi, dan sama sekali bukan daerah permukiman masyarakat Jermanik.[22]

Para ahli berbeda pendapat mengenai luas yang sebenarnya dari ruang lingkup pengaruh budaya Keltik.[16][23] Pengaruh budaya Keltik dan kontak-kontak antara kebudayaan Galia dan kebudayaan Jermani perdana di sepanjang Sungai Rhein diduga sebagai sumber dari sejumlah kata serapan dari bahasa Keltik dalam kosakata bahasa proto Jermanik. Namun menurut ahli bahasa berkebangsaan Belgia, Luc van Durme, bukti toponim dari keberadaan masyarakat Keltik di Negeri-Negeri Rendah nyaris tidak ada sama sekali.[24] Meskipun masyarakat Keltik pernah bermukim di Negeri Belanda, inovasi-inovasi Zaman Besi tidak menampakkan pengaruh budaya Keltik yang cukup berarti, dan justru menampakkan hasil pengembangan kebudayaan Zaman Perunggu yang dilakukan masyarakat setempat.[16]

Teori Blok Barat Laut

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Beberapa orang ahli (De Laet, Gysseling, Hachmann, Kossack, dan Kuhn) menduga ada masyarakat lain, bukan Jermanik maupun Keltik, yang mendiami Negeri Belanda sampai dengan Zaman Romawi. Ahli-ahli ini berpandangan bahwa Negeri Belanda pada Zaman Besi adalah bagian dari "Blok Barat Laut" (bahasa Belanda: Noordwestblok) yang membentang mulai dari Sungai Somme sampai ke Sungai Weser.[25][26] Menurut pandangan mereka, peradaban yang memiliki bahasa sendiri ini melebur ke dalam peradaban Keltik yang datang dari arah selatan dan peradaban Jermanik yang datang dari arah timur selambat-lambatnya pada Zaman Pra-Romawi.

Zaman Romawi (57 SM – 410 M)

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Suku-suku pribumi

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Pada masa Perang Galia, wilayah suku-suku Belgi di sebelah selatan Oude Rijn dan di sebelah barat Sungai Rhein ditaklukkan bala tentara Romawi di bawah pimpinan Yulius Kaisar dalam serangkaian aksi militer yang dilancarkan sejak 57 SM sampai 53 SM.[26] Suku-suku yang mendiami Negeri Belanda kala itu tidak meninggalkan keterangan tertulis, sehingga segala informasi mengenai suku-suku ini pada kurun waktu pra-Romawi bersumber dari keterangan yang ditulis orang Yunani dan Romawi mengenai mereka. Salah satu keterangan tertulis semacam ini adalah Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Ulasan Perihal Perang Galia) yang ditulis sendiri oleh Yulius Kaisar. Menurut keterangan Yulius Kaisar, dua suku utama penghuni kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda adalah suku Menapii dan suku Eburones, kedua-duanya bermukin di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda, yakni kawasan yang diperangi Yulius Kaisar. Yulius Kaisar mencetuskan gagasan bahwa Sungai Rhein adalah pembatas alam antara Galia dan Germania Magna. Akan tetapi Sungai Rhein bukanlah garis perbatasan yang kaku, karena Yulius Kaisar juga menerangkan bahwa sebagian wilayah Galia Belgika didiami banyak suku pribumi (termasuk suku Eburones) yang tergolong suku-suku "Germani Cisrhenani" (suku-suku Jermanik seberang sini, suku-suku Jermanik di tepi barat Sungai Rhein) atau campuran berbagai suku bangsa yang berbeda-beda asal-usulnya.

Suku Menapii mendiami wilayah yang membentang dari kawasan selatan Zeeland, melewati Brabant Utara (dan mungkin sekali Holland Selatan), sampai ke kawasan tenggara Gelderland. Pada penghujung Zaman Romawi, wilayah kekuasaan mereka tampaknya terbagi-bagi atau menyusut, sehingga akhirnya hanya meliputi daerah yang kini menjadi kawasan barat negara Belgia.

Suku Eburones, suku terbesar di antara suku-suku Germani Cisrhenani, mendiami wilayah yang luas termasuk sekurang-kurangnya sebagian dari wilayah Limburg Belanda, membentang ke sebelah timur sampai ke Sungai Rhein di Jerman, dan juga ke sebelah barat laut sampai ke kawasan delta, sehingga berbatasan langsung dengan wilayah kekuasaan suku Menapii. Wilayah kekuasaaan kekuasaan suku Eburones mungkin pula membentang sampai ke Gelderland.

Mengenai daerah delta itu sendiri, Yulius Kaisar secara sambil lalu mengulas tentang Insula Batavorum (pulau orang Batavi) di Sungai Rhein, tanpa menjelaskan apa-apa mengenai penghuninya. Kemudian hari, pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi, suku yang bernama Batavi menjadi suku yang penting di daerah ini.[27] Kemudian hari, sejarawan Tacitus mencatat bahwa suku Batavi pada mulanya merupakan salah satu puak suku Chatti, yakni salah satu suku di Jerman yang tidak pernah disebut-sebut Yulius Kaisar.[28] Meskipun demikian, para arkeolog mendapati bukti-bukti adanya peradaban yang berkelanjutan di daerah delta. Oleh karena itu, para arkeolog menduga bahwa mungkin suku Chatti adalah suku kecil yang berpindah ke daerah delta, lalu berbaur dengan masyarakat (mungkin sekali bukan suku rumpun Jermanik) yang sudah lebih dahulu mendiami daerah itu, dan mungkin saja suku Chatti adalah bagian dari suku yang lebih terkenal, misalnya suku Eburones.[29]

Kurun waktu penjajahan Romawi sekitar 450 tahun lamanya menimbulkan perubahan besar di kawasan yang kelak menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda. Seringkali perubahan itu melibatkan konflik berskala besar antara bangsa Romawi dan suku-suku Jermanik merdeka di sepanjang Sungai Rhein.

Suku-suku lain yang pada akhirnya mendiami pulau-pulau di daerah delta pada zaman penjajahan Romawi sebagaimana yang diriwayatkan Plinius Tua adalah orang Kananefati di Holland Selatan, orang Frisi di sebagian besar kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah kedaulatan Negeri Belanda di sebelah utara Oude Rijn; Orang Frisiaboni di kawasan yang membentang mulai dari daerah delta sampai ke sebelah utara Brabant Utara, orang Marsaci di kawasan yang membentang mulai dari pesisir Vlaanderen sampai ke daerah delta, dan orang Sturi.[30]

Yulius Kaisar melaporkan bahwa ia telah membinasakan orang Eburoni, namun sebagai gantinya orang Teksuandri mendiami sebagian besar daerah Brabant Utara, dan daerah yang sekarang menjadi wilayah provinsi Limburgh, yakni kawasan yang dilewati aliran Sungai Maas dan tampaknya pada zaman Kekaisaran Romawi dihuni (dari utara ke selatan) orang orang Betasi, orang Katualini, orang Sunuci, dan orang Tungri (sejarawan Tacitus melaporkan bahwa Tungri adalah nama baru bagi masyarakat yang sebelumnya disebut orang Germani Cisrhenani).

Plinius Tua meriwayatkan bahwa di sebelah utara Alter Rhein, selain orang Frisi, ada pula sejumlah orang Chauci yang bermukim sampai ke daerah delta, dan dua suku lain yang diketahui berasal dari kawasan timur Negeri Belanda, yakni orang Tuihanti (atau orang Tubanti) dari daerah Twenthe di Overijssel, dan orang Kamavi dari Hamaland di kawasan utara Gelderland, salah satu dari suku-suku pertama yang kelak dinamakan orang Franka. Orang Sali, yang juga tergolong orang Franka, mungkin berasal dari daerah Salland di Overijssel, sebelum terpaksa pindah ke wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi akibat rongrongan masyarakat Saksen pada abad ke-4. Mula-mula orang Sali berpindah ke Batavia, kemudian ke Toksandria.

Permukiman-permukiman bangsa Romawi di Negeri Belanda

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Permukiman-Permukiman Bangsa Romawi
Topeng prajurit berkuda Romawi, ditemukan di dekat kota Leiden.
Perbatasan wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi di sekitar Sungai Rhein sekitar tahun 70 M.

Mulai sekitar tahun 15 SM, daerah sekitar Sungai Rhein di Negeri Belanda menjadi daerah pertahanan Limes Germanicus Hilir. Setelah berkali-kali dilanda peperangan, Sungai Rhein akhirnya menjadi garis batas utara wilayah kekuasaan bangsa Romawi di daratan Eropa. Sejumlah kota kecil berdiri dan sejumlah perkembangan berlangsung di sepanjang garis batas ini. Daerah di sebelah selatan garis perbatasan diintegrasikan ke dalam Kekaisaran Romawi. Daerah yang dulunya merupakan wilayah Gallia Belgica ini dijadikan bagian dari provinsi Germania Inferior. The Suku-suku yang sudah lebih dahulu mendiami atau dipindahkan ke daerah ini warga Kekaisaran Romawi. Daerah di sebelah utara Sungai Rhein, yang didiami orang Frisi dan orang Chauci, tetap berada di luar pemerintahan Romawi tetapi kerap didatangi dan dikendalikan bangsa Romawi.

Bangsa Romawi mendirikan benteng-benteng militer di sepanjang Limes Germanicus, berikut sejumlah kota kecil dan permukiman yang lebih kecil lagi di Negeri Belanda. Kota-kota bangsa Romawi yang lebih menonjol berlokasi di Nijmegen (Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum) dan Voorburg (Forum Hadriani).

Mungkin reruntuhan peninggalan bangsa Romawi yang paling menarik adalah puing-puing Brittenburg yang misterius itu, muncul dari balik pasir pantai di Katwijk beberapa abad yang lalu, hanya untuk dikubur kembali. Puing-puing ini merupakan bagian dari Lugdunum Batavorum.

Bekas-bekas permukiman, benteng kuil, dan bangunan-bangunan bangsa Romawi lainnya telah ditemukan di Alphen aan de Rijn (Albaniana), Bodegraven, Cuijk, Elst Overbetuwe, Ermelo, Esch, Heerlen, Houten, Kessel di Brabant Utara, Oss (yakni De Lithse Ham dekat Maren-Kessel), Kesteren di Neder-Betuwe, Leiden (Matilo), Maastricht, Meinerswijk (sekarang bagian dari Arnhem), Tiel, Utrecht (Traiectum), Valkenburg di Holland Selatan (Praetorium Agrippinae), Vechten (Fectio) sekarang bagian dari Bunnik, Velsen, Vleuten, Wijk bij Duurstede (Levefanum), Woerden (Laurium atau Laurum) dan Zwammerdam (Nigrum Pullum).

Pemberontakan orang Batavi

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Sepanjang sejarah Negeri Belanda, teristimewa semasa Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun, orang Batavi diagung-agungkan sebagai pejuang-pejuang gagah berani yang menjadi cikal bakal bangsa Belanda. "Orang Batavi Mengalahkan Bangsa Romawi di Sungai Rhein", ca. 1613, karya Otto van Veen.
Konspirasi Klaudius Sivilis, 1661, karya Rembrandt, menggambarkan peristiwa sumpah setia orang Batavi kepada Gaius Iulius Civilis, pemimpin pemberontakan orang Batavi melawan penjajah Romawi pada tahun 69 M.

Orang Batavi, orang Kananefati, dan suku-suku perbatasan lainnya sangat disegani sebagai prajurit-prajurit tangguh di seluruh wilayah kekaisaran. Menurut tradisi, warga suku-suku ini menjalani masa bakti sebagai prajurit dalam barisan pasukan berkuda Romawi.[31] Budaya daerah perbatasan dipengaruhi bangsa Romawi, suku-suku rumpun Jermanik, dan masyarakat Galia. Pada abad-abad pertama sesudah Galia ditaklukkan bangsa Romawi, usaha dagang tumbuh subur. Peninggalan-peninggalan budaya bendawi bangsa Romawi, Galia, dan Jermanik ditemukan bercampur baur di kawasan ini.

Meskipun demikian, orang Batavi memberontak melawan bangsa Romawi dalam peristiwa Pemberontakan Batavia pada tahun 69 M. Pemimpin pemberontak adalah seorang pribumi Batavi yang bernama Gaius Iulius Civilis. Salah satu penyebab pemberontakan adalah karena pemuda-pemudi Batavia dijadikan budak belian oleh bangsa Romawi. Sejumlah castella Romawi diserang dan dibakar. Prajurit-prajurit Romawi di Xanten dan tempat-tempat lain, serta pasukan-pasukan bantu yang beranggotakan orang Batavi dan orang Kananefati dalam legiun-legiun pimpinan Vitellius turut bergabung dengan kubu pemberontak, sehingga memecah kesatuan bala tentara Romawi yang bertugas di kawasan utara wilayah kekaisaran. Pada bulan April 70 M, beberapa legiun yang dikerahkan Vespasianus di bawah pimpinan Quintus Petillius Cerialis pada akhirnya berhasil mengalahkan orang Batavi dan merundingkan penyerahan diri pemberontak dengan Gaius Iulius Civilis di suatu tempat yang terletak di daerah antara Sungai Waal dan Sungai Maas dekat Noviomagus (Nijmegen), yang mungkin sekali disebut "Batavodurum" oleh orang Batavi.[32] Kemudian hari, orang Batavi berbaur dengan suku-suku lain dan menjadi bagian dari orang Franka Sali.

Para pujangga Belanda pada abad ke-17 dan ke-18 memandang pemberontakan orang Batavi, yang didorong rasa cinta akan kemerdekaan dan dilakukan demi memerdekakan diri sendiri ini, sebagai aksi yang serupa dengan pemberontakan bangsa Belanda melawan bangsa Spanyol dan segala bentuk lain dari tirani. Menurut pandangan nasionalis ini, orang Batavia adalah leluhur "sejati" bangsa Belanda. Pandangan semacam inilah yang menyebabkan nama "Batavia" berulang kali dipergunakan bangsa Belanda. Jakarta dulunya adalah sebuah kota yang diberi nama "Batavia" oleh bangsa Belanda pada tahun 1619. Republik Belanda yang dibentuk pada tahun 1795 berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip revolusioner Prancis disebut Republik Batavia. Bahkan sekarang ini "orang Batavia" merupakan istilah yang kadang-kadang dipakai sebagai sebutan bagi orang Belanda, sama seperti istilah "orang Galia" dijadikan sebutan bagi orang Prancis dan istilah "orang Teuton" dijadikan sebutan bagi orang Jerman.[33]

Munculnya orang Franka

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Peta sebaran orang Franka Sali (hijau) dan Franka Ripuari (merah) pada akhir era Romawi.

Para pengkaji periode migrasi pada Zaman Modern sepakat bahwa identitas orang Franka muncul pada paruh pertama abad ke-3 dari berbagai kelompok-kelompok kecil masyarakat Jermanik yang sudah ada sebelumnya, termasuk orang Sali, orang Sikambri, orang Kamavi, orang Brukteri, orang Kati, orang Katuari, orang Ampsivari, orang Tenkteri, orang Ubi, orang Batavi, dan orang Tungri, yang mendiami bagian hilir dan bagian tengah lembah Sungai Rhein di antara Zuyder Zee dan Sungai Lahn serta membentang ke timur sejauh Weser, tetapi lebih banyak bermukim di sekitar IJssel dan daerah di antara Sungai Lippe dan Sungai Sieg. Konfederasi orang Franka mungkin sekali mulai terbentuk pada era 210-an.[34]

Orang Franka pada akhirnya terbagi menjadi dua kelompok, yakni orang Franka Ripuari (bahasa Latin: Ripuari) yang mendiami daerah tengah lembah Sungai Rhein pada zaman penjajahan Romawi, dan orang Franka Sali yang berasal dari Negeri Belanda.

Orang Franka dicatat sebagai kawan maupun lawan (laeti maupun dediticii) dalam karya-karya tulis Romawi. Sekitar tahun 320, orang Franka berhasil menguasai daerah sekitar Sungai Scheldt (sekarang menjadi daerah Vlaanderen Barat dan kawasan barat daya Negeri Belanda), dan melakukan perompakan di Selat Inggris, menghambat kelancaran angkutan laut menuju Britania. Pasukan-pasukan Romawi dapat mengamankan kawasan itu, tetapi tidak mengusir orang Franka, yang tetap saja ditakuti sebagai gerombolan perompak di sepanjang daerah pesisir setidaknya sampai masa pemerintahan Yulianus Si Murtad (358), yakni masa ketika orang Franka Sali diizinkan menetap di Toksandria sebagai salah satu foederati Kekaisaran Romawi, menurut keterangan Ammianus Marcellinus.[34]

Lenyapnya orang Frisi

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Kawasan sekitar Laut Utara ca. 250-500 M.

Ada tiga faktor yang menyebabkan orang Frisi menghilang dari kawasan utara Negeri Belanda. Yang pertama, menurut Panegyrici Latini (Naskah VIII), orang Frisi kuno dipaksa pindah ke permukiman baru di dalam wilayah Kekaisaran Romawi sebagai laeti (kaum hamba tani Romawi) sekitar tahun 296.[35] Keterangan ini adalah kabar paling akhir mengenai orang Frisi dalam catatan sejarah. Nasib mereka selanjutnya hanya dapat diduga melalui catatan arkeologi. Penemuan sejenis gerabah khas Frisia dari abad ke-4, yang disebut terp Tritzum, menyiratkan bahwa orang-orang Frisi, dalam jumlah yang tidak diketahui, berpindah ke Vlaanderen dan Kent,[36] agaknya sebagai laeti di bawah paksaan bangsa Romawi. Yang kedua, lingkungan daerah pesisir yang rendah di kawasan barat laut Eropa mulai semakin amblas sekitar tahun 250, dan perlahan-lahan terhenti sepanjang 200 tahun berikutnya. Subsidensi tektonik, naiknya permukaan air tanah, dan pusuan ribut mengakibatkan sejumlah daerah terendam transgresi laut. Keadaan ini semakin diperparah perubahan iklim di daerah pesisir sehingga menjadi lebih dingin dan lebih lembap. Andaikata masih ada orang Frisi yang tersisa di daerah pesisir, tentunya mereka punah akibat tenggelam.[37][38][39][40] Yang ketiga, selepas runtuhnya Kekaisaran Romawi, terjadi penurunan jumlah penduduk seiring terhentinya akitivitas bangsa Romawi dan penarikan mundur lembaga-lembaga bangsa Romawi. Sebagai akibat dari ketiga faktor ini, orang Frisi dan orang Frisievoni menghilang dari daerah bekas permukiman asli mereka. Sebagian besar daerah pesisir tetap tidak berpenghuni selama dua abad selanjutnya.[37][38][39][40]

Abad Pertengahan Awal (411–1000)

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Orang Frisia

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Perkiraan kasar persebaran orang Franka dan orang Frisia sekitar tahun 716 M

Seiring membaiknya keadaan iklim, suku-suku rumpun Jermanik sekali lagi beramai-ramai hijrah meninggalkan kampung halaman mereka di sebelah timur menuju tempat-tempat lain. Kurun waktu berlangsungnya migrasi besar-besaran ini dikenal dengan sebutan "Zaman Migrasi" (Volksverhuizingen). Kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dibanjiri kaum pendatang, yakni orang Anglia, orang Yuti, dan terutama orang Saksen. Banyak di antara kaum pendatang ini tidak menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetapi terus bergerak menuju Inggris, dan kini dikenal dengan sebutan orang Anglia-Sachsen. Kaum pendatang yang tidak melanjutkan perjalanan menuju Inggris kelak dikenal dengan sebutan "orang Frisia", sekalipun bukan keturunan orang Frisi. Para warga Frisia yang baru ini menetap di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda, dan menjadi cikal bakal bangsa Frisia modern.[41][42] Orang Frisia maupun orang Anglia-Sachsen terdahulu lahir dari konfederasi-konfederasi kesukuan yang identik, sehingga bahasanya pun sangat mirip. bahasa Frisia Lama berkerabat dekat dengan bahasa Inggris Lama,[43] sehingga dialek-dialek bahasa Frisia modern pun pada gilirannya berkerabat dekat dengan bahasa Inggris modern. Pada akhir abad ke-6, daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda telah meluas sampai ke daerah pesisir Laut Utara, dan meluas sampai ke Dorestad di sebelah selatan pada abad ke-7. Selama kurun waktu ini, sebagian besar kawasan utara Negeri Belanda dikenal dengan sebutan Frisia. Daerah kekuasaan orang Frisia yang sangat luas ini adakalanya juga disebut Frisia Magna atau Frisia Raya.

Dorestad dan jalur-jalur dagang utama

Pada abad ke-7 dan ke-8, daerah ini disebut-sebut dalam catatan sejarah orang Franka sebagai kerajaan orang Frisia. Wilayah kerajaan ini meliputi provinsi-provinsi yang terletak di daerah pesisir Negeri Belanda dan daerah pesisir Laut Utara Jerman. Pada kurun waktu ini, bahasa Frisia dipertuturkan di seluruh kawasan selatan daerah pesisir Laut Utara. Pada abad ke-7, kerajaan orang Frisia (650–734) di bawah pemerintahan Raja Aldegisel dan Raja Redbad berpusat di kota Utrecht.

Dorestad adalah pekan (emporium) terbesar di kawasan barat laut Eropa, yang berkembang di sekitar sebuah bekas benteng Romawi. Pekan ini adalah tempat berdagang yang ramai, tiga kilometer panjangnya, dan terletak di daerah tempat aliran Sungai Rhein dan Sungai Lek berbelok ke sebelah tenggara kota Utrecht, tak jauh dari kota Wijk bij Duurstede modern.[44][45] Sekalipun terletak jauh dari pesisir, Dorestad merupakan pusat dagang di kawasan Laut Utara yang banyak memperjualbelikan barang-barang dari Rheinland Tengah.[45][46] Salah satu barang dagangan utama yang diperjualbelikan di Dorestad adalah minuman anggur, yang agaknya didatangkan dari kebun-kebun anggur di sebelah selatan Mainz.[46] Dorestad juga terkenal karena percetakan uang logamnya. Antara tahun 600 sampai kira-kira tahun 719, Dorestad berulang kali diperebutkan orang Frisia dan orang Franka.

Orang Franka

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Gerak ekspansi orang Franka dari tahun 481 sampai tahun 870 M

Setelah pemerintahan Romawi di kawasan ini runtuh, orang Franka bergerak memperluas daerah kekuasaan mereka sampai sehingga tumbuh banyak kerajaan kecil bentukan orang Franka, terutama di Köln, Doornik, Le Mans, dan Kamerijk.[34][47] Raja-raja Doornik akhirnya menundukkan raja-raja orang Franka lainnya. Pada kurun waktu 490-an, Klovis I berhasil menundukkan dan mempersatukan seluruh daerah kekuasaan orang Franka di sebelah barat Sungai Maas, termasuk kerajaan-kerajaan orang Franka di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda. Klovis kemudian meneruskan aksi penaklukannya ke wilayah Galia.

Setelah Klovis I wafat pada tahun 511, keempat putranya membagi-bagi wilayah kerajaannya. Theuderik I mendapatkan daerah-daerah yang kelak menjadi wilayah Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda). Anak dan cucu Theuderik I berturut-turut memerintah menggantikannya sampai Kerajaan Austrasia dipersatukan dengan kerajaan-kerajaan orang Franka lainnya pada tahun 555 oleh Klothar I, yang menjadi penguasa tunggal atas seluruh wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka pada tahun 558. Klothar I membagi-bagikan wilayah kerajaannya kepada keempat putranya, tetapi keempat wilayah hasil pembagian ini berubah menjadi tiga kerajaan saja sepeninggal Karibert I pada tahun 567. Kerajaan Austrasia (termasuk kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda) diberikan kepada Sigebert I. Kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda seterusnya menjadi bagian dari wilayah Kerajaan Austrasia until sampai pada masa pemerintahan wangsa Karoling.

Orang-orang Franka yang berekspansi sampai ke Galia akhirnya menetap dan mengadopsi bahasa Latin Umum yang dituturkan masyarakat setempat.[18] Meskipun demikian, bahasa Jermanik masih tetap digunakan sebagai bahasa kedua oleh para pejabat publik di kawasan barat Austrasia dan Neustria sampai kurun waktu 850-an. Bahasa Jermanik punah di daerah-daerah ini pada abad ke-10.[48] Pada masa ekspansi ke Galia, banyak puak orang Franka yang tetap tinggal di utara (yakni di kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda, Vlaanderen, dan sebagian kecil kawasan utara Prancis). Muncul kesenjangan budaya yang kian melebar antara masyarakat Franka yang tetap tinggal di utara dan para pemimpin Franka di Galia, yakni di kawasan yang sekarang menjadi wilayah negara Prancis.[47] Orang Franka Sali tetap tinggal di kampung halaman aslinya dan di daerah-daerah tetangga di sebelah selatan serta tetap menuturkan bahasa aslinya, bahasa Franka Lama, yang berkembang menjadi bahasa Belanda Lama pada abad ke-9.[18] Garis batas antara wilayah penutur bahasa Belanda dan wilayah penutur bahasa Prancis akhirnya terbentuk, tetapi mula-mula jauh lebih ke selatan dari letaknya saat ini.[18][47] Di daerah-daerah yang dilewati Sungai Maas dan Sungai Rhein di Negeri Belanda, orang Franka menguasai pusat-pusat politik dan perdagangan, khususnya di Nijmegen dan Maastricht.[47] Orang-orang Franka di daerah ini masih tetap berhubungan dengan orang Frisia di utara, terutama di tempat-tempat seperti Dorestad dan Utrecht.

Keraguan pada Zaman Modern mengenai perbedaan antara orang Frisia, orang Franka, dan orang Saksen

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Santo Wilibrordus, misionaris Anglia-Sachsen dari Northumberland, Rasul Frisia, Uskup Utrecht yang pertama.

Pada akhir abad ke-19, para sejarawan Belanda meyakini bahwa orang Franka, orang Frisia, dan orang Saksen adalah cikal bakal bangsa Belanda. Beberapa sejarawan bahkan melangkah lebih jauh lagi dengan menjabarkan atribut-atribut, nilai-nilai, dan kelebihan-kelebihan tertentu yang konon dimiliki suku-suku bangsa ini, dan mengedepankannya sebagai cerminan pandangan-pandangan kebangsaan dan keagamaan pada abad ke-19. Pada khususnya, diyakini bahwa teori ini menjelaskan mengapa warga Belgia dan kawasan selatan Negeri Belanda (yakni orang Franka) memeluk agama Kristen Katolik, sementara warga kawasan utara Negeri Belanda (orang Frisia dan orang Saksen) memeluk agama Kristen Protestan. Salah satu penyebab kesuksesan teori ini adalah teori-teori antropologi yang didasarkan atas suatu paradigma kesukuan. Karena bersifat inklusif secara politis dan geografis, tetapi menjunjung tinggi keberagaman, teori ini selaras dengan kebutuhan bina bangsa dan integrasi pada kurun waktu 1890–1914. Teori ini diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah Negeri Belanda kala itu.

Meskipun demikian, kerugian-kerugian dari tafsir sejarah ini mulai muncul ke permukaan. Teori berasas kesukuan ini menyiratkan bahwa garis-garis perbatasan eksternal sesungguhnya lemah atau tidak wujud, dan bahwasanya ada garis-garis perbatasan internal yang jelas. Mitos asal usul ini menyajikan sebuah premis historis, teristimewa pada Perang Dunia II, bagi separatisme regional dan aneksasi ke Jerman. Selepas tahun 1945, paradigma kesukuan kehilangan daya pikatnya di kalangan antropolog dan sejarawan. Manakala keakuratan landasan tema tiga-suku dipertanyakan, teori ini pun tidak lagi diminati orang.[33]

Karena langkanya sumber-sumber tertulis, pengetahuan mengenai kurun waktu ini sangat bergantung pada penafsiran data arkeologi. Pandangan tradisional yang menyatakan bahwa ada keterpisahan yang jelas antara orang Frisia di sebelah utara serta daerah pesisir, orang Franka di sebelah selatan, dan orang Saksen di sebelah timur terbukti secara historis bermasalah.[49][50][51] Bukti-bukti arkeologi secara dramatis menunjukkan model-model yang berlainan dari satu daerah ke darah lain, dengan kesinambungan demografi untuk sejumlah kawasan di Negeri Belanda dan depopulasi serta kemungkinan bergantinya populasi di kawasan-kawasan lain, terutama di daerah pesisir Frisia dan Holland.[52]

Kemunculan bahasa Belanda

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Bahasa yang menjadi cikal bakal bahasa belanda Lama (atau bahasa Franken Hilir Barat) dan bahasa Franken Hilir Lama (atau bahasa Franka Lama) tidak diketahui secara pasti, tetapi diduga bahwa bahasa tersebut adalah bahasa yang dituturkan orang Franka Sali. Kendati orang Franka sudah lama digolongkan ke dalam rumpun suku Jermanik Weser-Rhein, bahasa Belanda memiliki sejumlah ciri khas rumpun bahasa Ingvaeonik, dan digolongkan ke dalam rumpun bahasa tersebut oleh ahli-ahli bahasa modern. Bahasa Belanda juga memiliki sejumlah ciri kas bahasa Saksen Lama. Bahasa Belanda Lama, bahasa Saksen Lama, bahasa Inggris Lama, dan bahasa Frisia Lama masih berkerabat dekat. Nyaris tidak ada peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa yang dituturkan orang Franka, dan peninggalan tertulis dalam bahasa Belanda Lama sangat langka serta tidak lagi utuh, sehingga tidak banyak yang dapat diketahui mengenai perkembangan bahasa Belanda Lama. Bahasa Belanda Lama bertransisi menjadi bahasa Belanda Pertengahan sekitar tahun 1150.[18]

Masuknya agama Kristen

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Agama Kristen yang dibawa masuk ke Negeri Belanda oleh bangsa Romawi tampaknya hilang sama sekali (setidaknya di Maastricht) setelah bangsa Romawi hengkang dari Negeri Belanda sekitar tahun 411.[47]

Orang Franka menerima agama Kristen setelah raja mereka, Klovis I, memeluk agama Kristen Katolik pada tahun 496. Agama Kristen masuk ke kawasan utara sesudah orang Franka menaklukkan Friesland. Orang Saksen di kawasan timur sudah memeluk agama Kristen sebelum Sachsen ditaklukkan, dan menjadi sekutu orang Franka.

Para misionaris Hibernia-Skotlandia dan Anglia-Sachsen, teristimewa Wilibrordus, Wolframus, dan Bonifasius, berjasa memperkenalkan agama Kristen kepada masyarakat Franka dan Frisia pada abad ke-8. Bonifasius gugur sebagai martir karena dibunuh orang Frisia di Dokkum pada tahun 754.

Penjajahan Franka dan penggabungan dengan Kekaisaran Romawi Suci

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Dewangga dari awal abad ke-16, bergambar peristiwa pembaptisan Radboud, Raja Orang Frisia yang mangkat pada tahun 719.

Pada permulaan abad ke-8, mulai sering timbul konflik antara orang Frisia dan orang Franka di sebelah selatan. Konflik-konflik ini menimbulkan serangkaian perang yang mengakibatkan Frisia menjadi jajahan Kekaisaran Orang Franka. Dalam Pertempuran Boorne pada tahun 734, orang Frisia di wilayah Belanda dikalahkan orang Franka, dan dengan demikian kawasan di sebelah barat Sungai Lauwers pun menjadi jajahan mereka. Kawasan di sebelah timur Sungai Lauwers menjadi jajahan orang Franka tahun 785 setelah Karel Agung mengalahkan Widukind.

Keturunan orang Franka berdasarkan bahasa, yakni masyarakat penutur bahasa Belanda di Negeri Belanda dan Vlaanderen sekarang ini, tampaknya sudah lepas dari endonim "Franka" sekitar abad ke-9. Pada masa itu, identitas Franka sudah berubah dari identitas suku bangsa menjadi identitas bangsa, menjadi terlokalisasi dan terbatas pada daerah yang sekarang bernama Franken dan teristimewa daerah yang sekarang menjadi Provinsi Île-de-France di Prancis.[53]

Meskipun tidak lagi menyebut dirinya "orang Franka", masyarakat Negeri Belanda masih menjadi bagian dari Kekaisaran Orang Franka di bawah kepemimpinan Karel Agung. Karena wangsa Karoling berasal dari Austrasia, yang terletak di antara Sungai Rhein dan Sungai Maas, kota Aachen, kota Maastricht, kota Liège dan kota Nijmegen menjadi jantung kebudayaan zaman wangsa Karoling.[47] Karel Agung memenuhi kebutuhan palatium (majelis istana)[54] di Nijmegen paling sedikit empat kali.

Wilayah kekuasaan Kekaisaran Wangsa Karoling pada akhirnya meliputi Prancis, Jerman, kawasan utara Italia, dan banyak lagi tempat lain di Eropa Barat. Pada tahun 843, kekaisaran orang Franka dipecah menjadi tiga bagian, sehingga terciptalah Negeri Franka Barat di kawasan barat, Negeri Franka Timur di kawasan timur, dan Negeri Franka Tengah di kawasan tengah wilayah kekuasaan orang Franka. Sebagian besar wilayah Negeri Belanda sekarang ini adalah bekas bagian wilayah Negeri Franka Tengah, sementara daerah Vlaanderen adalah bekas bagian wilayah Negeri Franka Barat. Inilah salah satu faktor penting yang turun-temurun membedakan daerah Vlaanderen dari daerah-daerah penutur bahasa Belanda lainnya.

Negeri Franka Tengah (bahasa Latin: Francia Media) adalah kerajaan orang Franka berumur pendek tanpa identitas sejarah maupun suku bangsa sebagai pemersatu warganya yang terdiri atas bermacam-macam suku bangsa. Kerajaan ini dibentuk berdasarkan Perjanjian Verdun tahun 843 yang membagi wilayah Kekaisaran wangsa Karoling kepada putra-putra Ludwig Si Warak. Wilayah kerajaan yang diapit Negeri Franka Timur dan Negeri Franka Barat ini terdiri atas daerah-daerah kekuasaan orang Franka di antara Sungai Rhein dan Sungai Schelde, daerah pesisir Vlaanderen di tepi Laut Utara, bekas wilayah Kerajaan Burgundia (kecuali bagian baratnya yang kemudian hari dikenal dengan nama Bourgogne), Provence, dan Kerajaan Italia.

Negeri Franka Tengah jatuh ke tangan Lothair I, putra sulung dan pengganti Ludwig Si Warak, sesudah berperang melawan adik-adiknya, Ludwig Si Jerman dan Karel Si Gundul. Sebagai wujud pengakuan terhadap gelar kaisar yang disandang Lothair I, wilayah Negeri Franka Tengah mencakup kota-kota kekaisaran, yakni Aachen, kota tempat Karel Agung bermastautin, dan Roma. Pada tahun 855, sebelum menghembuskan napas terakhirnya di Biara Prüm, Kaisar Lothair I membagi wilayah kekuasaannya kepada putra-putranya. Sebagian besar daerah di sebelah utara Pegunungan Alpen, termasuk Negeri Belanda, diwariskan kepada Lothair II sehingga disebut Lotharingia (bahasa Prancis: Lorraine). Sesudah Lothair II wafat pada tahun 869, Lotharingia dibagi-bagi kedua pamannya, Ludwig Si Jerman dan Karel Si Gundul, sesuai dengan kesepakatan yang tertuang dalam Perjanjian Meerssen tahun 870. Meskipun beberapa daerah di Negeri Belanda dikuasai orang Viking, Negeri Belanda secara teknis menjadi bagian dari Negeri Franka Timur pada tahun 870. Negeri Franka Timur akhirnya berubah nama menjadi Kekaisaran Romawi Suci pada tahun 962.

Serbuan orang Viking

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Rorik, pahlawan Viking yang menaklukkan dan memerintah Friesland, gambar romantisasi dari tahun 1912, karya Johannes Hermanus Koekkoek

Pada abad ke-9 dan ke-10, orang Viking menyerbu kota-kota pantai dan tepi sungai yang tak terlindung, milik orang Frisia dan orang Franka, di kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah (bahasa Belanda: Nederlanden). Meskipun tidak pernah menetap dalam jumlah besar, orang Viking membangun pangkalan-pangkalan di daerah-daerah tersebut yang digunakan dalam jangka panjang, bahkan dalam kasus-kasus tertentu diakui sebagai penguasa. Dalam tradisi sejarah bangsa Belanda dan Frisia, pusat dagang Dorestad mengalami kemerosotan akibat serbuan-serbuan orang Viking yang dilancarkan dari tahun 834 sampai tahun 863. Meskipun demikian, karena tidak ada bukti arkeologi meyakinkan terkait keberadaan orang Viking yang ditemukan di Dorestad (per 2007), tradisi sejarah tersebut akhir-akhir ini mulai diragukan kebenarannya.[55]

Salah satu keluarga Viking terkemuka di Negeri-Negeri Rendah adalah keluarga Rorik dari Dorestad (berbasis di Wieringen) dan adiknya, "Harald Muda" (berbasis di Walcheren). Kedua adik-beradik ini diduga sebagai kemenakan Harald Klak.[56] Sekitar tahun 850, Lothair I mengakui Rorik sebagai penguasa sebagian besar wilayah Friesland, dan pada tahun 870, selaku raja bawahan wangsa Karoling, Rorik diterima menghadap Kaisar Karel Si Gundung di Nijmegen. Serbuan-serbuan orang Viking berlanjut pada kurun waktu tersebut. Rodulf, putra Harald, dan pengawal-pengawalnya tewas dibunuh orang-orang Oostergo pada tahun 873. Rorik sendiri wafat sebelum tahun 882.

kumpulan-kumpulan harta terpendam peninggalan orang Viking yang sebagian besar berupa barang-barang perak telah ditemukan di kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Dua kumpulan ditemukan di Wieringen. Sekumpulan besar harta karun yang ditemukan di Wieringen pada tahun 1996 diperkirakan berasal dari sekitar tahun 850 dan diduga berkaitan dengan Rorik. Penguburan harta kekayaan semacam ini dipandang sebagai salah satu indikasi keberadaan sebuah permukiman permanen di Wieringen.[57]

Sekitar tahun 879, Godfrid tiba di Friesland membawa sepasukan besar prajurit yang meneror kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Dengan menjadikan Ghent sebagai pangkalannya, pasukan Godfried menggempur Ghent, Maastricht, Liège, Stavelot, Prüm, Koln, dan Koblenz. Karena berhasil menguasai sebagian besar wilayah Friesland dari tahun 882 sampai akhir hayatnya pada tahun 885, Godfrid dikenal dalam sejarah sebagai Godfrid, Adipati Friesland. Kekuasaannya atas Friesland selaku raja bawahan wangsa Karoling diakui Kaisar Karel Si Tambun. Ketika Godfried tewas terbunuh pada tahun 885, Gerolf dari Holland mengambil alih tampuk pemerintahan Friesland, dan zaman kekuasaan orang Viking di Friesland pun berakhir.

Serbuan orang Viking di kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah berlanjut lebih dari seabad. Jejak-jejak serbuan orang Viking yang diperkirakan berasal dari kurun waktu tahun 880 sampai tahun 890 telah ditemukan di Zutphen dan Deventer. Pada tahun 920, Raja Hendrik Si Pemburu Unggas Liar asal Saksen membebaskan kota Utrecht dari penjajahan Viking. Menurut sejumlah tawarikh, serbuan terakhir orang Viking terjadi pada dasawarsa pertama abad ke-11 di Tiel dan/atau Utrecht.[58]

Serbuan-serbuan orang Viking terjadi bertepatan dengan perang perebutan supremasi di Negeri Franka Tengah (mencakup Negeri Belanda) di antara para penguasa Prancis dan Jerman, sehingga melemahkan kekuasaan mereka atas kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Perlawanan terhadap orang Viking, kalaupun ada, dilakukan para menak lokal, yang membuat mereka semakin kuat dan berkuasa.

Abad Pertengahan Madya dan Abad Pertengahan Akhir (1000–1432)

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Kapel Santo Nikolaus (bahasa Belanda: Sint-Nicolaaskapel) atau Kapel Valkhof (bahasa Belanda: Valkhofkapel) di Nijmegen, salah satu bangunan tertua di Negeri Belanda

Bagian dari Kekaisaran Romawi Suci

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Raja-raja dan kaisar-kaisar Jerman berdaulat atas Negeri Belanda pada abad ke-10 dan ke-11. Jerman disebut Kekaisaran Romawi Suci setelah Raja Otto Agung dinobatkan menjadi kaisar. Kota Nijmegen di Negeri Belanda pernah menjadi salah satu daerah penting bagi kaisar-kaisar Jerman. Sejumlah kaisar Jerman lahir dan wafat di Nijmegen, demikian pula Teofanu, Permaisuri Romawi Suci asal Romawi Timur. Utrecht juga merupakan salah satu kota sekaligus bandar niaga yang penting kala itu.

Keterpecahan politik

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Kekaisaran Romawi Suci tidak mampu mempertahankan kesatuan politiknya. Selain kian merdekanya kota-kota, para penguasa lokal mengubah kabupaten-kabupaten dan kadipaten-kadipaten mereka menjadi kerajaan-kerajaan partikelir dan hanya memiliki sedikit rasa wajib berbakti kepada kaisar yang memerintah sebagian besar wilayah kekaisaran secara atas-nama saja. Sebagian besar kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda diperintah Bupati Holland, Adipati Gelre, Adipati Brabant, dan Uskup Utrecht. Friesland dan Groningen di sebelah utara mempertahankan kemerdekaan mereka dan diperintah para menak yang lebih rendah tingkatannya.

Negara-negara feodal tersebut nyaris terus-menerus saling memerangi. Gelre dan Holland bertempur memperebutkan kekuasaan atas Utrecht. Utrecht, yang uskupnya memerintah setengah dari keseluruhan wilayah Negeri Belanda saat ini pada tahun 1000, kian terpinggirkan seiring kian sukarnya memilih uskup baru, sementara wangsa-wangsa penguasa negara-negara tetangga justru semakin kuat mengakar. Groningen, Drenthe, dan sebagian besar Gelre, yang dulunya merupakan bagian dari Swapraja Utrecht, akhirnya merdeka. Brabant mencoba menaklukkan swapraja-swapraja tetangganya, tetapi tidak berhasil. Holland juga mengalami kegagalan ketika berusaha mendaulat Zeeland dan Friesland.

Orang Frisia

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Masyarakat yang mula-mula mendiami daerah Holland adalah orang Frisia. Kala itu, daerah yang jarang penduduknya tersebut dikenal dengan sebutan "Friesland Barat" (bahasa Belanda: Westfriesland). Seiring pertambahan jumlah permukiman orang Franka, orang Frisia pun bermigrasi atau berbaur dengan masyarakat pendatang, dan daerah tersebut dengan cepat berubah menjadi daerah penutur bahasa Belanda Lama. Bagian dari daerah Holland Utara yang terletak di sebelah utara Alkmaar masih disebut Friesland Barat dalam percakapan sehari-hari.

Daerah Friesland di kawasan utara Negeri Belanda tetap merdeka pada kurun waktu ini. Friesland memiliki lembaga pemerintahan sendiri (yang secara kolektif disebut "Kemerdekaan Frisia") dan menolak pemberlakuan sistem feodal maupun tatanan kebangsawanan seperti yang ada di praja-praja Eropa lainnya. Orang Frisia memandang dirinya sebagai sekutu Swiss. Pekik perang orang Frisia adalah "lebih baik mati daripada membudak". Kemudian hari, orang Frisia kehilangan kemerdekaannya setelah dikalahkan pada tahun 1498 oleh tentara-tentara bayaran Landsknecht dari Jerman yang dikerahkan Adipati Saksen-Meißen, Albrecht III.

Kebangkitan Holland

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Dirk VI, Bupati Holland (1114–1157) meninjau pekerjaan pembangunan Biara Egmond bersama ibunya, Petronella, lukisan karya Charles Rochussen, 1881. Karya seni ukir di dalam lukisan ini adalah Timpanum Egmond, yang menampilkan sosok Dirk dan ibunya mengapit Santo Petrus.
Lukisan peristiwa bencana Banjir Santa Elisabet yang menggenangi daerah Grote Waard dari tanggal 18 sampai tanggal 19 November 1421

Pusat kekuasaan di kawasan yang kian merdeka ini adalah Kabupaten Holland. Cikal bakal wilayah Kabupaten Holland adalah daerah Kennemerland (daerah sekitar Haarlem sekarang) yang dianugerahkan kaisar kepada pemimpin orang Dani, Rorik, sebagai tanah pertuanan pada tahun 862. Di bawah kepemimpinan anak cucu Rorik, daerah ini mengalami pemekaran dan menjadi salah satu daerah penting di Negeri belanda. Pada tahun-tahun permulaan abad ke-11, Bupati Dirk III mengutip tol di muara Sungai Maas dan mampu membendung intervensi militer atasannya, Adipati Lotharingia Hilir.

Pada tahun 1083, nama "Holland" muncul untuk pertama kalinya dalam sebuah akta sebagai sebutan bagi daerah yang kurang lebih sama dengan wilayah provinsi Holland Selatan ditambah bagian selatan dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara saat ini. Pamor Holland terus meningkat selama dua abad selanjutnya. Bupati Holland menaklukkan hampir seluruh daerah Zeeland, tetapi orang Frisia di Friesland Barat (bagian utara dari wilayah provinsi Holland Utara sekarang ini) baru dapat ditundukkan pada tahun 1289 oleh Bupati Floris V.

Ekspansi dan pertumbuhan

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Sekitar tahun 1000 Masehi, terjadi perkembangan-perkembangan di bidang pertanian (kadang-kadang disebut revolusi pertanian) yang menghasilkan peningkatan produksi, terutama produksi pangan. Ekonomi mulai tumbuh dengan pesat, dan produktivitas yang tinggi memungkinkan petani untuk menggarap lebih banyak lahan atau menjadi pedagang.

Dari akhir kurun waktu penjajahan Romawi, sebagian besar kawasan barat Negeri Belanda tidak berpenghuni, sampai para petani dari Vlaanderen dan Utrecht mulai membeli tanah rawa-rawa di kawasan itu, mengeringkannya, dan menggarapnya sekitar tahun 1100. Proses tersebut berlangsung dengan cepat sehingga dalam beberapa generasi saja kawasan tersebut sudah ramai penghuninya. Mereka membuka lahan-lahan usaha tani mandiri yang bukan bagian dari desa-desa. Usaha tani semacam ini merupakan hal yang unik di Eropa kala itu.

Serikat-serikat usaha terbentuk dan pasar-pasar tumbuh ramai karena hasil produksi sudah melebihi kebutuhan masyarakat setempat. Selain itu, pengenalan mata uang membuat urusan-urusan dagang menjadi lebih mudah ditangani daripada sebelumnya. Kota-kota yang sudah ada kian bertumbuh, dan kota-kota baru terbentuk di sekitar biara-biara dan puri-puri. Suatu golongan masyarakat kelas menengah yang menggeluti usaha dagang mulai terbentuk di kawasan-kawasan perkotaan ini. Usaha dagang dan pemekaran kota mengalami peningkatan seiring pertumbuhan populasi.

Perang Salib cukup populer di Negeri-Negeri Rendah. Banyak warganya yang ikut serta berjuang di Tanah Suci, sementara Negeri-Negeri Rendah sendiri relatif damai. Aksi-aksi penjarahan orang Viking sudah terhenti. Baik Perang Salib maupun keadaan relatif damai di Negeri-Negeri Rendah merupakan faktor-faktor yang ikut memajukan perdagangan.

Kota-kota muncul dan berkembang, khususnya di Vlaanderen dan Brabant. Seiring peningkatan kemakmuran dan keberdayaannya, kota-kota mulai membeli hak-hak istimewa tertentu dari penguasa, antara lain hak-hak kota, yakni hak swatantra dan hak mengesahkan hukum sendiri. Pada praktiknya, ini berarti kota-kota termakmur menjadi republik-republik kuasi-independen atas usaha sendiri. Dua di antara kota-kota terpenting adalah Brugge dan Antwerpen (di Vlaanderen), yang kemudian hari terbilang di antara kota-kota dan bandar-bandar terpenting di Eropa.

Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw

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Jacqueline, Gravin Henegouwen, 1401–1436, tokoh yang dikenal orang Belanda dengan nama "Jacoba van Bayern".

Sengketa Gancu dan Kabelyauw (bahasa Belanda: Hoekse en Kabeljauwse twisten) adalah serangkaian perang dan pertempuran di Kabupaten Holland yang berlangsung antara tahun 1350 sampai tahun 1490. Sebagian besar dari perang dan pertempuran tersebut berkaitan dengan perebutan gelar Bupati Holland, tetapi sementara pihak berpendapat bahwa alasan hakikinya adalah perebutan kekuasaan antara kaum borjuis di kota-kota dan kaum menak yang memegang tampuk pemerintahan.

Anggota faksi Kabelyauw pada umumnya adalah kota-kota di Holland yang berhaluan progresif, sementara sebagian besar anggota Faksi Gancu adalah kaum menak yang berhaluan konservatif. Tokoh-tokoh utama dalam konflik multigenerasi ini antara lain Willem IV (Bupati Henegouwen merangkap Bupati Holland), Margaretha (Permaisuri Romawi Suci merangkap Gravin Holland), Willem V (Adipati Bayern merangkap Bupati Holland), Willem VI (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), Jan (Adipati Bayern-Straubing merangkap Bupati Holland), dan Filips Sang Budiman (Adipati Burgundia merangkap Bupati Holland), tetapi mungkin yang paling terkenal adalah Jacoba (Gravin Henegouwen merangkap Gravin Holland).

Pendaulatan Kabupaten Holland oleh Adipati Burgundia, Filips Sang Budiman, merupakan urusan yang pelik. Para menak terkemuka di Holland mengundang sang adipati untuk mendaulat Holland, meskipun sang adipati tidak memiliki klaim bersejarah atas Holland. Menurut beberapa sejawaran, golongan yang berkuasa di Holland menghendaki agar daerah itu diintegrasikan ke dalam tatanan ekonomi Vlaanderen dan mengadopsi lembaga-lembaga hukum Vlaanderen. Ketika Eropa diguncang berbagai perang saudara pada abad ke-14 dan ke-15, Vlaanderen justru semakin sejahtera dan aman tenteram.

Zaman penjajahan Burgundia dan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol (1433–1567)

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Negeri-Negeri Rendah pada akhir abad ke-14

Zaman penjajahan Burgundia

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Sebagian besar dari kawasan yang kini menjadi wilayah negeri Belanda dan Belgia digabungkan ke dalam wilayah Kadipaten Burgundia pada tahun 1433. Sebelum penggabungan, orang Belanda mengidentifikasi diri sebagai warga kota, kadipaten, atau kabupaten tempat mereka berdiam, maupun sebagai kawula Kekaisaran Romawi Suci. Zaman penjajahan Burgundia adalah titik awal perjalanan orang Belanda menemukan jati diri sebagai sebuah bangsa.

Usaha dagang Holland mengalami perkembangan pesat, teristimewa di daerah-daerah pengapalan dan pengangkutan. Para penguasa baru memperjuangkan kepentingan-kepentingan dagang orang Belanda. Armada-armada Holland bahkan mampu beberapa kali mengalahkan armada-armada Liga Hansa. Pada abad ke-15, Amsterdam tumbuh menjadi bandar niaga utama untuk komoditas gandum dari kawasan Baltik. Amsterdam menyalurkan gandum ke kota-kota besar di Belgia, kawasan utara Prancis, dan Inggris. Usaha dagang komoditas gandum sangat penting bagi warga Holland, karena gandum yang dihasilkan Holland sudah tidak memadai untuk mencukupi kebutuhannya sendiri. Pengatusan tanah menyebabkan merosotnya permukaan bekas lahan-lahan basah sampai ke taraf yang tidak lagi memungkinkan diteruskannya pengatusan.

Zaman penjajahan wangsa Habsburg Spanyol

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Kiri: Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens, teolog berpengaruh asal Utrecht yang menjadi salah seorang penasihat Kaisar Karel V, dan kemudian hari terpilih menjadi Paus Hadrianus VI (1522–1523).
Kanan: Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536), padri, teolog, sekaligus humanis Renaisans asal Rotterdam, potret karya Hans Holbein Muda, 1523.

Kaisar Karel V (1500–1558) lahir dan besar di kota Gent, Kabupaten Vlaanderen. Ia fasih bertutur dalam bahasa Prancis. Karel menambah luas wilayah Kadipaten Burgundia dengan mendaulat Tournai, Artois, Utrecht, Groningen, dan Gelre. Tujuh Belas Provinsi dahulu kala dipersatukan orang-orang besar Burgundia, leluhur Karel, tetapi secara nominal menjadi daerah-daerah pertuanan Prancis atau Kekaisaran Romawi Suci. Selama Karel karel belum akil balig, tugas jabatannya diwakilkan kepada bibinya, Margaretha van Oostenrijk selaku pemangku sampai tahun 1515. Prancis melepaskan klaim lamanya atas Vlaanderen pada tahun 1528.[59]

Dari tahun 1515 sampai 1523, pemerintahan Karel di Negeri Belanda dirongrong pemberontakan kaum tani Friesland (dipimpin Pier Gerlofs Donia dan Wijard Jelckama). Gelre berusaha mendirikan negara sendiri di daerah yang mencakup kawasan timur laut Negeri Belanda dan kawasan barat daya Jerman. Akibat kekurangan dana pada abad ke-16, para prajurit Gelre harus mengisi sendiri pundi-pundinya dengan cara menyerbu dan menjarah daerah lawan. Prajurit-prajurit Gelre menjadi ancaman besar bagi Negeri Belanda Burgundia ketika mereka menyerbu Den Haag.

Dari tahun ke tahun para Adipati Burgundia mengambil alih kekuasaan atas Tujuh Belas Provinsi pembentuk kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah baik melalui perkawinan berpamrih, pembelian tanah, maupun lewat perang. Provinsi-provinsi tersebut kini menjadi wilayah Negeri Belanda, Negeri Belanda Selatan (sekarang Belgia), dan Luksemburg. Negeri-negeri yang dikenal dengan sebutan "Lingkungan Burgundia" ini akhirnya dikuasai keluarga Habsburg. Karel (1500–1558) menjadi penguasa Negeri-Negeri Rendah pada tahun 1506. Pada tahun 1515, Karel dinobatkan menjadi Raja Spanyol kemudian dinobatkan pula menjadi Kaisar Romawi Suci. Kekuasaannya atas Negeri-Negeri Rendah ia wakilkan kepada para raja muda (masih terhitung kerabat dekatnya), sehingga pemerintahan Negeri-Negeri Rendah praktis diselenggarakan orang-orang Spanyol yang dapat ia kendalikan sepenuhnya. Setiap provinsi memiliki lembaga pemerintahan dan mahkamah istana masing-masing, yang didominasi kaum menak setempat. Selain itu, tiap-tiap provinsi mengamalkan tradisi sendiri dan memiliki hak-hak istimewa ("kebebasan") sendiri yang sudah berabad-abad usianya. Banyak kota memiliki hak-hak sah dan pemerintahan lokal sendiri, yang biasanya dikendalikan para saudagar. Di atas semuanya itu, bangsa Spanyol memaksakan suatu badan pemerintahan menyeluruh, yakni Dewan Negara Belanda, lengkap dengan pejabat-pejabat dan mahkamah istana sendiri.[60] Para pejabat Spanyol yang diutus Kaisar Karel mengabaikan tradisi dan kaum menak Belanda maupun pejabat-pejabat lokal sehingga menumbuhkan rasa nasionalisme anti-Spanyol yang kemudian hari mengobarkan pemberontakan rakyat Belanda. Ketika gerakan Reformasi Protestan meletus di Negeri Belanda, Karel (saat itu sudah menjadi Kaisar Romawi Suci) bertekad memberantas ajaran Protestan tanpa kompromi. Kerusuhan bermula di kawasan selatan, berpusat di metropolis Antwerpen yang makmur. Negeri Belanda ketika itu merupakan daerah yang kaya di dalam wilayah kedaulatan negara Spanyol, khususnya sesudah penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis tahun 1559, yang menuntaskan perang Prancis-Spanyol yang sudah berlangsung selama empat dasawarsa, dan memungkinkan Spanyol untuk mereposisi angkatan bersenjatanya.[61]

Dengan menandatangani Perjanjian Burgundia tahun 1548, yang dijuluki "Transaksi Augsburg", Karel mengesahkan status Negeri Belanda sebagai sebuah entitas tempat banyak undang-undang Kekaisaran Romawi Suci tidak berlaku.[62] Berdasarkan Perjanjian ini, terbentuklah Lingkungan Burgundia di dalam Kekaisaran Romawi Suci, yang terdiri atas Negeri Belanda dan Franche-Comté. Setahun kemudian, Karel menerbitkan Sanksi Pragmatik tahun 1549 yang menetapkan bahwa Tujuh Belas Provinsi hanya dapat diwarisi para ahli warisnya sebagai satu entitas yang utuh.[63]

Reformasi Protestan

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Halaman judul Statenvertaling tahun 1637, Alkitab bahasa Belanda pertama yang diterjemahkan secara langsung dari bahasa Ibrani dan Yunani sesuai amanat Sinode Dordrecht, dan terus digunakan sampai abad ke-20.

Reformasi Protestan dengan cepat berakar di kawasan utara Eropa pada abad ke-16, teristimewa bentuk Lutheran dan Kalvinisnya.[64] Meskipun mula-mula ditindas, umat Kristen Protestan Belanda akhirnya ditoleransi para penguasa lokal. Pada tahun-tahun era 1560-an, komunitas Protestan sudah sangat berpengaruh di Negeri Belanda, sekalipun masih merupakan kelompok minoritas.[65] Di dalam masyarakat yang menggantungkan hidup pada usaha dagang, kebebasan dan toleransi dianggap sangat penting. Meskipun demikian, para penguasa Negeri Belanda yang beragama Kristen Katolik, yakni Kaisar Karel V, dan kemudian hari Raja Filips II, merasa wajib memberantas ajaran Protestan, yang merupakan salah satu bidah dalam pandangan Gereja Katolik, sekaligus suatu ancaman terhadap stabilitas keseluruhan sistem politik hierarkis. Di lain pihak, umat Kristen Protestan Belanda yang sangat mengutamakan moralitas tetap berpegang teguh pada teologi Alkitabiah mereka. Kesalehan yang tulus ikhlas dan hidup bersahaja dianggap lebih mulia secara moral daripada kebiasaan bermewah-mewahan dan beragama secara lahiriah yang jamak di kalangan menak gerejawi.[66] Hukuman-hukuman berat yang digunakan para penguasa untuk memberantas ajaran Protestan menjadi penyebab dari meningkatnya kekesalan rakyat di Negeri Belanda, padahal pemerintah-pemerintah lokal di Negeri Belanda sudah memutuskan untuk menerapkan kebijakan hidup berdampingan secara damai. Pada kurun waktu seperdua akhir dari abad ke-16, situasi berubah genting. Raja Filips II mengerahkan pasukan demi pasukan untuk memadamkan pemberontakan dan mengkatolikkan kembali Negeri Belanda.[67]

Saat berlangsungnya Reformasi Protestan gelombang pertama, ajaran Lutheran sempat memikat kalangan elit di Antwerpen dan kawasan selatan, tetapi ajaran ini akhirnya diberantas Spanyol sehingga hanya berkembang di Oost-Friesland.[68]

Gerakan Reformasi Protestan gelombang kedua muncul dalam bentuk ajaran Anabaptis, yang populer di kalangan petani jelata di Holland dan Friesland. Kaum Anabaptis secara sosial sangat radikal dan menjunjung tinggi kesetaraan derajat, serta percaya bahwa hari kiamat sudah sangat dekat. Mereka menolak tatanan kehidupan yang lama, dan membentuk komunitas-komunitas baru, sehingga lumayan menimbulkan kekacauan. Salah seorang tokoh Anabaptis Belanda yang terkemuka adalah Menno Simons, perintis gereja Menonit. Gerakan ini diberi keleluasaan di kawasan utara, tetapi tidak kunjung berkembang dalam skala besar.[69]

Reformasi Protestan gelombang ketiga, yang pada akhirnya terbukti berdampak permanen, adalah Kalvinisme. Ajaran Kalvinis tiba di Negeri Belanda pada tahun-tahun era 1540-an, dan berhasil memikat kalangan elit maupun masyarakat umum, khususnya di Vlaanderen. Spanyol menanggapi perkembangan ini dengan melancarkan persekusi dan membentuk lembaga inkuisisi di Negeri Belanda. Kaum Kalvinis memberontak, mula-mula dalam bentuk aski ikonoklasme pada tahun 1566, yakni perusakan sistematis terhadap arca-arca orang kudus dan citra-citra agamawi Katolik lainnya di gereja-gereja. Pada tahun 1566, Willem van Oranje, seorang Kalvinis, mengobarkan Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun demi memerdekakan seluruh rakyat Belanda tanpa pandang agama dari penjajahan Spanyol. Menurut Jerome Blum, "kesabaran, toleransi, kebulatan tekad, dan keprihatinannya terhadap nasib bangsanya, serta keyakinannya akan pemerintahan yang berasaskan mufakat rakyat mampu mempersatukan rakyat Belanda dan menjaga semangat juang mereka terus berkobar."[70] Provinsi Holland dan Provinsi Zeeland, yang mayoritas menjadi Kalvinis pada tahun 1572, tunduk di bawah kepemimpinan Willem. Swapraja-swapraja selebihnya tetap mayoritas Katolik.[71][72]

Menjelang perang kemerdekaan

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Para karyawan tekstil di Leiden, lukisan karya Isaac van Swanenburg, 1595.
Willem van Oranje, yang dijuluki Willem Si Pendiam.
Negeri-Negeri Rendah 1559-1609.

Negeri Belanda adalah daerah yang bernilai tinggi di dalam wilayah Kekaisaran Spanyol, khususnya sesudah penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis tahun 1559. Perjanjian ini mengakhiri kurun waktu empat puluh tahun peperangan antara Prancis dan Spanyol yang berlangsung di Italia dari tahun 1521 sampai 1559.[61] Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis merupakan semacam titik balik sejarah, bukan saja di Italia selaku medan perang, melainkan juga di kawasan utara Eropa. Spanyol sudah menyiagakan pasukan-pasukannya di Negeri Belanda sebagai ancang-ancang untuk menyerang Prancis dari utara sekaligus dari selatan.

Dengan tuntasnya berbagai masalah besar di antara Prancis dan Spanyol dengan penandatanganan Perjanjian Damai Cateau-Cambresis, tidak ada lagi alasan bagi Spanyol untuk mempertahankan keberadaan pasukan-pasukannya di Negeri Belanda. Dengan demikian, masyarakat di Negeri Belanda dapat kembali melanjutkan kegiatan-kegiatan yang lazimnya mereka lakukan pada masa damai. Ketika itulah mereka mengetahui bahwa ada banyak sekali permintaan pasar atas barang-barang jualan mereka. Usaha penangkapan ikan sudah lama menjadi bagian penting dari ekonomi Negeri Belanda. Meskipun demikian, kini usaha penangkapan ikan haring saja sudah melibatkan 2.000 perahu yang berpangkalan di berbagai pelabuhan Negeri Belanda. Spanyol, yang masih menjadi pelanggan utama para usahawan Belanda, membeli berbagai perabot dan perkakas rumah tangga yang diangkut dengan 50 kapal besar dari saudagar-saudagar Vlaanderen. Selain itu, barang-barang wol buatan Belanda sangat disukai di mana-mana. Negeri Belanda memborong cukup banyak wol dari Spanyol, yang kemudian diolah menjadi barang-barang wol senilai 4 juta florin yang dijual saudagar-saudagar Brugge. Besarnya kebutuhan wol mentah ketika itu membuat para usahawan Belanda memborong pula wol dari Inggris hampir sebanyak jumlah wol yang diborong dari Spanyol. Tolai nilai perdagangan dengan Inggris saja sudah mencapai 24 juta florin. Sebagian besar dari kegiatan ekspor ke Inggris mendatangkan laba bersih bagi para usahawan Belanda karena barang-barang yang diekspor adalah buatan mereka sendiri. Negeri Belanda sudah sampai ke depan pintu gerbang Zaman Keemasan-nya. Brabant dan Vlaanderen adalah daerah-daerah terkaya dan termaju di Republik Belanda ketika itu.[73] Negeri Belanda merupakan salah satu negeri terkaya di muka bumi, dengan jumlah populasi yang mencapai 3 juta jiwa pada tahun 1560. Negeri belanda menjadi negeri dengan kawasan perkotaan terbesar di daratan Eropa, karena memiliki 25 kota besar yang dihuni 10.000 warga atau lebih, teristimewa Antwerpen, pusat usaha dagang dan keuangan, dengan populasi mencapai 100.000 jiwa. Spanyol tidak ingin negeri yang kaya ini lepas dari cengkeramannya, dan enggan membiarkannya lepas dari kendali Gereja Katolik. Inilah pangkal dari perang yang berkecamuk selama delapan puluh tahun.

Selaku seorang pemeluk agama Kristen Katolik yang taat, Raja Filips benar-benar gusar melihat keberhasilan gerakan Reformasi Protestan di Negeri-Negeri Rendah, yang memicu pertambahan jumlah umat Kalvinis. Upaya paksanya untuk menindas umat Protestan, menyentralisasi pemerintahan, menegakkan hukum, dan mengutip pajak, membuat rakyat membencinya dan mengobarkan pemberontakan. Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Adipati Alba ke-3, diutus bersama sepasukan tentara Spanyol untuk menghukum orang-orang Belanda pembangkang pada tahun 1567.[74]

Satu-satunya pihak yang membendung sepak terjang Adipati Alba di Negeri Belanda adalah para menak seperti Lamoraal van Egmont, Filips van Horne, dan lain-lain. Saat pergerakan pasukan Adipati Alba semakin dekat, Willem Si Pendiam mengungsi bersama seluruh keluarga dan ketiga saudaranya ke Jerman pada tanggal 11 April 1567. Adipati Alba mengundang kaum menak yang mengadang pergerakan pasukannya untuk bertatap muka dan berunding. Begitu tiba di Brussels, mereka semua ditahan, sementara Lamoraal van Egmont dan Filips van Horne dihukum mati.[74] Adipati Alba selanjutnya membatalkan semua penjanjian yang pernah disepakati Margarita, Istri Adipati Parma, dengan umat Protestan Negeri Belanda, serta membentuk lembaga inkuisisi untuk memberlakukan keputusan-keputusan Konsili Trente.

Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun (1568–1648)

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Pangeran Maurits dalam Pertempuran Nieuwpoort tahun 1600, lukisan karya Paulus van Hillegaert
Leo Belgicus, peta Negeri-Negeri Rendah yang digambar sedemikian rupa sehingga menyerupai seekor singa, karya Claes Jansz. Visscher (II), tahun 1609

Perang kemerdekaan Belanda dari penjajahan Spanyol kerap disebut Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun (1568–1648). Lima puluh tahun pertama (1568–1618) adalah kurun waktu konflik yang murni melibatkan Spanyol dan Negeri Belanda. Selama tiga puluh tahun berikutnya (1618–1648), konflik antara Spanyol dan Negeri Belanda menyatu dengan perang besar di Eropa yang kemudian hari disebut Perang Tiga Puluh Tahun.[75] Ketujuh provinsi di Negeri Belanda yang memberontak pada akhirnya menyepakati perjanjian persatuan Uni Utrecht tahun 1579 dan mendirikan negara Republik Serikat Tujuh Negeri Belanda (atau Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi). Undang-Undang Pemisahan Diri (bahasa Belanda: Plakkaat van Verlatinghe) disahkan pada tanggal 26 Juli 1581, dan merupakan deklarasi kemerdekaan resmi Negeri-Negeri Rendah dari kekuasaan Raja Spanyol.

Willem van Oranje (Slot Dillenburg, 24 April 1533 – Delft, 10 Juli 1584), cikal bakal keluarga Kerajaan Belanda, memimpin orang Belanda dalam bagian pertama Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun sesudah Egmont dan Horn wafat pada tahun 1568. Pada tahun-tahun permulaan perang, angkatan perang Spanyol berada di atas angin, tetapi orang Belanda akhirnya mampu mematahkan aksi-aksi pengepungan Spanyol di Holland. Pada bulan November dan Desember 1572, seluruh warga Zutphen dan Naarden tewas dibantai Spanyol. Kota Haarlem dikepung mulai tanggal 11 Desember 1572 sampai tanggal 13 Juli 1573. Oudewater ditundukkan Spanyol pada tanggal 7 Agustus 1575, dan sebagian besar warganya tewas terbunuh. Maastricht dikepung, dijarah, dan dihancukan Spanyol dua kali berturut-turut (pada tahun 1576 dan pada tahun 1579).

Di dalam perang yang lebih banyak melibatkan aksi pengepungan daripada pertempuran ini, Gubernur Jenderal Alessandro Farnese membuktikan ketangguhannya. Strateginya adalah menjanjikan keringanan-keringanan kepada kota yang bersedia menyerah, yakni tidak akan ada lagi pembantaian dan penjarahan, hak-hak istimewa kota tidak akan dihapuskan, pengampunan dan amnesti penuh akan diberikan, dan warga akan diizinkan untuk kembali ke Gereja Katolik secara perlahan-lahan. Umat Katolik konservatif di kawasan selatan dan timur Negeri Belanda mendukung Spanyol. Farnese berhasil merebut kembali Antwerpen dan hampir semua daerah yang sekarang menjadi bagian dari wilayah negara Belgia.[76] Sebagian besar daerah penutur bahasa Belanda di Negeri Belanda disebut dari Spanyol, kecuali daerah Vlaanderen, yang sampai sekarang menjadi bagian dari wilayah negara Belgia. Vlaanderen adalah daerah yang sangat anti Spanyol. Banyak orang Vlaam mengungsi ke Holland, termasuk setengah populasi Antwerpen, 3/4 populasi Brugge dan Gent, serta seluruh populasi Nieuwpoort, Duinkerke, dan desa-desa di Vlaanderen.[77] Keberhasilan Alessandro Farnese membuat umat Katolik menguasai paruhan selatan dari kawasan Negeri-Negeri Rendah, dan merupakan bagian dari gerakan Kontra Reformasi.

Perang berlarut-larut sampai setengah abad lagi, tetapi pertarungan utama sudah usai. Perjanjian Damai Westfalen, yang ditandatangani pada tahun 1648, mengukuhkan kemerdekaan Perserikatan Provinsi-Provinsi dari penjajahan Spanyol. Orang Belanda mulai mengembangkan jati diri bangsa sejak abad ke-15, tetapi secara resmi masih menjadi bagian dari Kekaisaran Romawi Suci sampai tahun 1648. Jati diri bangsa lebih banyak dibentuk oleh provinsi, dan Holland merupakan provinsi yang terpenting ketika itu. Inilah sebabnya Republik Tujuh Provinsi akhirnya dikenal di seluruh Eropa dengan nama Holland.

Umat Katolik di Negeri Belanda adalah warga minoritas yang dipinggirkan dan ditindas umat Kalvinis. Meskipun demikian, selepas tahun 1572, umat Katolik secara mencolok kembali tampil mengemuka (juga sebagai bagian dari gerakan Kontra Reformasi), mendirikan seminari-seminari, memperbaharui Gereja mereka, dan menyebar misionaris ke daerah-daerah Protestan. Kiprah umat Katolik Belanda kerap dipimpin tokoh awam, karena pemerintah Kalvinis getol menangkap atau menghalang-halangi para padri yang tampak terlalu berhasil menarik pengikut baru dari kalangan Kalvinis. Jumlah umat Katolik bertambah sampai akhirnya mencapai kira-kira sepertiga dari populasi Negeri Belanda. Umat Katolik menjadi umat mayoritas di kawasan selatan.[78][79]

Zaman Keemasan

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Peta Republik Belanda karya Jan Janszoon

Selama Perang Delapan Puluh Tahun berlangsung, provinsi-provinsi Belanda menjadi pusat-pusat dagang yang paling penting di kawasan utara Eropa menggantikan Vlaanderen. Pada Zaman Keemasan ini, usaha dagang, industri, seni rupa, maupun ilmu pengetahuan di Negeri Belanda berkembang pesar. Pada abad ke-17 dan ke-18, boleh dikata bangsa Belanda adalah bangsa termakmur dalam bidang ekonomi dan termaju dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan dibanding semua bangsa lain di Eropa. Bangsa baru yang secara resmi berpaham Kalvinis ini mengalami perkembangan budaya dan ekonomi, sehingga melahirkan apa yang diistilahkan sejarawan Simon Schama dengan "embarrassment of riches" (jengah kaya).[80] Spekulasi dalam usaha dagang tulip berbuntut pada kejatuhan pasar saham yang pertama pada tahun 1637, tetapi krisis ekonomi cepat teratasi. Semua perkembangan inilah yang membuat abad ke-17 dijuluki Zaman Keemasan Negeri Belanda.

Reka cipta[81] kilang gergaji memungkinkan kapal dibuat dalam jumlah besar untuk dipakai berdagang ke seluruh dunia dan melindungi kepentingan-kepentingan ekonomi Republik Belanda dengan kekuatan militer. Industri-industri nasional seperti galangan-galangan kapal dan pabrik-pabrik gula turut pula berkembang.

Les Anatomi dari Dr. Nicolaes Tulp, lukisan karya Rembrandt van Rijn, 1632

Bangsa Belanda, yang turun-temurun terbiasa melaut dan mahir membuat peta,[82] kian tampil mengemuka di kancah perdagangan dunia, menggeser bangsa Portugis dan bangsa Spanyol. Pada tahun 1602, Serikat Perusahaan Hindia Timur (bahasa Yunani: Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, disingkat VOC) didirikan. VOC adalah badan usaha multinasional pertama di dunia, dan didanai dari hasil penjualan saham. Kegiatan jual beli saham VOC merupakan bursa saham modern pertama di dunia. VOC menjadi perusahaan dagang terbesar di dunia pada abad ke-17. Untuk mendanai usaha dagang yang kian berkembang di Negeri Belanda, Bank Amsterdam didirikan pada tahun 1609. Bank Amsterdam adalah cikal bakal, atau mungkin juga adalah bank sentral sejati yang pertama di dunia.[83]

Kapal-kapal Belanda berburu paus di perairan Svalbard, berdagang rempah-rempah di India dan Indonesia (melalui VOC), dan mendirikan koloni-koloni di Nieuw Amsterdam (sekarang New York), Afrika Selatan, dan Hindia Barat. Selain itu, bangsa Belanda juga merebut sejumlah koloni Portugis, misalnya koloni-koloni Portugis di kawasan timur laut Brazil, Angola, Indonesia, dan Sailan. Pada tahun 1640, VOC mulai memonopoli perdagangan dengan Jepang melalui pos dagang di Dejima.

Bangsa Belanda juga mendominasi perdagangan antarnegara di Eropa.

Kekaisaran bangsa Belanda

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Bangsa Belanda di Benua Amerika

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Nieuw Amsterdam pada tahun 1664

Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie (Perusahaan Hindia Barat Berizin) adalah badan usaha berizin yang beranggotakan para saudagar Belanda. Pada tanggal 2 Juni 1621, serikat dagang ini diberi izin memonopoli perdagangan di Hindia Barat (Kepulauan Karibia) oleh pemerintah Republik Serikat Tujuh Negeri Belanda dan diserahi kewenangan hukum atas usaha perdagangan budak Afrika, Brazil, Kepulauan Karibia, dan Amerika Utara. Daerah operasinya membentang dari Afrika Barat sampai ke Benua Amerika dan Kepulauan Pasifik. Perusahaan ini sangat besar jasanya bagi usaha kolonisasi bangsa Belanda di Benua Amerika. Benteng-benteng dan permukiman-permukiman pertama bangsa Belanda di Guyana dan Sungai Amazon didirikan pada era 1590-an. Usaha kolonisasi bangsa Belanda tidak segiat Inggris dan Prancis. Banyak permukiman bangsa Belanda yang hilang atau ditinggalkan pada akhir abad itu, tetapi Negeri Belanda mampu melanggengkan kepemilikannya atas Suriname dan beberapa pulau di Karibia.

Lihat pula

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  1. ^ "Neanderthal may not be the oldest Dutchman | Radio Netherlands Worldwide". Rnw.nl. Diakses tanggal 25 Maret 2012. 
  2. ^ "Neanderthal fossil discovered in Zeeland province | Radio Netherlands Worldwide". Rnw.nl. 16 Juni 2009. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 19 Mei 2014. Diakses tanggal 25 Maret 2012. 
  3. ^ Van Zeist, W. (1957), "De steentijd van Nederland", Nieuwe Drentse Volksalmanak, 75: 4–11 
  4. ^ a b "The Mysterious Bog People – Background to the exhibition". Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. 5 Juli 2001. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 9 Maret 2007. Diakses tanggal 1 Juni 2009. 
  5. ^ a b Louwe Kooijmans, L.P., "Trijntje van de Betuweroute, Jachtkampen uit de Steentijd te Hardinxveld-Giessendam", 1998, Spiegel Historiael 33, hlmn. 423–428
  6. ^ Volkskrant 24 Agustus 2007 "Lahan bercocok tanam prasejarah ditemukan di Swifterbant, 4300–4000 SM"
  7. ^ Raemakers, Daan. "De spiegel van Swifterbant Diarsipkan 10 April 2008 di Wayback Machine.", Universitas Groningen, 2006.
  8. ^ Dalam J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp (penyunting), Pre- & protohistorie van de lage landen. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991. ISBN 90-269-4448-9, NUGI 644
  9. ^ Lanting, J.N. & J.D. van der Waals, (1976), "Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin", dalam Lanting dkk. (penyunting) Glockenbechersimposion Oberried 1974. Bussum-Haarlem: Uniehoek N.V.
  10. ^ Hlm. 93, dalam J. P. Mallory dan John Q. Adams (penyunting), The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture, Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997.
  11. ^ Menurut o "Het Archeologisch Basisregister" (ABR), versi 1.0 November 1992, [1], Elp Kümmerkeramik diberi tarikh BRONSMA (awal MBA) sampai BRONSL (LBA) dan perkiraan tarikh ini telah distandardisasi "De Rijksdienst voor Archeologie, Cultuurlandschap en Monumenten" (RACM)" sebagai kurun waktu yang berawal pada 1800 SM dan berakhir pada 800 SM.
  12. ^ Mallory, J.P., In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth, London: Thames & Hudson, 1989, hlm. 87.
  13. ^ Butler, J.J., Nederland in de bronstijd, Bussum: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1969}}.
  14. ^ a b Kinder, Hermann dan Werner Hilgemann, The Penguin Atlas of World History; diterjemahkan Ernest A. Menze ; dengan peta-peta yang dirancang Harald dan Ruth Bukor. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051054-0 Jilid 1. hlm. 109.
  15. ^ The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, edisi ke-15, 20:67
  16. ^ a b c Verhart, Leo Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn, ISBN 90-5345-303-2, 2006, hlmn. 67, 81–82
  17. ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, edisi ke-15, 22:641–642
  18. ^ a b c d e f g de Vries, Jan W., Roland Willemyns and Peter Burger, Het verhaal van een taal, Amsterdam: Prometheus, 2003, hlmn. 12, 21–27
  19. ^ Cunliffe, Barry. The Ancient Celts. Penguin Books, 1997, hlmn. 39–67.
  20. ^ Achtergrondinformatie bij de muntschat van Maastricht-Amby, Kotapraja Maastricht, 2008.
  21. ^ Unieke Keltische muntschat ontdekt in Maastricht Diarsipkan 2012-04-02 di Wayback Machine., Archeonet.be, 15 November 2008. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011.
  22. ^ a b Het urnenveld van het Meijerink, Kotapraja Zutphen, Diakses Oktober 20116.
  23. ^ Delrue, Joke, Universitas Gent
  24. ^ van Durme, Luc, "Oude taaltoestanden in en om de Nederlanden. Een reconstructie met de inzichten van M. Gysseling als leidraad" dalam Handelingen van de Koninklijke commissie voor Toponymie en Dialectologie, LXXV/2003.
  25. ^ Hachmann, Rolf, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten, 1986, hlmn. 183–212
  26. ^ a b Lendering, Jona, "Germania Inferior" Diarsipkan 2020-06-07 di Wayback Machine., Livius.org. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011.
  27. ^ "C. Julius Caesar, Gallic War, Buku 4, bab 10". www.perseus.tufts.edu.  line feed character di |title= pada posisi 19 (bantuan)
  28. ^ Cornelius Tacitus, Germany and its Tribes 1.29
  29. ^ Nico Roymans, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power. The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire. Amsterdam Archaeological Studies 10. Amsterdam, 2004. Bab 4. Lihat pula hlm. 249.
  30. ^ Plin. Nat. 4.29
  31. ^ Roymans, Nico, Ethnic Identity and Imperial Power: The Batavians in the Early Roman Empire, Amsterdam: Lembaga Pers Universitas Amsterdam, 2005, hlmn. 226–27
  32. ^ Historiae, Tacitus, 109 M, diterjemahkan Alfred John Church dan William Jackson Brodribb.
  33. ^ a b Beyen, Marnix, "A Tribal Trinity: the Rise and Fall of the Franks, the Frisians and the Saxons in the Historical Consciousness of the Netherlands since 1850" in European History Quarterly 2000 30(4):493–532. ISSN 0265-6914 Fulltext: EBSCO
  34. ^ a b c Previté-Orton, Charles, The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History, jld. I, hlmn. 51–52, 151
  35. ^ Grane, Thomas (2007), "From Gallienus to Probus – Three decades of turmoil and recovery", The Roman Empire and Southern Scandinavia–a Northern Connection! (PhD thesis), Copenhagen: Universitas Copenhagen, hlm. 109 
  36. ^ Looijenga, Jantina Helena (1997), "History, Archaeology and Runes", dalam SSG Uitgeverij, Runes Around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700; Texts and Contexts (disertasi PhD) (PDF), Groningen: Universitas Groningen, hlm. 30, ISBN 90-6781-014-2, diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2005-05-02, diakses tanggal 2018-08-09 . Untuk kesimpulan ini, Looijenga mengutip D.A. Gerrets (1995), "The Anglo-Frisian Relationship Seen from an Archaeological Point of View" dalam Friesische studien 2, hlmn. 119–128.
  37. ^ a b Berglund, Björn E. (2002), "Human impact and climate changes – synchronous events and a causal link?", Quaternary International, 105 (1), Elsevier (dipublikasikan tanggal 2003), hlm. 10 
  38. ^ a b Ejstrud, Bo; et al. (2008), Ejstrud, Bo; Maarleveld, Thijs J., ed., The Migration Period, Southern Denmark and the North Sea, Esbjerg: Maritime Archaeology Programme, ISBN 978-87-992214-1-7 
  39. ^ a b Issar, Arie S. (2003), Climate Changes during the Holocene and their Impact on Hydrological Systems, Cambridge: Universitas Cambridge, ISBN 978-0-511-06118-9 
  40. ^ a b Louwe Kooijmans, L. P. (1974), The Rhine/Meuse Delta. Four studies on its prehistoric occupation and Holocene geology (disertasi PhD), Leiden: Lembaga Pers Universitas Leiden 
  41. ^ Bazelmans, Jos (2009), "The early-medieval use of ethnic names from classical antiquity: The case of the Frisians", dalam Derks, Ton; Roymans, Nico, Ethnic Constructs in Antiquity: The Role of Power and Tradition, Amsterdam: Universitas Amsterdam, hlm. 321–337, ISBN 978-90-8964-078-9, diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2017-08-30, diakses tanggal 2018-08-09 
  42. ^ Frisii en Frisiaevones, 25–08–02 (bahasa Belanda) Diarsipkan 3 Oktober 2011 di Wayback Machine., Bertsgeschiedenissite.nl. Diakses 6 Oktober 2011
  43. ^ Kortlandt, Frederik (1999). "The origin of the Old English dialects revisited" (PDF). Universitas Leiden. 
  44. ^ Willemsen, A. (2009), Dorestad. Een wereldstad in de middeleeuwen, Walburg Pers, Zutphen, pp. 23–27, ISBN 978-90-5730-627-3
  45. ^ a b MacKay, Angus; David Ditchburn (1997). Atlas of Medieval Europe. Routledge. hlm. 57. ISBN 0-415-01923-0. 
  46. ^ a b Hodges, Richard; David Whitehouse (1983). Mohammed, Charlemagne and the Origins of Europe. Lembaga Pers Universitas Cornell. hlm. 99. ISBN 978-0-8014-9262-4. 
  47. ^ a b c d e f Milis, L.J.R., "A Long Beginning: The Low Countries Through the Tenth Century" dalam J.C.H. Blom & E. Lamberts History of the Low Countries, hlmn. 6–18, Berghahn Books, 1999. ISBN 978-1-84545-272-8.
  48. ^ Holmes, U.T dan A. H. Schutz (1938), A History of the French Language, hlm. 29, Biblo & Tannen Publishers, ISBN 0-8196-0191-8
  49. ^ Blok, D.P. (1974), De Franken in Nederland, Bussum: Unieboek, 1974, hlmn. 36–38 mengenai ketidakpastian jati diri orang Frisia dalam sumber-sumber Franka terdahulu; hlmn. 54–55 mengenai masalah-masalah terkait “Saksen” sebagai sebuah nama suku.
  50. ^ van Eijnatten, J. dan F. van Lieburg, Nederlandse religiegeschiedenis (Hilversum, 2006), hlmn. 42–43, mengenai ketidakpastian jati diri "orang Frisia" dalam sumber-sumber Franka terdahulu.
  51. ^ de Nijs, T, E. Beukers dan J. Bazelmans, Geschiedenis van Holland (Hilversum, 2003), hlmn. 31–33 mengenai sifat fluktuatif dari ciri khas kesukuan dan kesukubangsaan pada kurun waktu Abad Pertengahan Awal.
  52. ^ Blok (1974), hlmn. 117 ff.; de Nijs dll. (2003), hlmn. 30–33
  53. ^ van der Wal, M., Geschiedenis van het Nederlands, 1992
  54. ^ "Charlemagne: Court and administration". Encyclopædia Britannica.  ("Karel Agung mengandalkan palatium, yakni sebuah majelis dengan anggota yang senantiasa berganti-ganti, terdiri atas kerabat, pengiring kepercayaan dari kalangan rohaniwan maupun nonrohaniwan, dan bermacam-macam pengikut. Orang-orang ini membentuk suatu majelis istana yang berpindah-pindah tempat mengikuti perjalanan sang raja bilamana sedang melancarkan kampanye-kampanye militer, dan berusaha mencari keuntungan dari penghasilan lahan-lahan yasan milik raja yang tersebar di mana-mana.")
  55. ^ Informasi lebih lanjut menganai serbuan-serbuan orang Viking tersaji daring di L. van der Tuuk, Gjallar. Noormannen in de Lage Landen
  56. ^ Baldwin, Stephen, "Wangsa Harald asal Denmark di Friesland pada abad ke-9". Temu balik tanggal 9 Oktober 2011.
  57. ^ "Vikingschat van Wieringen" Diarsipkan 18 July 2011 di Wayback Machine., Museumkennis.nl. Temu balik tanggal 9 Oktober 2011.
  58. ^ Jesch, Judith, Ships and Men in the Late Viking Age: The Vocabulary of Runic Inscriptions and Skaldic Verse, Boydell & Brewer, 2001. ISBN 978-0-85115-826-6. hlm. 82.
  59. ^ James D. Tracy (2002). Emperor Charles V, Impresario of War: Campaign Strategy, International Finance, and Domestic Politics. Cambridge U.P. hlm. 258. ISBN 9780521814317. 
  60. ^ H.G. Koenigsberger, "The Beginnings of the States General of the Netherlands," Parliaments, Estates and Representation (1988) 8#2 hlmn. 101–114.
  61. ^ a b Albert Guerard, France, A Modern History, (1959), hlmn. 134–136.
  62. ^ Martin van Gelderen (2002). The Political Thought of the Dutch Revolt 1555-1590. Cambridge U.P. hlm. 18. ISBN 9780521891639. 
  63. ^ Kamen, Henry (2005). Spain, 1469–1714: a society of conflict (edisi ke-3rd). Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-78464-6. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 29 March 2017. 
  64. ^ R. Po-chia Hsia (penyunting). A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) hlmn. 118–134
  65. ^ Jonathan I. Israel, The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 (1995) hlm. 104
  66. ^ Hsia, (penyunting). A Companion to the Reformation World (2006) hlmn. 3–36
  67. ^ Israel, The Dutch Republic Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477–1806 (1995) hlm. 155
  68. ^ Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995) hlmn. 374–375
  69. ^ Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995) hlmn. 86–91
  70. ^ Jerome Blum dkk., The European World: A History (1970) hlmn. 160-161
  71. ^ Israel, The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806 (1995) hlmn. 361–395
  72. ^ Diarmaid MacCulloch, The Reformation (2005) hlmn. 367–372
  73. ^ Claflin, W. Harold, (penyunting). History of Nations: Holland and Belgium, (New York: P.F. Collier & Son, 1907), hlmn. 72–74, 103–105
  74. ^ a b John Lathrop Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic (Harper & Bros.: New York, 1855) hlmn. 106–115, 121, 122, 207, 213
  75. ^ Geoffrey Parker (penyunting), The Thirty Years' War, New York: Routledge Press, 1987, hlm. 2.
  76. ^ Violet Soen, "Reconquista and Reconciliation in the Dutch Revolt: The Campaign of Governor-General Alexander Farnese (1578-1592)," Journal of Early Modern History (2012) 16#1 hlmn. 1–22.
  77. ^ Bart de Groof, "Alexander Farnese and the Origins of Modern Belgium," Bulletin de l'Institut Historique Belge de Rome (1993) Jld. 63, hlmn. 195–219.
  78. ^ Baca peta agama
  79. ^ Charles H. Parker, Faith on the Margins: Catholics and Catholicism in the Dutch Golden Age (Lembaga Pers Universitas Harvard, 2008)
  80. ^ Schama, Simon, The Embarrassment of Riches, Bath: William Collins & Sons, 1987. Di hlm. 8: "Kesuksesan mereka yang luar biasa itu meluap sampai ke ubun-ubun, tetapi membuat mereka sedikit muak. Bahkan dokumen-dokumen bermegah diri mereka yang paling tidak sungkan mengumbar pujian sekalipun dihantui bayang-bayang overvloed, kelimpahan yang meninggi laksana banjir bandang – suatu dunia yang jenuh dengan wanti-wanti sekaligus euforia... Akan tetapi pada akhirnya suara hati nurani yang terus-menerus menyengat rasa puas diri melahirkan kesadaran yang kita maknai sebagai rasa jengah."
  81. ^ Menurut "Haarlemmermeer boeck" karangan Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater, Kilang gergaji (bahasa Ndebele Utara: saagmolen) direka cipta di Uitgeest
  82. ^ Peta-peta yang digunakan Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Adipati Alba ke-3 untuk menyerbu kota-kota Belanda lewat laut maupun darat adalah peta-peta buatan orang-orang Belanda sendiri.
  83. ^ Quinn, Stephen. Roberds, William. The Big Problem of Large Bills: The Bank of Amsterdam and the Origins of Central Banking. Agustus 2005."Archived copy" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 23 July 2011. Diakses tanggal 8 June 2011. 

Bahan bacaan lanjutan

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Lihat pula: Kepustakaan sejarah Belanda [nl]

Geografi dan lingkungan hidup

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  • Burke, Gerald L. The making of Dutch towns: A study in urban development from the 10th–17th centuries (1960)
  • Lambert, Audrey M. The Making of the Dutch Landscape: An Historical Geography of the Netherlands (1985); berfokus pada sejarah reklamasi daratan
  • Meijer, Henk. Compact geography of The Netherlands (1985)
  • Riley, R. C., and G. J. Ashworth. Benelux: An Economic Geography of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg (1975) daring

Pranala luar

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